UNRAVELING THE ISSUE OF ALCOHOL
FOR THE HALAL INDUSTRY
DZULKIFLY MAT HASHIM
HALAL PRODUCTS RESEARCH INSTITUTE
UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
43400 SERDANG SELANGOR MALAYSIA
NOT HALAL
The following food products are included in this category:
The Haram food products that are made with pork-by-product
ingredients and wine.
The products that are made from natural and artificial flavors which
are not Halal or Kosher certified with or with out alcohol as a
solvent.
The products that are made with alcoholic fermentation and may
contain 2-3 % alcohol such as naturally brewed soy sauce.
PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOLIC
BEVERAGE AND INDUSTRIAL
ETHANOL
BEER PRODUCTION PROCESS
Source : www.emt-india.net/process/distillery/Brewery
(Courtesy of Fermpro Sdn Bhd.)
INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL (ETHANOL)
Synthetic Alcohol
– Chemically synthesized from Ethylene
– Process:
1. Indirect hydration through addition of sulfuric acid
2. Direct catalytic hydration of ethylene
Agricultural Alcohol
– Derived from Biological Fermentation Process of Carbohydrate
Source
• Fermentation of Sugar
• Fermentation of Starch
• Vinegar – Nipah vinegar
• Fermented palm sap
• Tapai
• Rice wine (tuak)
• Soy sauce
• Budu
• Cincalok
• Tempoyak
• Belacan
• Fermented milk products
LOCAL FERMENTED PRODUCTS
ISSUE # 1
If ethanol is produced using the same process as an intoxicating
alcoholic beverage (i.e. fermentation), does it make it non-halal?
Fermentation is a common preservation process subjected on wheat flour
(sour dough), anchovies (budu), durian (tempoyak), shrimps (belacan and
cincalok), soya beans (soy sauce)
Fermentation will not necessarily produce an intoxicating product
The permissibility from a religious perspective and hence its halal
compliance of such a product will depend on the intention ( Is it to produce
an intoxicant?) and utilisation of the product
Kitab Ikhraj Ma Fi Al-Quwwa Ila Al-fi`l
JABIR IBN HAYYAN
0721 – 0815 A.D.
Ibn Hayyan was
the first person to
discover alcohol
from distillation
of wine
MUHAMMAD IBN
ZAKARIYA AR-RAZI
0850 – 0932 A.D.
Ar-Razi was the
first person to
introduce the use
of alcohol (Al-
Kuhl) for medical
purposes
ISSUE # 2
Is ethanol (alcohol) the same as an intoxicating alcoholic
beverage (khamr)?
The misunderstanding was due to the incorrect translation of term khamr
(Arabic) to alcohol (English)
The term alcohol from the chemistry perspective is more than just ethanol
The permissibility from a religious perspective and hence its halal
compliance of such product will depend on the intention and utilisation of
the product
Ethanol is not necessarily khamr although the intoxicating substance in
khamr is ethanol
ALCOHOL IN FOODS AND FOOD
PREPARATIONS
Malaysia National Islamic Fatwa Committee
(JAKIM)
Cordials which contain any flavouring substances with a certain amount of
alcohol added as a stabiliser for the purpose as a drink, is allowed on the
condition that :
The alcohol is not derived from ‘khamr (intoxicating alcoholic
beverage = liquor) production
The quantity of alcohol in the flavour is small (insignificant) such that
it will not intoxicate
Decision of the 22nd National Fatwa Committee Meeting, 24 November 1988
COUNTRY % ALCOHOL
Malaysia (JAKIM) 0.01
Indonesia (MUI) 1.0
Thailand (AOI) 1.0
Singapore (MUIS) 0.5
Brunei (BIRC) 0.0
Europe < 0.5
UK Not allowed
Canada Not allowed
AOI = ADMINISTRATION OF ORGANIZATIONS OF THE ISLAMIC ACT
JAKIM = DEPARTMENT OF ISLAMIC DEVELOPMENT MALAYSIA
MUI = MAJELIS ULAMA INDONESIA
MUIS = MAJLIS UGAMA ISLAM SINGAPURA
BIRC = BRUNEI ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS COUNCIL
% ALCOHOL PERMITTED IN FOODS
ALCOHOL
CONTENT IN
FOODS
(JAKIM, 2006)
No Name of Samples Alcohol Content (% v/v)
1 Curry Sauce 0.07
2. Sweet ‘n’ Sour Sauce 0.07
3. Barbeque Sauce 0.09
4. Dark Soy Sauce 0.1
5. Lea & Perrins 0.1
6. Rice Vinegar 0.1
7. Sauce (Brand A1) 0.1
8. Asian Sesame Dressing 0.22
9. Burgess Mint Jelly 0.26
10. Melon Flavour 0.3
11. Wine Vinegar 0.3
12. Tabasco Pepper Sauce 0.4
13. Yee Tonic (Ten Shae Theng) 0.5
14. Vinegar 0.5
15. Dyna Tonic 0.6
16. Dyna Tonic (Ten Shae Theng) 0.7
17. Teriyaki W.J.S 1.5
18. Carbonated Drink 2.0
19. Soy sauce (Kikkoman) 3.1
20. Clear Soy Sauce (Ajinomoto) 3.9
21. Kikkoman Teriyaki Marinade & Sauce 4.1
22. *Cough Syrup (medicine) 4.8
23. Gourmet Cooking (Shao Hsing Hua Tiao
Chiew)
17.6
24. *Mouth Wash A (Personal Care Product) 18
25. *Mouth Wash B (Personal Care Product) 35
* Not food
ALCOHOL CONTENT IN FOODS
Lau S.V. et al (2010), Unpublished Data)
ISSUE # 3
What should be the level of alcohol allowed to be present in food
and beverage (for halal certification)?
