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1/23
LELA 30922Lecture 2
Corpus-based research in Linguistics
See esp. Meyer pp. 11-29
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What is corpus linguistics?
• Not a branch of linguistics, like socio~, psycho~, …
• Not a theory of linguistics
• A set of tools and methods (and a philosophy) to support linguistic investigation across all branches of the subject
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Reminder
• Assessment for this course is to use corpus/corpora to investigate something
• This lecture may give you some ideas of the kind of thing you can do
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Applications of corpus linguistics
• Lexicology• Grammatical studies• Study of language variation• Historical linguistics• Contrastive analysis and translation theory• Study of language acquisition (psycholinguistics)• Language teaching
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Lexicology
• Study of behaviour of individual words• Particularly useful for dictionary
construction (lexicography)• Can identify more and less frequently
occurring words• More interesting is HOW words are used
– Syntax– Meaning
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Lexicology
• Most frequent words are function words (the, of, and, to, a are 5 most frequent words in LOB)
• If corpus is small, it can only give an indicative “snapshot” of word usage
• LOB (1m words): hundreds of words occur less than 10 times
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Lexicography
• For dictionary construction, need bigger corpus• “Monitor” corpus, constantly updated and added
to• Traditional lexicography: collection of “slips” by
experts– OED took 50 years and includes 5m citations, sorted
and edited manually• Same idea, but more systematic• Dictionary as descriptive rather than pre- (or pro-)
scriptive
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Lexicography
• Collins COBUILD – Birmingham corpus (20m words, 1980s)
– Bank of English corpus (415m words in Oct 2000)• 70m words of transcripts of BBC broadcasts
• Used as basis of BBC English dictionary
• Cambridge Language Survey• Longman’s corpus of American English, and use
of BNC for (BrE) dictionary
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Lexicography: how do corpora help?
• Concordancing– Lists occurrences of word in context– Identify syntactic use of word– Identify range of meanings – Identify relative frequency of different uses/meanings
• Collocation– What words occur together?– Compare distribution of close synonyms
• Dictionaries can be subjective– Can be interesting to compare meanings/uses given by dictionaries with
actual usage in corpora
http://www.collins.co.uk/corpus/CorpusSearch.aspx
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11/23
Target word = dogSignificance measure: t-score
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Grammatical studies
• Study of a particular grammatical construction– Restrictions on form, meaning or context– Overall frequency (eg relative to alternative
constructions)– Use in different registers (eg narrative vs
argumentative) or modes (eg written vs spoken)
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Examples of grammatical studies
• Appositives – eg George Bush, US president or US president George Bush)
– See CF Meyer “Can you really study language variation in linguistic corpora?” American Speech 79.4 (2004) 339-355
– Genuine titles, “pseudotitles”, descriptives• Junichiro Koizumi, the Japanese prime minister
• Gerald Ford, former president of the USA
• Osama bin Laden, America’s no.1 enemy
– Looked at how appositives (esp. pseudotitles) are used differently in newspaper reports from different countries, and how descriptives become pseudotitles
14/23
Examples of grammatical studies
• Clefts and pseudoclefts– It’s linguistics that interests me most.– What interests me most is linguistics.– Linguistics interests me most.
• Infinitival complement clauses– I hope to go ~ I hope that I can go– I’m happy to go ~ I’m happy that I can go– … the proposal to go ~ the proposal that I go
• Simple past vs perfective verb forms• Use of modals can~may, shall~will• Use of passive, and means/reasons to avoid
– eg especially in translation
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Grammatical studies
• Most try to investigate the factors that determine choice of one construction over another– Lexical– Grammatical– Stylistic– etc
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Grammatical studies
• Corpus needs to be sufficiently marked up and tools need to be available for examples to be extracted
• Corpus may need to be sufficiently large to get good number of examples
• If comparing registers/subject domains/modes, corpus needs to reflect these
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Study of language variation
• Both lexical and grammatical studies often contrast usage by mode, domain, register etc.
• Sociolinguists often interested in other aspects, eg sex, age, social class of author or audience; historical linguists interested in change over time
• Recent corpora (eg BNC) have included this information in header mark-up
• Simple examples– lovely used more by females than males– What does cool mean?
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Genre classification
• Are there lexical and grammatical factors that can help us to classify text genres?
• Biber used statistical measures to identify stylistic factors that co-occurred, and could therefore be definitional of text types and genres– Eg conjuncts like therefore, nevertheless and use of passive
together indicate more formal style
• Factor analysis – choose a range of features to measure, see which ones are
correlated– does not (necessarily) predetermine analysis (except obviously you
have to decide what features might be significant)
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Historical linguistics
• Similar things can be done with historical texts, though (obviously) these are more limited in terms of genre
• Also, diachronic studies can compare texts from different periods (again as long as you compare like for like as much as possible)
• Topics:– Change in lexical meaning/usage– Change/emergence of grammatical constructions
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Example of historical study
• Nevalainen in J. Engl. Ling (2000) used Corpus of Early English Correspondence (U. Helsinki) to track sex roles in linguistic innovation
• Popular theory that females more innovative, and males follow trends
• He analysed sex-of-author differences in three linguistic changes between 16th and 20th century:– Replacement of ye by you in subject position– Replacement of 3rd-person verb suffix -th by -s– Reduction in use of multiple negatives and use of any
and ever instead
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Contrastive analysis, translation theory
• Parallel corpora – texts + their translations– preferably “aligned”
• Comparable corpora – Texts in different languages but of a similar
nature– What parallels are there in genre
characteristics?
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Use of parallel corpora
• Aligned corpus allows search for word or phrase and its translation– How is it translated?– Is it translated consistently?
• Of interest in studies of “translationese”– Translated text too influenced by original– Certain constructions more prevalent in translation than in native
text• Evidence of “explicitation”
– Translation is often more explicit than original – Sometimes, explanation added for foreign reader– But often, just a reflection of the translator’s effort (eg replacement
of pronoun by more explicit referent)• Also can be used as a tool for translators
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Language acquisition
• First-language acquisition– CHILDES database (Child Language Data Exchange
System) http://childes.psy.cmu.edu/– Transcriptions of conversations with (and between)
young children– Includes software to help extract data
• Second-language acquisition– Learner corpora, notably ICLE– http://www.fltr.ucl.ac.be/FLTR/GERM/ETAN/CECL/
Cecl-Projects/Icle/icle.htm