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1434TheYeara

MagnificentChineseFleetSailedtoItalyandIgnitedtheRenaissance

GavinMenzies

Thisbookisdedicatedtomybelovedwife,Marcella,

whohastraveledwithmeonthejourneysrelatedinthisbook

andthroughlife

Contents

Introduction

ISettingtheScene

1ALastVoyage2TheEmperor’sAmbassador3TheFleetsarePreparedfortheVoyagetotheBarbarians4ZhengHe’sNavigators’

CalculationofLatitudeandLongitude5VoyagetotheRedSea6CairoandtheRedSea–nileCanal

IIChinaIgnitestheRenaissance

7TotheVeniceofNiccolòDaConti8PaoloToscanelli’sFlorence9ToscanelliMeetsthe

ChineseAmbassador10Columbus’sandMagellan’sWorldMaps11TheWorldMapsofJohannesSchöner,MartinWaldseemüller,andAdmiralZhengHePhotographicInsert112Toscanelli’sNewastronomy13TheFlorentineMathematicians:

Toscanelli,NicholasofCusa,andRegiomontanus14LeonBattistaAlbertiandLeonardoDaVinci15LeonardoDaVinciandChineseInventionsPhotographicInsert216Leonardo,DiGiorgio,Taccola,andAlberti17SilkandRice18GrandCanals:China

andLombardy19FirearmsandSteel20Printing21China’sContributiontotheRenaissance

IIIChina’sLegacy

22TragedyontheHighSeas:ZhengHe’sFleetDestroyedbyaTsunamiPhotographicInsert323TheConquistadores’Inheritance:OurLadyof

Victory

AcknowledgmentsNotesBibliographyPermissionsPhotographCreditsSearchableTermsAbouttheAuthorOtherBooksbyGavinMenziesCredits

CopyrightAboutthePublisher

INTRODUCTION

Onethingthatgreatlypuzzledmewhenwriting1421wasthelackofcuriosityamongmanyprofessionalhistorians.

Afterall,ChristopherColumbussupposedlydiscoveredAmericain1492.

Yeteighteenyearsbeforehesetsail,ColumbushadamapoftheAmericas,whichhelateracknowledgedinhislogs.Indeed,evenbeforehisfirstvoyage,ColumbussignedacontractwiththekingandqueenofSpainthatappointedhimviceroyoftheAmericas.Hisfellowship’scaptainMartínAlonsoPinzón,whosailedwithhimin1492,hadtooseenamapoftheAmericas—inthe

pope’slibrary.

Howdoyoudiscoveraplaceforwhichyoualreadyhaveamap?

ThesamequestioncouldbeaskedofMagellan.ThestraitthatconnectstheAtlantictothePacificbearsthegreatPortugueseexplorer’sname.WhenMagellanreachedthatstraitin1520,hehadrunoutoffoodandhissailorswere

reducedtoeatingrats.Worse,theywereconvincedtheywerelost.EstebanGómezledamutiny,seizingtheSanAntoniowiththeintenttoleadpartoftheexpeditionbacktoSpain.Magellanquashedthemutinybyclaiminghewasnotatalllost.Amemberofthecrewwrote,“Weallbelievedthat[theStrait]wasacul-de-sac;butthecaptainknewthathehadtonavigatethrougha

verywell-concealedstrait,havingseenitinachartpreservedinthetreasuryofthekingofPortugal,andmadebyMartinofBohemia,amanofgreatparts.”1

WhywasthestraitnamedafterMagellanwhenMagellanhadseenitonachartbeforehesetsail?Itdoesn’tmakesense.

Theparadoxmightbe

explainedhadtherebeennomapsofthestraitorofthePacific—if,assomebelieve,Magellanwasbluffingabouthavingseenachart.Butthereweremaps.MartinWaldseemüllerpublishedhismapoftheAmericasandthePacificin1507,twelveyearsbeforeMagellansetsail.In1515,fouryearsbeforeMagellansailed,JohannesSchönerpublishedamapshowingthestraitMagellanis

saidtohave“discovered.”

Themysteryonlydeepenswhenweconsiderthetwocartographers,WaldseemüllerandSchöner.WerethesetwohoaryoldseacaptainswhohadmadeheroicvoyagesacrossthePacificbeforeMagellan?ShouldwerenamethestraitafterSchöner?Hardly.

Schönerneverwenttosea.

HeflunkedhisexamsattheUniversityofErfurt,leavingwithoutadegree.Hebecameanapprenticepriestin1515butforfailingtocelebratemass,wasrelegatedtoasmallvillage,wherehispunishmentwasofficiatingatearly-morningmass.SohowdidayoungmanfromruralGermanywithnomaritimetraditionproduceamapofthePacificwellbeforeMagellandiscoveredthatocean?

LikeSchöner,Waldseemüllerhadneverseenthesea.BorninWolfenweilernearFreibergin1475,hespenthisworkinglifeasacannonatSaint-DiéineasternFrance—aregionfamedforitsplumsbutcompletelydevoidofmaritimetradition.Waldseemüller,too,leftuniversitywithoutadegree.YethismapoftheAmericasshowedtheSierraMadreof

MexicoandtheSierraNevadaofNorthAmericabeforeMagellanreachedthePacificorBalboareacheditscoast.

ThesetworusticmapmakerswerenottheonlyEuropeanswithanuncannyprescienceaboutunseenlands.In1419,beforeEuropeanvoyagesofexplorationevenbegan,AlbertindiVirgapublishedamapoftheEastern

HemispherethatshowsnorthernAustralia.Itwasanother350yearsbeforeCaptainCook“discovered”thatcontinent.Similarly,BrazilappearedonPortuguesemapsbeforethefirstPortuguese,CabralandDias,setsailforBrazil.TheSouthShetlandIslandswereshownonthePiriReismapfourhundredyearsbeforeEuropeansreachedtheAntarctic.

ThegreatEuropeanexplorerswerebraveanddeterminedmen.Buttheydiscoverednothing.Magellanwasnotthefirsttocircumnavigatetheglobe,norwasColumbusthefirsttodiscovertheAmericas.Sowhy,wemayask,dohistorianspersistinpropagatingthisfantasy?WhyisTheTimesAtlasofWorldExploration,whichdetailsthediscoveriesof

Europeanexplorers,stilltaughtinschools?Whyaretheyoungsoinsistentlymisled?

After1421waspublished,wesetupourwebsite,www.1421.tv,whichhassincereceivedmillionsofvisitors.Additionallywehavereceivedhundredsofthousandsofe-mailsfromreadersof1421,manybringingnewevidencetoour

attention.Ofthecriticismwe’vereceived,themostfrequentcomplainthasconcernedmyfailuretodescribetheChinesefleets’visitstoEuropewhentheRenaissancewasjustgettingunderway.

Twoyearsago,aChineseCanadianscholar,TaiPengWang,discoveredChineseandItalianrecordsshowingbeyondadoubtthatChinese

delegationshadreachedItalyduringthereignsofZhuDi(1403–1424)andtheXuanDeemperor(1426–1435).Naturally,thiswasofthegreatestinteresttomeandtheresearchteam.

ShortlyafterTaiPengWang’s2005discovery,mywife,Marcella,andIsetoffwithfriendsforSpain.Foradecade,we’veenjoyedholidayswiththissamegroup

offriends,travelingtoseeminglyinaccessibleplaces—crossingtheAndes,Himalayas,Karakorams,andHinduKush,voyagingdowntheAmazon,journeyingtotheglaciersofPatagoniaandthehighAltiplanoofBolivia.In2005wewalkedtheViadelaPlatafromSeville,fromwheretheconquistadoressailedtotheNewWorld,northtotheirhomelandofExtremadura.Alongtheway,

wevisitedthetownsinwhichtheconquistadoreswerebornandraised.OneofthesewasToledo,paintedwithsuchbravurabyElGreco.Ofparticularinteresttomewerethemedievalpumpsbywhichthisfortifiedmountaintowndrewitswaterfromtheriverfarbelow.

Onalovelyautumnday,wewalkeduphilltothegreatcathedralthatdominates

Toledoandthesurroundingcountryside.Wedumpedourbagsinasmallhotelbuiltintothecathedralwallsandsetofftoexplore.InaneighboringMoorishpalacetherewasanexhibitiondedicatedtoLeonardodaVinciandhisMadridcodices,focusingonhispumps,aqueducts,locks,andcanals—allhighlyrelevanttoToledo.

Theexhibitcontainedthisnote:“Leonardoembarkeduponathoroughanalysisofwaterways.TheencounterwithFrancescodiGiorgioinPaviain1490wasadecisivemomentinLeonardo’straining,aturningpoint.Leonardoplannedtowriteatreatiseonwater.”Thispuzzledme.IhadbeentaughtthatLeonardohaddesignedthefirstEuropeancanalsandlocks,thathewasthefirstto

illustratepumpsandfountains.SowhatrelevanttraininghadhereceivedfromFrancescodiGiorgio,anamecompletelyunknowntome?

