1
D_________N_________ A_________12-1 DNA
How many DNA molecules are shown?How would you describe the structure of one molecule?Most generally (one word), what is the function of DNA?
How do we know this?…...
Fill-in the blanks above.
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Griffith and TransformationDNA
Who was Fredrick Griffith (1928)?
What was he studying, generally?
What was the specific focus of his study?Describe Experiment 1, including the variables, control (not shown), and significance of the results:
Describe Experiment 2 and explain the significance of the results:
Harmless bacteria (rough colonies)
Lives
Experiment 1 Experiment 2
3
Griffith and Transformation
Heat-killed disease-causing bacteria (smooth colonies)
Lives
DNAExperiment 3
Describe Experiment 3, and explain the significance of the results:
Define “heat-killed” bacteria.
4
Griffith and Transformation
Live disease-causing bacteria(smooth colonies)
Dies of pneumonia
Heat-killed disease-causing bacteria (smooth colonies)
Harmless bacteria (rough colonies)
How???
DNADescribe Experiment 4 and the significance of the results.
What did Griffith conclude?
Experiment 4
Describe and explain the significance of the additional evidence (end of experiment)?
What do we call this process today?
What question follows?
What???
What question remains?
5
Avery and DNADNA
What question did Oswald Avery et al. experiment to answer in 1940?
How did Avery's experiment compare to Griffith's? Describe the general difference.
What are hydrolytic enzymes?
Describe Avery's first experiment, including the hydrolytic enzymes used.
Describe the results and explain the significance?Describe Avery's second experiment, including the hydrolytic enzymes used.
Describe the results and explain the significance?
What did Avery conclude?
Explain the lack of consensus in the scientific community?
Protein “Camp”
?
6
The Hershey-Chase ExperimentDNA
TEM of T4 Bacteriophage
What question did Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase experiment to answer in 1952? What is a bacteriophage? Explain why bacteriophages were perfect for finding the answer to this question. Draw and label the most importantcomponent missing from the schematic above.
7
The Hershey-Chase ExperimentDNA
Refer to the diagram to explain, in detail, the process of a bacteriophage infecting a bacterium.
Did Hershey and Chase understand this process?
What did they not know and experiment to find out?
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The Hershey-Chase Experiment
Bacteriophage withsulfur-35 in protein coat
Phage infects bacterium
No radioactivity inside bacterium
DNA
How did Hershey and Chase prepare the 35S-labeled bacteriophages for their first experiment?
Describe, in detail, the experimental procedure shown in the diagram above.
Describe and explain the significance of the results.
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The Hershey-Chase Experiment
Bacteriophage withphosphorus-32 in DNA
Phage infects bacterium
Radioactivity inside bacterium
(click)DNA
How did Hershey and Chase prepare the 32P-labeled bacteriophages for their second experiment?
Describe the experimental procedure shown in the diagram above.
Describe and explain the significance of the results.
What did Hershey and Chase conclude?Explain the resulting consensus of the scientific community.
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The Components and Structure of DNADNA
DNA is composed of what three types of compounds joined together?What class of organic compound is “sugar”? What sugar is specific to DNA?What element does the “base” contain other than CHO? “Base” is AKA?Is the “phosphate group” alone organic? “Phosphate group ” is AKA?Together, these compounds form a nucleic acid monomer known as a ______?
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The Components and Structure of DNADNAHow are nucleotides variable?Number list the DNA nucleotides?Describe the difference between purine and pyrimidine bases.Describe the effect this has on the overall nucleotides?Describe how nucleotides are bound together.Identify the product of bound nucleotides.Bound deoxyribose and phosphate form what part of the polynucleotide?Explain how polynucleotides can be variable.How do we know all of this?...
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The Components and Structure of DNADNA
What kind of scientist was Erwin Chargaff?What did Chargaff do with DNA in the late 1940s?What were Chargaff's results concerning variability?What were Chargaff's results concerning consistency (Chargaff's Rules)?
Significance?
Significance?
13
The Components and Structure of DNADNA
What kind of scientist was Rosalind Franklin?Identify the image on the right.Describe how Rosalind obtained this image in the early 1950s.What two important characteristics of DNA does this image reveal?
“Photo 51”
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The Components and Structure of DNADNAIdentify these two scientists.What kind of scientist were they?What did they build in 1953?What information did they use and where did they get it?
What two major functions of DNA did this model support?
Describe this model, in general.
What did they win?Who didn't win that should have?
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The Components and Structure of DNA
DNA Double HelixDNA
What is the most common analogy to describe the double helix?
Fill-in the missing labels.
Describe what Watson & Crick discovered about hydrogen bonding that explains Chargaff's rules.
Review what “A, T, G & C” are and how the two classes differ.
What is this exclusive bonding between bases known as today?
Explain how this structure relates to the three functions of DNA.
Define complementary and use it to describe the relationship between the polynucleotides.
What is each “strand” by itself?.