Setting the permissible level at 0.01% to 0.05% is not practical as most
foods and beverage have alcohol contents in excess of 0.01%.
There are foods that have relatively higher alcohol contents (up to 0.1%)
such as energy drinks, fermented or cultured drink and vinegar but the
inherent nature of products such as vinegar or sauces and the manner it is
used would not lead to any possibility of intoxication.
Intermediate products (flavour and colouring) have higher ethanol contents
but they are not for direct consumption. Hence, higher a ethanol content may
be allowed in such intermediate products
KHAMR IN FOOD, DRINK AND FOOD
PREPARATION
ISSUEBerita Minggu 17 Feb 2008
Royal Chef Shao Xing
COOKING WINE
ALCOHOL BURN-OFF CHART
Preparation Method Percent Retained
Alcohol added to boiling liquid & removed
from heat
85%
Alcohol flamed 75%
No heat, stored overnight 70%
Baked, 25 minutes, alcohol not stirred into
mixture
45%
Baked/simmered dishes with alcohol stirred into mixture:
15 minutes cooking time 40%
30 minutes cooking time 35%
1 hour cooking time 25%
1.5 hours cooking time 20%
2 hours cooking time 10%
2.5 hours cooking time 5%
Shandy = Beer + Lemon Juice
Alcohol content = 0.5% v/v
Alcoholic Energy Drink = Beer Added
Alcohol content = 6 -10 % v/v
DRINKS WITH KHAMR
ISSUE # 3
Is it permissible for alcohol (khamr) to be added in food, drink or
food preparation drink? Will the alcohol be totally evaporated off
during cooking?
It is not permissible to add khamr to any food, drink or food
preparation as this will be seen as contaminating the food with a
prohibited substance
Some khamr will remain in food even after it has been subjected
to the most severe heating or cooking
ALCOHOL INTOXICATION
INTOXICATION EFFECTS
MODEL FOR ETHANOL INTOXICATION AND METABOLISM
• Introduced by Erik Matteo Prochet Widmark
(1889 – 1945), a physiology expert from
Sweden
• He wrote a book, Principles and
Applications of Medico-legal Alcohol
Determination (1932)
WIDMARK’S FORMULA
)EtOH/drink (fl.oz.20.8
t) + CWr(= N
t
Where: N = Number of drinks
W = Body weight in ounces
r = Widmark rho (L/kg)
Ct = BAC at time t (kg/L)
β = Elimination rate (Kg/L/hr)
t = Time in hours from first drink
0.82 = Density of ethanol (oz./fl.oz.)
Source : Dimeff, L.A., Baer, J.S., Kivlahan, D.R. and Marlatt, G.A. (2005). A Harm Reduction Approach. Washington State University.
Source : faculty.washington.edu/chudler/alco.html
INTOXICATION CHART
APPLICATION OF WIDMARK’s FORMULA
• BAC depends on the rate of food intake.
• BAC is 2 times higher in an empty stomach
10
100
1000
10000
100000
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1
VOLUME (ml) CONSUMED IN 1 HOUR BEFORE
INTOXICATION LIMIT (BAC = 0.05 % w/v) *
Volume
(ml)
Alcohol Content (%)
ASSUMPTIONS
Gender = Female
Weight = 55kg
Time = 1 hr
* Based on Widmark’s Formula
CONSUMPTION BEFORE LIMIT OF INTOXICATION (BAC = 0.05% w/v)
ALCOHOL
CONTENT (%)(ML) NO. OF GLASSES COMMENT
0.01 243,000 900 Not Possible (X)
0.05 54,000 200 Not Possible (X)
0.1 24,300 90 Not Possible (X)
0.5 5,130 19 Not Possible (X)
1.0 2430 9 Possible (/)/Not
possible (/)
2.0 1350 5 Possible (/)
Volume of one glass (mug) = 270 ml
Source : Akinshola, B.E. (2001). British Journal
of Pharmacology,133(5): 651–658.