MyresearchrevealedthatLeonardohadownedacopyofdiGiorgio’streatiseoncivilandmilitarymachines.Inthetreatise,diGiorgiohadillustratedanddescribedarangeofastonishingmachines,manyofwhich

Leonardosubsequentlyreproducedinthree-dimensionaldrawings.Theillustrationswerenotlimitedtocanals,locks,andpumps;theyincludedparachutes,submersibletanks,andmachinegunsaswellashundredsofothermachineswithcivilandmilitaryapplications.

Thiswasquiteashock.ItseemedLeonardowasmore

illustratorthaninventorandthatthegreatergeniusmayhaveresidedindiGiorgio.WasdiGiorgiotheoriginalinventorofthesefantasticmachines?Ordidhe,inturn,copythemfromanother?

IlearnedthatdiGiorgiohadinheritednotebooksandtreatisesfromanotherItalian,MarianodiJacopodittoTaccola(calledTaccola:“theCrow”).Taccolawasaclerk

ofpublicworkslivinginSiena.Havingneverseentheseaorfoughtabattle,heneverthelessmanagedtodrawawidevarietyofnauticalmachines—paddle-wheeledboats,frogmen,andmachinesforliftingwrecks,togetherwitharangeofgunpowderweapons,evenanadvancedmethodofmakinggunpowderanddesigningahelicopter.ItseemsTaccolawasresponsiblefornearlyevery

technicalillustrationthatdiGiorgioandLeonardohadlaterimprovedupon.

So,onceagain,weconfrontourfamiliarpuzzle:HowdidaclerkinaremoteItalianhilltown,amanwhohadnevertraveledabroadorobtainedauniversityeducation,cometoproducetechnicalillustrationsofsuchamazingmachines?

Thisbookattemptsto

answerthatandafewrelatedriddles.Indoingso,westumbleuponthemapoftheAmericasthatTaccola’scontemporaryPaoloToscanellisenttobothChristopherColumbusandthekingofPortugal,inwhoselibraryMagellanencounteredit.

Like1421,thisbookisacollectiveendeavorthatneverwouldhavebeenwritten

withoutthehelpofthousandsofpeopleacrosstheworld.Idonotclaimdefinitiveanswerstoeveryriddle.Thisisaworkinprogress.Indeed,Ihopereaderswilljoinusinthesearchforanswersandsharethemwithus—assomanydidinresponseto1421.

However,beforewemeettheChinesesquadronuponitsarrivalinVeniceandthenFlorence,abitofbackground

isnecessaryontheaimsoftheXuanDeemperorforwhomGrandEunuchZhengHeservedasambassadortoEurope.AXuanDeimperialorderdatedJune29,1430,stated:

…EverythingisprosperousandrenewedbuttheForeignCountriesdistantlylocatedbeyondthesea,stillhadnotheardanddidnotknow.ForthisreasonGrandDirectors

ZhengHe,WangJinghongandotherswerespeciallysent,bearingtheword,togoandinstructthemintodeferenceandsubmission…

ThefirstthreechaptersofthisbookdescribethetwoyearsofpreparationsinChinaandIndonesiatofulfillthatorder,whichrequiredlaunchingandprovisioningthegreatestfleettheworldhadeverseenforavoyage

acrosstheworld.Chapter4explainshowtheChinesecalculatedlongitudewithoutclocksandlatitudewithoutsextants—prerequisitesfordrawingaccuratemapsofnewlands.Chapters5and6describehowthefleetlefttheMalabarCoastofIndia,sailedtothecanallinkingtheNiletotheRedSea,thendowntheNileintotheMediterranean.SomehavearguedthatnoChineserecordsexistto

suggestthatZhengHe’sfleetseverlefttheIndianOcean.Chapters5and6documentthemanyrecordsinChina,Egypt,Dalmatia,Venice,Florence,andthePapalStatesdescribingthefleets’voyage.

Inchapter21Idiscusstheimmensetransferofknowledgethattookplacein1434betweenChinaandEurope.Thisknowledge

originatedwithapeoplewho,overathousandyears,hadcreatedanadvancedcivilizationinAsia;itwasgiventoEuropejustasshewasemergingfromamillenniumofstagnationfollowingthefalloftheRomanEmpire.

TheRenaissancehastraditionallybeenportrayedasarebirthoftheclassicalcivilizationsofGreeceand

Rome.ItseemstomethetimehascometoreappraisethisEurocentricviewofhistory.WhiletheidealsofGreeceandRomeplayedanimportantroleintheRenaissance,IsubmitthatthetransferofChineseintellectualcapitaltoEuropewasthesparkthatsettheRenaissanceablaze.

Theinternethasrevolutionizedthehistorian’s

profession,andthoughitisnotnecessaryforreaderstovisitthe1434website,itdoescontainagreatdealofadditionalinformationaboutChina’sroleintheRenaissance.Onoccasioninthetext,Imakereferencetospecificsubjectsthatarediscussedingreaterdetailonthewebsite.Ibelievethatmanywillfindthisinteresting.The1421websitehasalsobecomeaforumfor

discussion,andIhopethesamewillbetruefor1434.Whenyouhavereadthebook,pleasetelluswhetheryouagreewithitsconclusions.

GavinMenziesNewYork

July17,2007

I

SettingtheScene

1

ALASTVOYAGE

Inthesummerof1421theemperorZhuDilostastupendousgamble.Indoingso,helostcontrolofChinaand,eventually,hislife.

ZhuDi’sdreamsweresooutsizedthat,thoughChinaintheearlyfifteenthcenturywasthegreatestpoweronearth,itstillcouldnotsummonthemeanstorealizetheemperor’smonumentalambitions.HavingembarkedonthesimultaneousconstructionoftheForbiddenCity,theMingtombs,andtheTempleofHeaven,ChinawasalsobuildingtwothousandshipsforZheng

He’sfleets.Thesevastprojectshaddenudedthelandoftimber.Asaconsequence,eunuchsweresenttopillageVietnam.ButtheVietnameseleaderLeLoifoughttheChinesewithgreatskillandcourage,tyingdowntheChinesearmyathugefinancialandpsychologicalcost.ChinahadherVietnamsixhundredyearsbeforeFranceandAmericahad

theirs.1

China’sdebacleinVietnamgrewoutofthecostsofbuildingandmaintaininghertreasurefleets,throughwhichtheemperorsoughttobringtheentireworldintoConfucianharmonywithintheChinesetributesystem.Thefleetswereledbyeunuchs—bravesailorswhowereintenselyloyaltotheemperor,permanently

insecure,andreadytosacrificeall.However,theeunuchswerealsouneducatedandfrequentlycorrupt.Andtheywereloathedbythemandarins,theeducatedadministrativeclassthatbuttressedaConfuciansysteminwhicheverycitizenwasassignedaclearlydefinedplace.

Superbadministrators,themandarinsrecoiledfromrisk.

Theydisapprovedoftheextravagantadventuresofthetreasurefleets,whosefar-flungexploitshadtheaddeddisadvantageofbringingthemintocontactwith“longnosedbarbarians.”IntheYuandynasty(1279–1368),mandarinswerethelowestclass.2However,intheMingdynasty,EmperorHongWu,ZhuDi’sfather,reversedtheclasssystemtofavor

mandarins.

ThemandarinsplannedHongWu’sattackonhissonZhuDi,thePrinceofYen,whomHonghadbanishedtoBeijing(NanjingthenbeingthecapitalofChina).TheeunuchssidedwithZhuDi,joininghisdrivesouthintoNanjing.Afterhisvictoryin1402,ZhuDiexpressedhisgratitudebyappointingeunuchstocommandthe

treasurefleets.

HenryTsaipaintsavividportraitofZhuDi,alsoknownastheYongleemperor:

Hewasanoverachiever.HeshouldbecreditedfortheconstructionoftheimposingForbiddenCityofBeijing,whichstillstandstodaytoamazecountlessvisitorsfromlandsafar.Heshouldbe

applaudedforsponsoringthelegendarymaritimeexpeditionsoftheMuslimeunuchAdmiralZhengHe,thelegacyofwhichstilllivesvividlyinthehistoricalconsciousnessofmanySoutheastAsiansandEastAfricans.HereinforcedthepowerstructureoftheabsolutistempirehisfathertheHongwuemperorfounded,andextendedthetentaclesofChinese

civilisationtoVietnam,Korea,Japan,amongothertributarystatesofMingChina.HesmoothedoutChina’srelationswiththeMongolsfromwhomEmperorHongwuhadrecoveredtheChineseempire.HemadepossiblethecompilationofvariousimportantChinesetexts,includingthemonumentalencyclopaediaYongledadian….