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DNA and Chromosomes
ChromosomeE. coli
Nucleotide Sequence (shown untwisted)
12-2What class of cell is this (review)?Where is DNA found in this cell type?Describe the prokaryotic chromosome (3 characteristics).
What class of cell is this from (review)?How does the amount of DNA compare?In what two forms can DNA be found?Describe the difference and when they exist.
Contrast the eukaryotic chromosome.How does the number of chromosomes compare between species?
How is this diagram inaccurate?
What does this diagram represent?
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Chromatin
Chromosome
Supercoils
Nucleosome
DNA double helix
Histones
Coils
DNA and Chromosomes
Use the diagram to describe how DNA becomes organized into chromosomes.
What are histones?What is a nucleosome?What is chromatin?
Differentiate between the functions of chromatin and chromosomes.Identify and label sister chromatids in the diagram.
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DNA and Chromosomes
During what process must DNA replication occur?
Explain how DNA structure allows for precise replication using the terms template and base pairing (review).
Why?
Use the diagram (right) to describe replication of the single, circular prokaryotic chromosome using the terms origin of replication, replication forks, replication bubble, template, old strands, complementary, new strands, and termination.
What is cell division also known as in unicellular organisms?
What additional compounds (not shown) are required for this process?
Prokaryotic DNA Replication
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Eukaryotic DNA ReplicationDNA and Chromosomes
Review the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes.Use the diagram above to describe replication of eukaryotic chromosomes using the terms origins of replication, replication forks, replication bubbles, template, old strands, complementary, new strands, and sister chromatids.What additional compounds (not shown) are required for this process?Explain why the replication bubbles in the micrograph are different sizes.
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DNA Replication
Nucleotides
Replication Fork
DNA Polymerase
Replication Fork
Original strandNew Strand
Growth
Growth
DNA and Chromosomes
Use the diagram above to describe DNA replication using the terms origin of replication, replication forks, replication bubble, template, old strands, new strands, DNA polymerase, nucleotides, base pairing rule, complementary, and sister chromatids.
Relate this diagram to those on the two previous slides. What does this diagram show in greater detail?
What enzyme not shown begins the process and what does it do, specifically?What is the additional “responsibility” of DNA polymerase?
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12-3 RNA and Protein Synthesis
The Structure of RNA12-3
Define genes.Refer to the diagram to describe the process of gene expression.
The Central Dogma
Explain why this is considered the central dogma of biology.Describe the involvement or role of RNA in this process.Like DNA, RNA belongs in which class of organic compound?How is the structure of RNA similar to DNA?
Define phenotype.
Phenotype
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RNA & Protein Synthesis The Structure of RNA
List three differences between DNA and RNA?List the three main types of RNA along with their acronym?What is each group of three nucleotides called In mRNA? Label one above.Describe the function of messenger RNA.
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Types of RNA
Ribosome
Ribosomal RNA
Amino acid
Transfer RNA
RNA & Protein Synthesis
What are ribosomes made of?What are ribosomes?
Describe the function of rRNA.What is at the other end of tRNA? Label it!
What is bound to one end of tRNA?Describe the shape of tRNA.
What other RNA does tRNA interact with?Describe the function of tRNA.
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RNA
RNA polymerase
DNA
RNA & Protein Synthesis RNA Transcription
What process produces all three types of RNA? Where does this happen?What does this tell you about genes relative to all three RNAs?
Use the diagram to describe RNA transcription using the terms RNA polymerase, promoter, template, nucleotides, base pairing rule, and complementary.What determines the nucleotide sequence in RNA?
This is the beginning of gene expression. How does RNA polymerase know where to bind to DNA?
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RNA Processing
Exon IntronDNA
Pre-mRNA
mRNA
Cap Tail
RNA & Protein Synthesis
What is pre-mRNA?Where does RNA processing take place?
Define intron. Define exon.Use the diagram to describe RNA processing?
What is the function of the cap and tail sequences?What special compounds allow for this process?
The removal of introns and attachment of exons is also known as “splicing”. Why does this process exist?
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The Genetic Code
Define genetic code?Define codon?What does each codon code for?What are amino acids? (review)
Describe how the sequence of mRNA nucleotides carries the information to make a specific polypeptide or protein.
Study the genetic code. Is the relationship between codons and amino acids one-to-one? Explain!Use the genetic code to decipher the codon AUG. What two things does it code for?How many stop codons are there?Do they code for amino acids?What do they signify relative to a polypeptide?
mRNA
RNA & Protein Synthesis
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Nucleus
mRNA
TranslationRNA & Protein Synthesis
Define translation in relation to gene expression.Describe translation, generally.
Refer to the diagram to review:- where mRNA is made, and how- where it goes (generally & specifically)- how it is able to go there- the process it participates in
Identify and label all that is not labeled in the diagram above.
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TranslationRNA & Protein Synthesis
Identify and label all that you can in the diagram above.
Refer to the diagram to describe how translation begins, in specific detail.Identify all three RNAs and describe the specific role of each in this process.