POTENCY FOR INTOXICATION OF VARIOUS ALIPHATIC ALCOHOLS
Source : Liang, T. and Jiang, H.Y. (2002).
British Journal of Pharmacology, 136: 629-635
ISSUE # 4
Can medico-legal principles of intoxication be used to set the
benchmark for a permissible alcohol content in drinks and foods?
Arbitrarily setting benchmarks of permissible alcohol contents
of foods and drinks does not appear to be a prudent approach
Principles of intoxication adopted in the medico-legal field can
possibly be used to assist in setting benchmarks on permissible
alcohol content in food and drinks
SETTING BENCHMARKS OF ETHANOL
CONTENT FOR HALAL APPLICATION
HADITH
Ibn Abbas reported that nabidh was prepared for Allah's
Messenger (May Peace Be Upon Him) in the beginning of the
night and he would drink it in the morning and the following
night and the following day and the night after that up to the
afternoon. If anything was left out of that he gave it to his
servant, or gave orders for it to be poured out.
From: Sahih Muslim, Book 23 (4971- 4974)
Jabir b. Abdullah al-Ansari reported that Allah's
Messenger (May Peace Be Upon Him) prohibited the
preparation of Nabidh by mixing grapes and fresh
dates and he forbade the preparation of Nabidh by
mixing unripe dates with fresh dates.
HADITH
(SAYING OF THE PROPHET)
Nabidh from Dried datesNabidh from Fresh Dates
FERMENTATION OF DATES (NABIDH)
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY MASS SPECTROMETER
HEADSPACE ANALYSER (GC-MS-HS)
ALCOHOL CONTENT IN FERMENTED DATES
DAY(FRESH DATES)
Amount of Ethanol (%)
Amount of Methanol (%)
Total Alcohol(%)
0 0.000 0.000 0.000
1 0.006 0.000 0.006
2 0.033 0.001 0.034
3 0.061 0.003 0.064
4 0.086 0.004 0.090
5 0.131 0.003 0.134
DAY
(DRIED DATES)
Amount of Ethanol (%)
Amount of Methanol (%)
Total Alcohol
(%)
0 0.000 0.000 0.000
1 0.009 0.000 0.009
2 0.010 0.003 0.013
3 0.016 0.002 0.018
4 0.036 0.004 0.040
5 0.048 0.004 0.051
% Alcohol
Days
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
0 1 2 3 4 5
Fresh Dates sample
Dry Dates Sample
S. Munira. A.R. et al
(2010), Unpublished
Data
ALCOHOL CONTENT OF LAB AND COMMERCIAL TAPAI
(FERMENTED GLUTINOUS RICE)
Fermentation
(hr)
Alcohol content
(% v/v)
24 0.1
48 0.3
72* 0.8
*Tapai pulut is ready to be consumed after 72 hours fermentation
Commercial
SamplesAlcohol content (% v/v)
1 0.8
2 1.0
3 0.8
4 1.6Nurul Hayati, A.H. et al
(2010), Unpublished
Data
COMPOUNDS DETECTED IN FERMENTED GLUTINOUS RICE (TAPAI)
Compounds 24 hours 48 hours 72 hours 96 hours
Acetaldehyde / / / /
Propanal /
2-methyl-propanal /
3-methyl-butanal / /
Ethanol / / / /
1-propanol / / / /
2-methyl-1-propanol / / /
3-methyl-1-butanol / /
Ethyl acetate /
Nurul Hayati, A.H. et al
(2010), Unpublished
Data
ETHANOL CONTENT IN FERMENTED NIPAH (PALM) SAP
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 5 10 15
Eth
an
ol
Co
nte
nt
(%)
Days of Fermentation
Ethanol …
DAYS OF
FERMENTATION
ETHANOL
CONTENT
(%)
0 0.03
1 0.77
2 5.29
3 6.03
4 5.72
5 6.04
6 5.40
7 5.87
8 5.70
14 6.12
Nur Aimi, R. et al (2010), Unpublished Data
COMPOUNDS IN FERMENTED NIPAH SAP
DAYS COMPOUNDS
Formic
acid,
ethyl
ester
Ethyl
acetate
Ethanol 1-propanol 2-methyl-
1-
propanol
3-methyl-
1-butanol
Propanoic
acid
Acetic
acid
0 + + +
7 + + + + + + +
14 + + + + + + + +
21 + + + + + + + +
28 + + + + + + + +
35 + + + + + + + +
42 + + + + + + + +
50 + + + + + + + +
Nur Aimi, R. et al (2010), Unpublished Data
ISSUE # 5
What should be the alcohol contents in fermented foods?