Yongle[thealternativenameforZhuDi]wasalsoausurper,amanwhobathedhishandsinthebloodofnumerouspoliticalvictims.Andthebloodsheddidnotstopthere.Afterascendingthethrone,hebuiltawell-knitinformationnetworkstaffedbyeunuchswhomhisfatherhadspecificallyblockedfromthecoreofpolitics,tospyonscholarofficials[mandarins]who

mightchallengehislegitimacyandhisabsolutism.3

UnderZhuDi,themandarinswererelegatedtoorganizingthefinancesnecessarytobuildthefleet.ButforgenerationsofmandarinswhogovernedtheMingdynastyandcompiledalmostallChinesehistoricalsources,thevoyagesledbyZhengHewereadeviation

fromtheproperpath.ThemandarinsdidalltheycouldtobelittleZhengHe’sachievements.AsEdwardL.Dreyerpointsout,ZhengHe’sbiographyintheMing-Shi-luwasdeliberatelyplacedbeforeaseriesofchaptersoneunuchs“whoaregroupedwith‘flatterersanddeceivers,’‘treacherousministers,’‘rovingbandits’and‘allintrinsicallyevil

categoriesofpeople.’”4

Aslongasthevoyagesprospered,andtributeflowedbacktotheMiddleKingdomtofinancethefleet’sadventures,thesimmeringrivalrybetweenmandarinsandeunuchscouldbecontained.However,inthesummerof1421,ZhuDi’sreignwenthorriblywrong.First,theForbiddenCity,whichhadcostvastsumsto

build,wasburnedtoashesbyathunderbolt.Next,theemperorbecameimpotentandwastauntedbyhisconcubines.Inafinalindignity,hewasthrownfromhishorse,apresentfromTamburlaine’ssonShahRokh.5ItappearedthatZhuDihadlostheaven’sfavor.

InDecember1421,atatimewhenChinesefarmerswerereducedtoeatinggrass,Zhu

Diembarkedonanotherextravaganza.HeledanenormousarmyintothenorthernsteppetofighttheMongolarmiesofAruqtai,whohadrefusedtopaytribute.6

ThiswastoomuchforXiaYuanji,theministeroffinance;herefusedtofundtheexpedition.ZhuDihadhisministerarrestedalongwiththeministerofjustice,

whohadalsoobjectedtotheadventure.FangBin,theministerofwar,committedsuicide.Withhisfinancesinruinsandhiscabinetinrevolt,theemperorrodeofftothesteppe,wherehewasoutwittedandoutmaneuveredbyAruqtai.OnAugust12,1424,ZhuDidied.7

ZhuGaozhi,ZhuDi’sson,tookoverasemperorandpromptlyreversedhisfather’s

policies.XiaYuanjiwasrestoredasministeroffinance,anddrasticfiscalmeasureswereadoptedtoreinininflation.ZhuGaozhi’sfirstedictonascendingthethroneonSeptember7,1424,laidthetreasurefleetlow:heorderedallvoyagesofthetreasureshipstobestopped.AllshipsmooredatTaicangwereorderedbacktoNanjing.8

Themandarinswerebackincontrol.ThegreatZhengHewaspensionedoffalongwithhisadmiralsandcaptains.Treasureshipswerelefttorotattheirmoorings.Nanjing’sdrydockswerefloodedandplansforadditionaltreasureshipswereburned.

Thensuddenly,unexpectedly,onMay29,1425,ZhuGaozhidied.HewassucceededbyhissonZhu

Zhanji,ZhuDi’sgrandson.

ZhuZhanjiseemeddestinedtobeoneofChina’sgreatestemperors.FarmorecautiousthanZhuDi,hewasnonethelessextremelyclever.HequicklyrealizedthatChina’sabdicationasQueenoftheSeaswouldhavedisastrousconsequences—notleastthatthebarbarianswouldceasepayingtribute.What’smore,thedreamofa

worldunitedinConfucianharmonywouldbedashedandthecolossalexpenditurethathadenabledChinatoacquirealliesandsettlementsthroughouttheworldwouldbewasted.

ZhuZhanjialsorealizedthattheeunuchsdisfavoredbyhisfatherhadtheirvirtues.Hesetupapalaceschooltoinstructthem9andappointedeunuchstoimportantmilitary

commands.Hereversedhisfather’splantomovethecapitalsouthtoNanjing,restoringittoBeijing,onceagainfacingtheMongols.YethealsobelievedintheConfucianvirtuesespousedbythemandarinsandcultivatedtheirfriendshipoverbottlesofwine.InmanywaysZhuZhanjicombinedthebestofhisfather,includinghisconcernforfarmers,withthatofhis

grandfather,whoseboldnessheemulatedinapproachingthebarbarians.

ThenewreignwouldbeknownasXuanDe,“propagatingvirtue.”ForZhengHeandtheeunuchs,itmarkedareturntocenterstage.Soonanothergreatsailingexpeditionwouldbelaunched,tobearthewordtothebarbarianstoinstructthemintodeferenceand

submission.

2

THEEMPEROR’SAMBASSADOR

In1430theyoungemperorempoweredAdmiralsZhengHeandWangJinghongtoactonhisbehalf,issuingthemaspeciallymintedbrass

medallion,inamixofzhuanshu1andkaishu2scripts,inscribedAUTHORISEDANDAWARDEDBYXUANDEOFTHEGREATMING.

TheemperorappointedZhengHeashisambassador.HereistheedictfromtheXuanzongShi-lu,datedJune29,1430:“EverythingwasprosperousandrenewedbuttheForeigncountries,

distantlylocatedbeyondthesea,stillhadnotheardanddidnotknow.ForthisreasonGrandDirectorsZhengHe,WangJinghongandotherswerespeciallysent,bearingtheword,togoandinstructthemintodeferenceandsubmission.”3

Thisvoyageto“instruct”theforeignerswasthezenithofAdmiralZhengHe’sgreatcareer.Beforedeparting,he

hadtwoinscriptionscarvedinstonetodocumenthisachievements.Thefirstinscription,datedMarch14,1431,wasplacednearthetempleoftheseagoddessatTaicang,downriverfromNanjingneartheestuaryoftheYangtze.

Fromthetimewhenwe,ChengHo[ZhengHe]andhiscompanionsatthebeginningoftheYungLoperiod[1403]

receivedtheImperialcommissionasenvoytothebarbarians,upuntilnow,sevenvoyageshavetakenplaceandeachtimewehavecommandedseveraltensofthousandsofgovernmentsoldiersandmorethanahundredoceangoingvessels.StartingfromTaiTs’angandtakingthesea,wehavebywayofthecountriesofChan-Ch’eng,Hsienlo,Quawa,K’ochih,andKuli[Calicut]

reachedHulumossu[Cairo]andothercountriesofthewesternregions,morethan3,000countriesinall.4

TheotherinscribedstonewasplacedfartherdowntheChinesecoastatthemouthoftheMinRiverinFujian.ItisdatedthesecondwintermonthofthesixthyearofXuanDe,whichmakesitbetweenDecember5,1431,andJanuary7,1432.Itis

calledtheChangLeepigraphy.

TheImperialMingdynastyinunifyingseasandcontinentssurpassingthethreedynastiesevengoesbeyondtheHanandTangdynasties.Thecountriesbeyondthehorizonandfromtheendsoftheearthhaveallbecomesubjectsandthemostwesternofthewesternorthemostnorthernofthenortherncountries

howeverfartheymaybe,thedistanceandtheroutesmaybecalculated.5

LiuGang,whoownsaChinesemapoftheworldfrom1418,acriticaldocumentthatwewillrevisitlater,hastranslatedtheChangLeepigraphyasitwouldhavebeenunderstoodintheearlyMingdynasty.Histranslationdiffersinsomekeyrespectsfromthemoderntranslation

producedabove.

TheImperialMingdynastyhasunifiedseasandtheuniverse,surpassingthefirstthreegenerations[ofMingemperors]aswellasoftheHanandTangdynasties.Noneofthesecountrieshadnotbecomesubjects,eventhoseattheremotestcornersinthewestofthewesternregionoftheImperialMingandthenorthofthe

northwardextensionfromtheImperialMingaresofaraway,however,thatthedistancetothemcanbecalculatedbymileage.6

Thefullimportofthedistinctionsbecomeapparentonceweunderstandwhattheterms“westernregionoftheImperialMing”and“northwardextensionfromtheImperialMing”meantatthetimethestoneswere

carved.“Theterm‘westernregion’originatedduringtheHandynastyandatthattimereferredtotheregionbetweenZhongLing(nowinthenorthernXianJiangautonomousregion)andDunHuang(attheedgeoftheTaklaMakanDesert),”LiuGangexplains.