Identify what moves and add arrows to the diagram that show direction.Infer from the diagram what happens next and describe it, in specific detail.
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tRNA
Ribosome mRNA
Lysine
Translation direction
Polypeptide
Ribosome
tRNA
mRNA
RNA & Protein Synthesis
Relate the left diagram with that on the previous slide to describe what happens next, in specific detail.Refer to the right diagram to describe how this cycle stops, in specific detail. Identify the product. Review what each colored sphere represents.Explain how the specific product is variable.Review how the amino acid sequence of polypeptides is specified during gene expression…
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DNA, RNA, Genes and Proteins
Codon Codon Codon
mRNA
Alanine Arginine Leucine
Amino acids within a polypeptide
Single strand of DNA
RNA & Protein Synthesis
What overall process does this diagram represent?Identify and label the two “subprocesses”.
The Central Dogma
Referring to the diagram, describe gene expression especially focusing on SEQUENCE and what ensures it.Review and explain the structure, functions, and importance of proteins in all living systems.
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12-4 Mutations
1.
Mutations
2.3.
12-4
Define genetic mutation.Identify and label the general types of mutations represented above.Explain the significance of number 3.
Compare and contrast these two general types of mutation.When does each type of mutation occur?
What causes mutation?
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Gene MutationsMutations
Define point mutation.List 3 general types of point mutations.Study the diagram:
- describe the substitution
- explain the effect on amino acid sequence.- explain the effect on protein structure & function.
- explain the effect on mRNA sequence
Evaluate the potential severity of this mutation type.
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Gene of MutationsMutations
Study the diagram:- describe the insertion
- explain the effect on amino acid sequence.- explain the effect on protein structure & function.
- explain the effect on mRNA sequence
Evaluate the potential severity of this mutation type.
Define/Explain frame shift mutations.
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Gene of MutationsMutations
Differentiate between “missense” and “nonsense” mutations.
Study the diagram:
- describe the deletion
- predict the effect on amino acid sequence.- predict the effect on protein structure & function.
- explain the effect on mRNA sequence
- describe the analogy
Evaluate the potential severity of this mutation type.
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Chromosomal Mutations Of StructureMutations
Review/Define chromosomal mutation, and identify the two general types.Identify the general type of chromosomal mutations represented by this diagram.Refer to the diagram to define & describe chromosomal deletion.
Evaluate and explain the potential severity of each mutation type.
Refer to the diagram to define & describe chromosomal duplication.Refer to the diagram to define & describe chromosomal inversion.Refer to the diagram to define & describe chromosomal translocation.
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Mutations Chromosomal Mutations Of Number
Identify the general type of chromosomal mutations represented by this slide.Define polyploidy and explain strawberries as an example.Refer to the figure at left and define karyotype.How is a karyotype obtained?What disorders can a karyotype diagnose?Define neutral mutation.Explain how mutation can be beneficial. What does it increase, allow for, and contribute to?
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Gene Regulation: A Prokaryotic Example12-5
RNA Polymerase
Define operon. Identify the operon in this diagram and the organism it is in.
Study the diagram and identify the two regulatory regions.What do the genes in this operon code for and how does it benefit E. coli?
Describe and explain the function of the promoter region.Describe and explain the function of the operator region.Describe and explain the function of the repressor.Determine whether this operon is “on” or “off”. Explain!Explain the consequence of this operon state for E. coli?
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Gene Regulation: A Prokaryotic Example
Identify and label all components of this diagram.
Lactose
Compare this diagram with the previous and describe the difference, in detail.Identify the process synthesizing RNA. How many different RNA will be created?Identify the process mRNA will participate in. What will result from this process?Explain the consequence of this operon state for E. coli?Are all prokaryotic genes regulated in this way?During what other stage may gene expression be regulated?
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A Eukaryotic Generalization
Promotersequences
Upstreamenhancer
TATAbox Introns
Exons
Direction of transcription
Gene Regulation
How would you expect eukaryotic gene expression to compare with prokaryotes? Explain! Identify and note the differences between diagrams.Describe the function of the promoter sequences.Describe the function of the TATA box.Describe the function of the upstream enhancer region.Define transcription factor. Where can transcription factors bind?What affect can transcription factors have on gene regulation?Identify every stage of eukaryotic gene expression available for regulation?
Why TATA?Explain “upstream”.
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Development and Differentiation
Fruit fly chromosome
Fruit fly embryo
Adult fruit fly
Mouse chromosomes
Mouse embryo
Adult mouse
Gene Regulation
Review the concepts:- cell, tissue, organ & organism development- cell differentiation- cell specialization
Define HOX genes.Explain the importance of HOX gene regulation.Study the diagram...
Identify the two major animal groups represented by these species.
What does the comparison between genes and organism development suggest about the relationship and evolution of these animals?
What are represented by the colored bars in the chromosomes?
Compare & contrast the chromosomes and genes between species.What is the general difference?
Explain the meaning of the color coding between genes and body regions.
What is the general difference?