The maximum alcohol content in nabidh (fermented dates) at 3 days is around
0.06 %.
Tapai has registered values higher than 1% but no record of intoxication
exists.
The effect of the density of the food matrix or substrate will need to be
investigated further.
The alcohol content of nipah (palm) sap is considerably higher
EA-IRMS ANALYSIS OF ETHANOL
RESULTS 13C OF ETHANOL SAMPLES
13C OF ETHANOL STANDARDS
CELLULOSE
SUCROSE
13C OF RED AND WHITE WINES
CELLULOSE
13C OF INDUSTRIAL ETHANOL
SUCROSE
IRMS ON ETHANOL - SUMMARY
Samples are referenced vs. two international standards C3
(cellulose) and CH-6 (sucrose)
Overall standard deviation is well below 0.1 permil
Industrial ethanol is apparently derived from C4-plant
products
Cooking wine may be mixed with C4-plant derived ethanol
Fermented glutinous rice ethanol does not show C4-plant
isotopic signature
GC-GC TOF MASS SPECTROMETER
GC GC CHROMATOGRAMS OF ETHANOL
nenene
pe3pe3
pe3
pe2
pe2
pe2
pe1pe1
pe1
se1se1se1se2se2
se2se3se1se1
cece
ce
Nipah ethanol
Pineapple ethanol
Sugarcane ethanol
Cassava ethanol
PCA PLOT OF ETHANOLS FROM DIFFERENT BOTANICAL SOURCE
GC X GC- TOF- MS ON ETHANOL :
SUMMARY
Ethanols from various plant sources can be clearly
distinguished based on the congeners that present
Treatment such as heating will alter the PCA regions but
will still lie in the same latitude in the PCA plot
Nipah, cassava, sugar cane and pineapple ethanols were
analysed
Fermented rice ethanol (?)
USE OF ETHANOL VS. PROPYLENE
GLYCOL IN FLAVOURS
HALAL IF NO ALCOHOL IS USED IN FLAVORS
The criteria for food products under this category is the same as the Halal
category except the food products here are made with natural or artificial
flavors. The natural and artificial flavors used in these food products may
or may not contain alcohol as a solvent but these flavors are not made with
animal derived ingredients and they are Halal or genuine kosher certified
We may even find the industry to respond to our Islamic dietary needs by
using alternate solvents such as Propylene Glycol. Some Islamic scholars
would not consider a food product Halal if alcohol or if flavor in which
alcohol was used as a solvent even if it was completely evaporated during
processing.
If alcohol is converted to another chemical then it would be Halal but
other Islamic scholars recommend to consume product under this category
because they said that the large or small quantity of this product do not
intoxicate a person.
Source : Muslim Consumer Group
61
A flavor compound is basically is composed
of two parts, a flavor portion and a diluent
portion.
FLAVOUR COMPONENT
62
FLAVOUR COMPONENT
USE OF ALCOHOL IN FLAVOUR
1. As solvent/ Carrier
In diluent portion facilitates the inclusion of several
colouring, flavoring and/or aromatic compound
2. As flavouring agent
In flavour portion to enhance the flavor impression and it's
acceptability particularly the expression of top note
3. In extraction particularly of citrus/ essential oil
Alter the miscibility property from oil to aqueous phase
Source : Ms Maizatulanizah,, Matrix Flavours
63
FLAVOUR COMPONENT
Flavour
Portion
Circle represents flavour
as a whole
Green triangle represents
the flavour portion which
is further divided into Top
Note, Middle/ Spine/
Frame Note and Base/
Foundation note
Blue area represents
diluents
Diluent Portion
Source : Ms Maizatulanizah,, Matrix Flavours
64
Diluent
Top note
Volatile component
Middle /Spine/Frame note
Body component
Base/Foundation note
Solid component
E.g.
Acetaldehyde
Ethyl Alcohol
Ethyl Formate
E.g.
Diacetyl
Ethyl propionate
E.g.
Vanillin
Maltol
FLAVOUR COMPONENT
Source : Ms Maizatulanizah,, Matrix Flavours
ISSUE # 6
Is propylene glycol a suitable alternative to ethanol in flavour
applications?
Propylene glycol can be a suitable alternative to ethanol as a
solvent and carrier for flavour compounds
In the extraction of essential oils, ethanol can result in a wider
selection of flavour notes. This is the area that will matter most
if ethanol is selected as a solvent in the extraction process
CONCLUSION
It is proposed that a scientific approach is adopted assisting
scholars to obtain a benchmark for permissible alcohol contents in
food and drinks
Explore medico-legal principles as possibility in setting benchmark
for alcohol content
Scientific methods can be further developed to be a robust method
for traceability of the source of alcohol in foods and drinks
To resolve and harmonise the alcohol issue is imperative to enable
the industry to expand further