BytheTangdynasty,theextentofthe“westernregion”hadbeenextendedtoNorth

Africa.ThebookswrittenintheMingdynastydescribingtraveltothewesternregionadoptanevenbroaderdefinition:RecordsofJourneystotheWesternRegionandNotesontheBarbarians,bothbookspublishedduringZhengHe’sera,extendedthewesternregionmuchfurtherwestwards.ThisisreflectedintheTaicangstele,whichreferstoreaching“Hulumo

Ssu(Cairo)andothercountriesofthewesternregions.”ThesecondsteleinFujianmentionsreaching“theremotestcornersinthewestofthewesternregion,”i.e.,farwestofCairo.”7

Thephrase“thenorthofthenorthwardextensionfromtheImperialMing”isevenmorepregnantwithmeaning.AsLiuGanghasexplained,inZhengHe’seratheChinese

hadnoconceptoftheNorthPoleasthehighestpointoftheearthlysphere.Accordingly,whentheytravelednorthfromChinatotheNorthAmericancontinent,traversingtheNorthPole(greatcircleroute),theybelievedthejourneywasalwaysnorthward.ThemoderngeographicunderstandingisthatthegreatcircleroutefromChinatoNorthAmerica

runsnorthtotheNorthPole,thensouthtoNorthAmerica.ThisconceptwasunknowntotheChinese.

TotheMingChinese,“inthenorthofthenorthwardextensionfromtheImperialMing”meansaplacebeyondtheNorthPole.Thisunderstandingisreflectedinthe1418worldmap,whichshowsapassagethroughthepolariceacrosstheNorth

PoleleadingtoAmerica.(AccordingtotheDutchmeteorologicaloffice,therewerethreeexceptionallywarmwintersinthe1420s,whichcouldhavemeltedtheArcticseaice.)8

Thus,ifwetakethetwostelesattheirword,itappearsthatZhengHe’sfleetshadalreadyreachedthreethousandcountriesaswellastheNorthPoleandNorth

AmericabeyondthePole.

Theemperor’sordertoZhengHetoinstructdistantlandsbeyondtheseastofollowthewayofheavennowseemsawesome.ZhengHeisbeingorderedtoreturntoallthreethousandcountrieshehadvisitedinhislifeatsea.Thetaskwouldrequireahugenumberofships—severalgreatfleetsreadiedforvoyagesacrosstheworld.

Thisexplainsthelengthydelaybetweentheimperialedictandthefleets’actualdeparturefromChinesewaterssometwoyearslater.

Eachmonth,awealthofevidencecomestoourwebsitefromsourcesinabout120differentcountries.Takentogether,theevidence,whichincludesthewrecksofChinesejunksindistantwaters,hasconvincedmethat

myoriginalestimateofthesizeofZhengHe’sfleet—someonehundredships—wasfartoolow.

Overthepastthreeyears,tworesearchers,ProfessorXiLongfeiandDr.SallyChurch,havefoundreferencesintheMingShi-lutothenumberofjunksbuiltintheyears1403to1419.Thefiguresaresubjecttointerpretation,particularly

withregardtothenumberthatcanbeassignedspecificallytoZhengHe’sfleets.ButitseemsthelowestimateofthesizeofZhengHe’sfleetsisasfollows:249shipscompletedin1407“inpreparationforsendingembassiestotheWesternOceans”;plusfiveoceangoingshipsbuiltin1404,whichtheMingShi-luexplicitlystateswereorderedbecauseenvoyswouldsoon

besentabroad;plus48“Treasureships”builtin1408andanother41builtin1419.Thatmakesatotalof343shipsconstructedforZhengHe’svoyages.9

Amiddleestimatewouldinclude“converted”ships,thepurposeofwhichisunspecifiedintheMingShi-lu.Ofthese,therewere188in1403;80inearlyNovember1405;13inlate

November1407;33in1408;and61in1413.Addingtheseconvertedshipstothe343shipsdescribedabovewouldgiveZhengHeatotalof718ships.

Thehighestimateincludes1,180haizhou,orderedin1405,whosepurposeisunspecified,andtwoordersofhaifengchuan(oceanwindships)—61in1412andthesamenumberagainin1413.

Alltogether,thatwouldmeanafleetof2,020shipsoutofatotalconstructionprogramof2,726.Evenatthishighestimate,ZhengHe’sfleetwouldstillhavebeensmallerthanKublaiKhan’s,thoughofbetterquality.

BasedonCamões’saccountoftheChinesefleetthatreachedCalicuteightyyearsbeforeVascodaGama,myguessisthatZhengHehadat

hisdisposalmorethan1,000ships.“MorethaneighthundredsailoflargeandsmallshipscametoIndiafromtheportsofMalaccaandChinaandtheLequeos(Ryuku)Islandswithpeopleofmanynationsandallladenwithmerchandiseofgreatvaluewhichtheybroughtforsale…theyweresonumerousthattheyfilledthecountryandsettledasdwellersinallofthetownsofthesea

coast.”10

Theemperor’smassiveship-buildingprogramwasaccompaniedbymajorimprovementsinthejunks’construction.ProfessorPanBiaooftheCollegeofWoodScienceandTechnologyofNanjingForestryUniversityhascarriedoutgroundbreakingworkintothetypesoftimberfoundintheNanjingshipyardswherethe

treasureshipswerebuilt.About80percentofthematerialwaspine,11percenthardwoodsotherthanteak,and5.5percentteak.

Thepine—soft,humidity-anddecay-resistant,andlongusedforbuildingbothhousesandships—waslargelyfromsouthChina.Teak,whichishard,heavy,andresistanttoinsectattack,isidealformainframes.However,itwas

foreigntoChinaandanewmaterialforChineseshipbuilders.

WhatastonishedProfessorPanBiaowasthevolumeofhardwoodandteakthatwasimported.“BeforeZhengHe,hardwoodhadneverleftitscountriesoforigininasinglestep,”hesaid.“ButduringZhengHe’svoyages,andintheoneortwohundredyearsfollowinghisvoyages,

hardwoodwasnotonlymassivelyusedinshipbuildingbutwasalsobroughtintoSoutheastAsiaandtransplantedthereforthefirsttime.”ProfessorPanBiaoarguesthatZhengHe’svoyagescontributedgreatlytolarge-scaleinternationaltradeinhardwoodandtotheremarkableprogressinSoutheastAsia’sshipbuildingindustry.11

Ineachoftheyears1406,1408,1418,and1432,fleetsofahundredormoreChinesevesselsspentlengthyperiodsrefittingintheportsofEastJava.TheChinesewhosettledinJavaplayedamajorpartinthedevelopmentofJavaneseshipbuilding.ProfessorAnthonyReidsuggeststhatthefloweringofJavaneseshipbuildinginthefifteenthcenturywasdueto“creativemeldingofChinese

andJavanesemarinetechnologyinthewakeofZhengHe’sexpeditions.”12

ThenewbuildingprograminChina,aidedbybettertimberandthehugerefittingendeavorinJava,wouldgraduallyhaveimprovedthequalityofZhengHe’sfleets.WeknowfromdetailedresearchinitiatedbyKenzoHayashidathatKublaiKhan’sfleets,wreckedinTokushima

BayinJapanin1281,weredoomedasmuchbythepoorqualityoftheirconstructionasbythefuryofthekamikazewinds.

Withtheirsuperiorwoodandconstruction,ZhengHe’sshipswouldbecapableofcrossingthestormiestoceans.However,thescaleofthesevastfleetswouldhavecreatedenormouscommandandcontrolproblems,asIcan

attestfrompersonalexperience.

Inlate1968,beforetakingcommandofHMSRorqual,IwasappointedoperationsofficertothestaffofAdmiralGriffin,whothencommandedtheRoyalNavy’sFarEastFleet.Mydutiesweretheday-to-dayoperationofthefleet—anaircraftcarrier,fueltanker,supplyships,destroyers,

frigates,andsubmarines.13Iquicklylearnedjusthowdifficultitistocontrolafleetoftwentyships,notleastinthesuddensquallsoftheSouthChinaSea,whichcanreducevisibilitytoafewyards.Changesinvisibilityconstituteathreat,whichrequiresthatthefleetbecontinuouslyrepositioned.

ThisexperiencewasrepeatedwhenIwasin

commandofHMSRorqual.Bytradition,thefirstRoyalNavyvesselonthesceneofasunkensubmarinetakeschargeoftherecoveryoperation,irrespectiveoftheseniorityofhercaptain.WhenHMSOnslaughtwassimulatingasunkensubmarineontheseabed,theRorqualwasthefirstshipthere.14So,forabriefperiod,Iexercisedoperational

controloftheBritishFarEastFleet,ataskthatledmetogreatlyappreciatethevalueofwirelessandsatellitecommunications.

ZhengHe’sadmiralshadnosuchtechnology.Instead,theywouldhavereliedonbells,gongs,drums,carrierpigeons,andfireworkstocoordinatetheirmovements.Consequently,theywouldhavebeenunableeffectively

tocontrolmorethanperhapstwentyjunksofvarioustypesandcapabilities,suchastreasureshipssuppliedbywatercarriersandgrainshipsprotectedbyfightingships.Forashortperiod,incalmseaswithunchanginggoodvisibility,theymighthavebeenabletocontrolasmanyasfiftyships.Buttheseconditionsdonotlastlongatsea.Astheweatherchanges,sodoesthethreat.Capital

ships,suchasZhengHe’streasureships,areprotectedmorecloselyinshorethanintheopenocean.Likewise,thethreatofpiratesrequiresadifferentdispositionthanthatrequiredforlandingtroopsonanexposedbeach.

Withapproximatelyonethousandshipsunderhisoverallcommand,ZhengHeprobablywouldhaveappointedatleasttwenty,and

quitepossiblyfifty,rearadmirals.Onhisfinalvoyage,Ibelievetherewerefourfulladmirals(ZhengHe,WangJinghong,HongBao,andZhouMan),eightviceadmirals(WangHeng,HouXian,LiXing,WuZhong,YangZhen,ZhangDa,ZhuLiang,ZhuZhen),andanothertwelverearadmirals15incommandofatotaloftwenty-fourfleets,

whichistheminimumnumberoffleetsIwouldexpectgiventhenumberofships.

Inmyopinion,thecaseforbroad-basedleadershipofthefleetsisreflectedintheTaicangstele,whichusesthefirst-personpluraltodescribethecommandofmenandships.(“Eachtimewehavecommandedseveraltensofthousandsofgovernment

soldiersandmorethanahundredoceangoingvessels.”)TheimplicationisthatZhengHeisactinginconcertwithhisteamofadmirals.

Thescopeoftheshipbuildingprogram—morethan2,700ships—underminesthenotionthatZhengHecommandedjustonefleetofahundredoceangoingvessels.

However,asinglefleetofathousandjunkswouldhavebeenimpossibletocontrol.Chineserecordslistingdatesforoutboundandreturningvoyagesmakeitclearthatdifferentfleetsdepartedandreturnedunderdifferentcommandersoftenyearsapart.

Insum,thescaleofZhengHe’svoyageswouldhaverequiredmanyindependent

fleetstobesimultaneouslyatsea.Somefleetswerenodoubtcarriedoffbystormstounexpecteddestinations.Others,asevidenceI’llpresentinchapter22suggests,weresurelywrecked,sometimesinthemostspectacularfashion.Inanycase,itshouldcomeasnosurprisethatmany,perhapsevenamajority,ofdestinationsreachedbythefleetswereneverrecordedin

officialChineserecords.Seafaringinthefifteenthcenturywasanevenmorehazardousprofessionthanitistoday.Manyshipsneverreturnedhometotelltheirtales.Thelossoflifewasterrible,aswastheeconomicandintellectualdevastationofthewreckagearoundtheworld.

Thisvoyage,fromwhichfewjunksreturned,wasthe

mostambitiousofthemall.ZhengHe’sfleetsweresenttoeverycountryintheknownworld.Consequentlythepreparationswouldhavebeenawesome,asIcanvouchfrommyexperiencein1969onthestaffofAdmiralGriffin’sFarEastFleet.

ZhengHe’sfleetwasmultinationalandmultifaith,aswastheBritishfleetin1969.Ourshipshad

Ethiopian,Iranian,IndianandPakistaniofficers,Maltesestewards,Goaneseengine-roomstokers,Chineselaundrymen,Tamilengineers,Christians,Muslims,Taoists,Hindus,Confucians,Zoroastrians,Buddhists,andJews.TheBritishAdmiraltytookgreatpainstoensurethatcaptainswouldknowofthereligion,history,culture,background,andcustomsofallthecrewaswellasofthe

countriesthefleetwouldvisit.InthesamewaytheXuanDeemperorandhispredecessor,ZhuDi,wouldalsohavebriefedZhengHeingreatdetail.Theyhadtheidealtoolwithwhichtodoso—theYongleDadian.16Thismassiveencyclopediawascompletedin1421andhousedinthenewlybuiltForbiddenCity.Threethousandscholarshadworked

foryearscompilingallChineseknowledgefromtheprevioustwothousandyears,in22,937passagesextractedfrommorethan7,000titles,aworkof50millioncharacters.TheencyclopediawasofascaleandscopeunparalleledinhistoryandtomymindZhuDi’smonumentallegacytohumankind.Itwascontainedin11,095books,each16incheshighand10incheswide,requiring600

yardsofshelfspace,5rowshighoronethirdofonedeckofhisflagship.Theencyclopediacoveredeverysubjectontheplanet:geographyandcartography,agriculture,civilandmilitaryengineering,warfare,healthandmedicalcare,buildingandtownplanning,steelandsteelproduction,ceramicsfiringandpainting,biochemistryincludingcross-fertilization,alcohol

production,silkmakingandweaving,gunpowdermaking,shipconstruction,evencodes,cyphers,andcryptography.Weknowthisfromthecontentspages,ofwhichtherearecopiesintheNationalLibrariesinBeijingandTaipei,theBritishLibraryinLondon,theBibliothèqueNationaleinParis,andtheAsianLibrariesofOxfordandCambridgeUniversities.

Fortunately,onepartoftheYongleDadianremainsmoreorlesswholeatCambridgeUniversity,whereithasescapedtheravagesoftheBoxeruprisingandmorerecentlythelunacyofMao’sRedGuards,whoburnedanyintellectualbooktheycouldlaytheirhandson.TheCambridgebookisaboutmathematics.JosephNeedhamdescribesthetrulyamazingdepthofChinese

mathematicalknowledgeshowninthisbook,whichcontainsknowledgefromtheyearA.D.263onward.17

Therearechaptersgivingpracticaladviceonusingtrigonometrytodetermineheightsofbuildings,hills,trees,andtownsoncliffs,andthecircumferenceofwalledcities,thedepthofravines,andthebreadthofriverestuaries.

Nofewerthanninety-fivemathematicaltreatisesoftheSongdynastyarementioned,someonsuchspecializedsubjectsastheChineseremaindertheorumandcryptoanalysis—theuseofmathematicstobreakcodes.Therearemathematicalmethodsforcalculatingtheareaandvolumeofcircles,spheres,cones,pyramids,cubes,andcylindersandfordeterminingmagicnumbers

andconstructingmagicsquares,andtheprinciplesofsquare-rootextractionandnegativenumbers.ItwasluckyZhengHehadaprodigiousmemory—hecouldrecitetheentireKoranbyheartinArabicattheageofeleven.

AsNeedhampointsout,thediscoveriesmadeonthevoyagesofZhengHe’sfleetwereincorporatedintothe

YongleDadian.OnecangofurtherandsaythatoneofZhuDi’sleadingobjectiveswastoacquireknowledgegainedfromthebarbarians.Thisisepitomizedintheinstructionsgiventothethreepreviouseunuchs,ZhengHe,JangMin,andLiQiin1403—tobedescribedinthenextchapter.18

Thebestwaytoacquireknowledge,ZhuDiknew,

wouldbetoshareit—toshowthebarbarianshowimmenselydeep,wide,andoldwasChineseknowledgeandChinesecivilization.ZhengHeandhiscaptainswerethuskeyplayersincompilingtheknowledgecontainedintheYongleDadian.Forthisofcoursetheyneededtohavecopiesoftheencyclopediaaboardtheirjunks,andtheyneededalsotobriefinterpretersaboutthe

contentssothemessagecouldbepropagated.ZhuDimadeenormousstridesinimprovingChineseprintingmethods,whichenabledpartsoftheYongleDadiantobereproduced.19

Even“Pascal’s”trianglewasincludedintheYongleDadian—centuriesbeforePascal.TheChinesehavealwaysbeenpractical.Mathematicswasappliedto

surveyingandcartography.BytheEasternHandynasty(A.D.25–A.D.220),Chinesesurveyorswereusingcompassandsquares,plumblinesandwaterlevels.Bythethirdcenturytheywereusingthetrigonometryofright-angletriangles,bythefourteenthcenturytheJacob’sstafftomeasureheightsanddistances.

Ch’inChiu-shaoinhisbook

Shu-ShuChiu-Changof124720(includedintheYongleDadian)usedknowledgeofChinesemathematicsandChinesesurveyinginstrumentstocalculatetheareasofricefields,thevolumeofwaterrequiredtofloodthosefields,andhencethesizeandflowrateofdykesthatwouldberequired.Hegavedifferentmethodsofbuildingcanals

andthestrengthoflockgatesthatwouldbeneeded.

OnecouldcarryoutasimilarexerciseformilitarymachinesavailabletoZhengHeandhowthesehadbeendevelopedoverthecenturies.TheYongleDadianincludeddetailsonhowtobuildmortars,bazookas,cannons,rocket-propelledmissiles,flamethrowers,andallmannerofgunpowderbombs.

ThisvastencyclopediawasamassivecollectiveendeavortobringtogetherinoneplaceChineseknowledgegainedineveryfieldoverthousandsofyears.ZhengHehadtheimmensegoodfortunetosetsailwithpricelessintellectualknowledgeineverysphereofhumanactivity.Hecommandedamagnificentfleet—magnificentnotonlyinmilitaryandnavalcapabilitiesbutinitscargo—

intellectualgoodsofgreatvalueandsophistication.Thefleetwastherepositoryofhalftheworld’sknowledge.

Healsohadwell-educatedofficerswhothroughinterpreterscouldspeaktotheleadersofforeigncountriesinseventeendifferentlanguagesincludingArabic,Persian,Hindi,Tamil,Swahili,andLatin.21ZhengHe’sfleetresembledafloating

universityandprobablyhadmoreintellectualknowledgeinitslibrarythananyuniversityintheworldatthattime.

3

THEFLEETSAREPREPAREDFORTHEVOYAGETOTHEBARBARIANS

Inorderforthebarbarianstofollowthewayofheaven,

theywouldfirstneedtofindtheirwaytothewellspringofConfucianvirtue,theMiddleKingdom.Suchajourneywouldrequirebothmapsandtheabilitytoestablishpositionatsea.Thustheprovisionofaccuratechartsandaviablesystemofnavigationwasofparamountimportance—notonlytofacilitatethesafepassageofZhengHeandhisfleetsbutalsotoencouragethe

barbarianstoreturntributetothenewemperor.

ZhuDiandhisfather,HongWu,hadencouragedthedevelopmentofeveryaspectofnavigation.AhandbooktitledNotebookonSeaBottomCurrents,foundinQuanzhou,statesthat,afterannouncingtheascensionoftheYongleemperor(ZhuDi)tothethrone,ZhengHeandhisadmiralswereinstructed

tosearchfornavigationcharts,collectingalltheinformationaboutcurrents,islands,mountains,straits,andthepositionsofstars.Theyusedthisdatatorevisetheirnavigationcharts,includingcompasspointsandthecross-referencesofstars.

TheChinesecultivatedArabnavigatorsandastronomers,especiallyduringtheYuandynasty(1279–1368).

AccordingtoGongZhen,in1403,twoyearsbeforethefirstformalexpedition,ZhengHe,JangMin,andLiQiweresentbyZhuDitovisitcountriesofthewesternoceans.Theirmissionincludedrecruitingforeignnavigatorscapableofdeep-seanavigation.Forthisandmuchotherinformationinchapters35,and6,IamindebtedtoTaiPengWang’s

research.1

ThewriterYanCongjianstatedinShuyuZhouziLu(Compiledinformationabouttheremotestforeigncountries):

InthefirstyearofthereignoftheEmperorHongWuoftheMingdynasty(1368)theEmperorconvertedtheBureauofHistoryintotheBureauofAstronomy.He

alsoestablishedtheBureauoftheChineseIslamicAstronomy.Inthesecondyear(1369)theHongWuEmperorsummonedelevenChineseMuslimsincludingZhengAhLi,theChineseMuslimAstronomicalOfficer,tothecapital,Nanjing,“onamissiontoimproveontheIslamiccalendarsandtoobservetheastronomical-phenomena.Theywereeachconferred

uponwithgiftsandofficialtitlesaccordingly.

In1382theemperorsummonedagroupofscholars,includingtheIslamicobservatoryofficialHaiDaErandamasterofIslamnamedMaSaYiHei,tochoosethebestastronomybooksamongseveralhundredvolumesofXiyuShu(Booksfromthewesternregions)attheYuancourtinBeijing.

Thenextyear,aChinesetranslationoftheselectedbooks,TianWenShu(Worksofastronomy),waspublished.

AccordingtotheMingtranslatorMaHa,theTianWenShuwasoriginallywrittenbyAbuHassanKoshiya(A.D.971–1029),aYuanmathematicianwhoplayedadominantroleinthedevelopmentofsphericaltrigonometry.MaHapraises

Koshiyaas“oneofthegreatestscholarsofalltimeswhoexplainedtheultimatetheoriesofastronomyinallitsgreatprofundityandsimplicity.”

TheTianWenShuexplainedtheIslamicconceptsoflongitudeandlatitude.SoitisclearthatearlyChineseconceptsoflatitude,longitude,andaroundearthgobackatleastto

thisMingtranslationofIslamicgeographybooks.Inabout1270theArabastrologistJamalad-Dinhadmadeaterrestrialglobeoftheearththatcorrectlydepictedtheproportionsofland(30percent)andsea(70percent).HegavetheglobetoGuoShoujing,aswillbedescribedinlaterchapters.

ArelianceonIslamicnavigatorscontinuedin

ZhengHe’sera.ZhengHehimselfwasaMuslim,andgiventheadvancedstateofnavigationandastronomyintheIslamicworld,it’snowonderherecruitedotherMuslimstohisfleets.AccordingtoChenShuiyuan,aTaiwanesehistorian,manywerelocatedinQuanzhou,oneofthemostcosmopolitancitiesintheworldandhometospecialgraveyardsreservedforMuslimsailors.ZhengHe

andhisteamalsosearchedtheprovincesofFujian,Guangdong,andZhejiangforsuperiornavigators.

ForeignnavigatorsandastronomerswhovoyagedonChineseshipsweregivenChinesenames,suchasWangGui,WuZheng,andMaZheng.Whentheyreturnedafterasuccessfulmission,theywererewarded.In1407,forexample,foreigners

returningtoQuanzhoureceivednotesequivalenttofiftytaelesofsilveraswellasrollsofembroideredsilk.In1430,whenaforeignMuslimnamedShebanreturnedfromthefinalexpedition,theXuanDeEmperorpromotedhimtodeputybattalioncommander.

Inapapertitled“InstrumentsandObservationattheImperialAstronomicalBureauDuringtheMing

Dynasty,”ProfessorThatcherE.Deanestates:

Aswiththedevelopmentofthecalendricsystems…weremostevidentatthebeginningofadynasty,lesssoatthebeginningofanindividualemperor’sreign,andalmostneveratanyothertimewhensuchexpenditureswerenotdirectinvestmentsinlegitimisingstateandruler.HongWuhadanurgentneed

toimprovethecalendricalsystembecausehewasthefirstofthedynasty;ZhuDiwasaccusedofusurpingthethronesohealsohadaverystrongneed.

GiftsforForeignRulers

ThisobsessivefocusonimprovingnavigationaltechniquesenabledZhengHe’sfleetstoreachforeigncountries,where,after

presentingtheircredentials,theChineseambassadorswouldsupplymapsandastronomicaltablestotherulers.ThegiftofknowledgewasintendedtomakeitpossibleforthemtoreturntributetotheMiddleKingdom.

WeknowfromrecentexcavationsattheJingdezhenkilns(wherethebulkoftheceramicscarriedinZheng

He’sfleetswerefired)andfromexcavationsinCairobesidetheRedSeaCanal,aswellasfromcollectionsinEurope,thatChinesedelegationsofferedpersonalgiftstoforeignleaders.CeramiccopiesofMamlukcandlesticksweregiventotheMamluksultans,alongwithblueandwhiteflasks,ewers,porcelaincups,andpenboxes.Aewercoverdecoratedwithanarmillary

sphereincobaltwasfiredforthekingofPortugal,aswereceramictilesforOttomansultans.

Giftsformoreordinaryfolkmadethejourneyaswell.Playingcards,chess,andmah-jonggsetsweregiventomerchants.Children’swhirligigtoys,kites,andhot-airballoonsweredispensed.

Thesaddestcargoofthe

greatfleetswerewomen.Traditionally,foreignrulerswereeachpresentedwithonehundredslavegirls.Whenthefleetsreturned,theXuanDeemperorobserved:“Tenthousandcountriesareourguests.”Thenumberofconcubinesandslavegirlsembarkedmusthavebeenstaggering.Inasubsequentchapter,we’llshowhow,aftertheChinesesquadronreachedVenice,femaleslaves

andtheiroffspringmadeasignificantimpactonthedomesticlifeandpopulationofVenice,Florence,andTuscany.

Finally,awordaboutthemostvaluablepartofthefleet—thesailors.

Liketheirmoderncounterparts,theirmostprizedpossessionsweremementoesoftheirloved

onesathome—drawings,locksofawife’sorchildren’shair,littlepresents,perhapsapetdog,atubofroses,oratame,flightlessbirdorpetduck.Chinesesailorswereavidgamblers;playingcardsanddicewerepartofeverydaylife,aswasmah-jongg.

Liketoday’ssailors,theywouldhavebeenkeentobetterthemselves.Asthe

voyageprogressedandboredomsetin,theywouldhaveputasidenovelsforprogressivelymoreseriousreading.ByZhengHe’sera,printedpopularbookswerewidelyavailableandallkindsofpocketencyclopediasweresold.Referencebooks(jihyungleishu)withillustrationsanddescriptionscoveredallmannerofpracticalsubjects:agriculture;saltandsugarmanufacture;

collectingceramicsandbronzes;shipandcartmaking;coalandfueluse;papermakingandprinting;weldingtechnology;alcoholfermentation;pearlandjadecollecting.

TheNungShu,apopularencyclopediafirstpublishedin1313,provideddescriptionsandillustrationsofagriculturalmachinery,includingtiltandtrip

hammers;rotarygrindingmills;winnowingfans;bellowspoweredbypistonrods,connectingrods,andhorizontalwaterwheels;flour-siftingmachinerydrawnbyawaterwheel;verticalwaterwheelsfordrivingtextilemachinery;windersorwindlasseswithcranksforcranes,wells,andmineshafts;saltmills;pearl-divingapparatus;scoopwheels;palletchainpumpsdrivenby

animals;chainpumpspoweredbyhorizontalwaterwheels;chainpumpsoperatedsolelybythecurrent;rotarygrindingmillsoperatedbyhorizontalwindmills;double-edgedrunnermillsoperatedbyhorizontalwaterwheels;rollermills;cottongins;andmillsforgrindingriceorcorn.(Seeexamplesonpagesinlaterchapters.)

Doubtlessthesedescriptions

ofhowtomakeawidevarietyofusefulfarmmachinerywouldhavehadvaluetofarmersinothercountries.OncetheChinesesailorswereashore,theycouldhavesupplementedtheirwagesbysellingthesebooks,justassailorsinmytimewouldsellcigaretterationstothelocalsorgivetheirrumtotstoprettygirls.

Anotherpocket

encyclopedia,theWu-chingTsung-yao,acollectionofthemostimportantmilitarytechniques,gavedetailedaccountsoftheconstructionandfunctionsofavastarrayofmilitarymachines.HereisProfessorJosephNeedham’stranslationofthetextnexttoaneleventh-centurydescriptionofhowtomakeaflamethrower:

Ontherightisthenaphtha

flamethrower(fangmenghuoyu).Thetankismadeofbrassandsupportedonfourlegs.Fromitsuppersurfacearisefourverticaltubesattachedtoahorizontalcylinderabove.Theyareallconnectedwiththetank.Theheadandtailofthecylinderarelarge,(themiddle)ofnarrowdiameter.Inthetailisasmallopeningthesizeofamilletgrain.Theheadendhastworoundopenings.

Thedescriptioncontinuesforanothersixlinesbeforeinstructionsaregivenforloadingthemachine:

Beforeusethetankisfilledwithrathermorethanthreecattiesoftheoilwithaspoonthroughafilter(shalo).Atthesametimegunpowder(huoyao)isplacedintheignitionchamberatthehead.Whenthefireistobestartedoneappliesaheated

branding-iron(totheignitionchamber)andthepistonrodisforcedfullyintothecylinder.2

Subsequentinstructionsdescribehowtocopewithmisfiringorbreakdown.

Thereareequallydetaileddescriptionsofothermilitaryhardwareinthisremarkablebook.Themostformidableweapondescribedisawater-

wheeledbattleshipdatingfromtheSongdynasty(A.D.960–1279).Itdetailsatwenty-two-wheeledshipcommandedbyrebelsandanevenbiggeroneownedbythegovernment.“AgainstthepaddlewheelfightingshipofYangYao,thegovernmentforceusedlivebombsthrownfromtrebuchetcatapults.Forthesetheyusedpotterycontainerswithverythinwalls,withinwhichwere

placedpoisonousdrugs,limeandfragmentsofscrapiron.Whenthesewerehurledontotherebelshipsduringengagements,thelimefilledtheairlikesmokeorfogsothatsailorscouldnotopentheireyes.”3

Whatisextraordinaryisthatthismilitaryinformationseemstohavebeenunclassified—itcouldhavebeenacquiredbyanyone.It

musthavebeenofconsiderablevaluetorealmsthatlackedsophisticatedgunpowderweaponsinthe1430s,includingVeniceandFlorence.PerhapsChineseofficerssupplementedtheirincomesbysellingthesemilitarypocketencyclopedias.

WecanbeconfidentthatZhengHe’sfleetshadeveryweaponthenknowntothe

Chinese:sea-skimmingrockets,machineguns,mines,mortars,bombardsforuseagainstshorebatteries,cannons,flame-throwers,grenades,andmuchmore.Hisfleetswerepowerfullyarmedandwellsuppliedbywatertankersandgrainandhorseships,whichenabledthemtostayatseaformonthsonend.Inaddition,theshipswererepositoriesofgreatwealth—bothmaterialand

intellectual.

Ofequalimportancewerethecalendarscarriedbythefleets.GiventheordertoinformdistantlandsofthecommencementofthenewreignofXuanDe,anerawhen“everythingshouldbeginanew,”acalendarwasessentialtoZhengHe’smission.

Today,calendarsarelittle

morethanholidaypresents—PirelliTirecalendars,featuringbeautifulwomen,gardeningcalendarsawashwithcolor,othersthatremindusofbankholidays,whentocelebrateEasterandfileourtaxreturns.Inthe1430s,Europeanshadnounifiedcalendar,fortheyhadnotyetagreedhowtomeasuretime.TheGregoriancalendardidnotcomeintouseuntilacenturylater.ToIslamic

people,however,aunifiedcalendarwasessential.TheMuslimcalendarwasbasedonlunarmonthsratherthanthesolaryear.Eachmonthhadadifferentpurpose,suchasthemonthtomakethehajj,thepilgrimagetoMecca,whichbeganonthefirstdayofthenewmoon.TheMuslimcalendaralsoprovidedthetimesofthefivedailyprayers.

ThecalendarwaslikewiseofgreatpoliticalandeconomicimportancetotheChinese,whoforthousandsofyearshadledtheworldincalendarmaking.InAncientChineseInventions,DengYinkedescribestheirmeticulousapproach.

In1276KublaiKhan,thefirstemperoroftheYuandynasty,assignedthetaskofcompilinganewcalendarto

astronomerGuoShouJingsothathisnewempirewouldhaveaunifiedcalendarfromnorthtosouthandtheerrorsinpreviouscalendarscouldbecorrected.Guowasascientistwithanexceptionaltalentanddedication.Ontakingoverthetask,Guosaid“agoodcalendarmustbebasedonobservationsandobservationsdependupongooddevices.”HewentontoexaminetheHunYi

(armillarysphere),theonlyinstrumentintheobservatoryofthecapitalDadu(Beijing),andfoundthattheNorthStarofitwassetat35°whichwasatthelatitudeofKaifengwheretheHunYiwasmade.ThismeantthattheinstrumenthadnotbeenadjustedwhenitwastransportedtoDadufromKaifeng….Guothusmadeitaprioritytodevelopnewdevices.Withinthreeyearsof

strenuouseffortsheworkedouttwelveastronomicaldeviceswhichwerefarbetterinfunctionandaccuracythanpreviousones.HealsomadeanumberofportableinstrumentsforuseinfieldstudiesoutsideDadu.

Aspartofthecalendarproject,Guopresidedoveranationwideprogrammeofastronomicalobservations.Heselectedtwenty-seven

sitesforastronomicalobservationthroughoutthecountry,whichcoveredawideareafromlatitude15°Nto65°Nandlongitude128°Etolongitude102°E.Theitemsofobservationincludedthelengthoftheshadowofthegnomon,theangleoftheNorthStarfromthegroundsurface,andthebeginningtimesofdayandnightonthevernalequinoxandtheautumnalequinox….Guo

alsoexaminednearlyninehundredyearsofastronomicalrecordsfrom462to1278andselectedsixfiguresfromtherecordsforcalculatingthedurationofthetropicalyear.Guo’sresultwas365.2425days,whichwasthesameasthatoftheGregoriancalendar,thecalendarnowwidelyusedacrosstheworld….

GuoShouJingandtheother

astronomersworkedforfouryearsandcompletedthecalendarin1280.Theymadenumerouscalculationsconvertingthedataoftheeclipticcoordinateandtheequatorialcoordinatesystems,andusedtwiceinterpolationstosolvethevariationsinthespeedofthesun’smovement,whichaffectedtheaccuracyofthecalendar.Thecalendarwasunprecedentedinaccuracy.It

adoptedthewintersolsticeoftheyear1280,theninthyearoftheYuandynasty,astheepoch,thepointofreferenceforthecalendar,andestablishedthedurationofatropicalyearof365.2425daysandthatofalunarmonth29.530593days.Theerrorbetweenthedurationofitstropicalyearandthatoftherevolutionoftheeartharoundthesunwasonly26seconds.Thecalendarwas

namedtheShoushi,meaning“measuringtimeforthepublic.”

Issuingcalendarswastheprerogativeoftheemperoralone.Accuracywasnecessarytoenableastronomerstopredicteclipsesandcomets—asignthattheemperorenjoyedheaven’smandate.Ifpredictionsprovedincorrect,theastronomerresponsible

wasseverelypunished,oftenwithdeath.

TheShoushicalendarproducedbyGuoShoujingwasofficiallyadoptedbytheMingBureauofAstronomyin1384.ThisisthecalendarthatZhuDiandtheXuanDeemperorwouldhaveorderedZhengHetopresenttoforeignheadsofstate(discussedindetailinlaterchapters).

TheShoushicalendarcanbeviewedintheYuanshi-lu,theofficialhistoryoftheYuandynasty.However,copiesalsocameintothepossessionofEuropeans,notablythediaristSamuelPepysandthefamousscientistsRobertBoyleandRobertHooke.TheJapaneseandKoreansalsocopiedthecalendar,andtranslationsfromthoselanguagescanbeviewedonourwebsite.

ThecalendarcontainedthelengthofasolardayatthelatitudeofBeijing.Thisisthedurationfromthetimewhenthesunisatitsmaximumheight(altitude)intheskyfromonedaytothenext.Wetendtothinkofthisastwenty-fourhours.Itisnot.Theearthrotatesarounditsownaxiseverytwenty-threehoursandfifty-sixminuteswhilealsotravelingroundthesun.Thecombinationofthe

twomovementsmeansthattheearth’spositionrelativetothesun,comparedwithitspositionrelativetothestars,variesbyaboutfourminuteseachday.Moreover,theearth’strajectoryaroundthesunisnotacirclebutanellipse.Thesunisnotatthecenterofthisellipse,sothatastheearthnearsthesunitaccelerates.Astheearthrecedesfromthesun,onthelongerlegoftheellipse,it

decelerates.Itsrotationalsospeedsupapproachingthesunandslowsdownrecedingfromthesun.

Thus,thelengthofthesolardayvariesthroughouttheyear.Thedifferenceofthislengthiscalledtheequationoftimeofthesun.Topredictthelengthoftheyearat365.2425days,whichisaccuratetowithintensecondsayear,GuoShoujinghadto

takeintoaccountfourofthesemovements.Inordertoaccomplishthat,hemusthaveknownhowthesolarsystemworked,includingthefactsthattheearthtravelsaroundthesuninanellipseandisnotatthecenteroftheuniverseandthattheearthisattractedtothesun’smuchbiggermass.

Adiagramshowinghowtheearthtravelsinanellipse

aroundthesun.

GuoShoujing’scalculationsforthelunarmonthof

29.530593dayswereevenmoreimpressive,requiringamorecomplextrigonometry.Themoontravelsaroundtheearthastheearthismovinginanellipsearoundthesun.Thismeansthatastheearthapproachesthesun,themoon’sattractiontothesun’smassincreases,sothespeedatwhichthemoontravelsaroundtheearthaccelerates.Then,astheearthrecedesfromthesunonitselliptical

path,themoondecelerates.Hence,tomakehisextraordinarilyaccuratecalculations,Guohadtobeawarenotonlythattheearthtravelsaroundthesuninanellipsebutalsothatthemooncirclestheearth.Hehadtohaveunderstoodsphericaltrigonometryandtohaveemployedcalculusandhavehadanaccurateideaoftherespectivemassesofearth,sun,andmoon.

However,therearefurtherramificationstoGuoShoujing’sachievements.Theearth’strajectoryaroundthesunisnotconstant:itchangesovertheyears.Guoknewofthesechanges,whichhehadgatheredfromChineseobservationsstretchingbackeighthundredyears.ThegreatFrenchastronomerPierre-SimonLaplacecreditedGuoShoujingwithknowledgeofwhatLaplace

calledthe“diminutionoftheecliptic”—essentially,thefactthattheearth’seclipticpatharoundthesunhadgrownflatteroverthecenturies.

EvenfurtherrefinementsweretakenintoaccountbyGuoShoujing.Theearthisnotaperfectspherebutanoblatespheroidwithflattenedpoles.Itscenterofgravityissomewhatbelowthecenterofitsvolume.Thismeansthe

earthhasaslightwobble,whichcanbededucedbytheapparentpositionofthestars—inparticularbyPolaris,thePoleStar,whichapparentlymovesovera26,000-yearperiod.ThismovementhadbeencompensatedforbytheChinesebeforeGuoShoujing’sera.TemplateshadbeenmadetoadjustfortheapparentmovementofPolaris.

Finally,GuoShoujingknewoftheplanets’orbitsaroundthesun,andevenofJupiter’srotationanditscirclingmoons.TheAmericanwriterRosaMuiandcolleaguesPaulDongandZhouXinYanhavekindlyinformedmeoftheworkofProfessorXiZezong,aChineseastronomerbasedinBeijing,whohasfoundthatJupiter’ssatellitesormoonswerefirstdiscoveredtwothousand

yearsbeforeGalileobytheChineseastronomerGanDe.

SinceA.D.85,Chineseastronomershavemadeaccurateobservationsoftheperiodofplanetaryrevolutionsaroundthesun(synodicintervals).Theyarecorrecttowithinafewhours—Mercury115days,Venus584days,Mars779days,Jupiter398days,Saturn378days.(Inlaterchapters,we

provideevidencethatCopernicus,Galileo,Kepler,Hooke,andNewtonwereawareoftheChineseastronomers’work.)

Intheirpublishedpaperentitled“Calendars,Interpolation,GnomonsandArmillarySpheresintheWorksofGuoShoujing(1231–1314),”NgSayTiongandProfessorHelmerAslaksenoftheDepartment

ofMathematics,NationalUniversityofSingapore,notethattheinconsistentmotionsofthemoonandsunwerediscoveredintheEasternHanperiod(A.D.25–200),andduringtheNorthandSouthdynasty(A.D.386–589),respectively.ThemethodofinterpolationemployedbyA.D.554–610wastheequalintervalseconddifferencemethod.(Pleaserefertoour1434websiteforfurther

explanation.)GuoShoujingimprovedonthisbyusingathirddifferencemethodofinterpolation,whichenabledhimtodeterminetheequationoftimeofthesunandmoonandhencetopredicttheirpositions.GuoShoujinghaddevelopedtheforwarddistancemethodofinterpolationsubsequentlyfurtherdevelopedbyNewtonintocalculus.

TheShoushicalendar,whichZhengHe’sfleetspresentedtoheadsofstate,baseduponGuoShoujing’spioneeringwork,containedamassofastronomicaldatarunningtothousandsofobservations.Itenabledcometsandeclipsestobepredictedforyearsahead,aswellastimesofsunriseandsunset,moonriseandmoonset.Thepositionsofthesunandmoonrelativetothe

starsandtoeachotherwereincluded,aswerethepositionsoftheplanetsrelativetothestars,sun,andmoon.Adjustmentsenabledsunriseandsunset,andmoonriseandmoonset,tobecalculatedfordifferentplacesonearthforeverydayoftheyear.Asdescribedindetailinchapter4,thecalendarenabledlongitudetobecalculatedbyusingtheslipbetweensolarandsidereal

time,byeclipsesofthemoon,orbytheangulardistancebetweenthemoonandselectedstarsorplanets.Pleaserefertothe1434websiteandtotheendnotesforfurtherexplanation.

TaiPengWanghasfoundthespecificstarsbywhichZhengHe’sfleetnavigated.Wecansettheseuponthe“StarryNight”computerprogramforthedateswhen

ZhengHe’sfleetwastransitingtheIndianOceanenroutefortheMalabarCoastofIndiaandCairo.WecanalsocomparethesestarswiththoseincludedinZhengHe’snavigationaltablesandthealmanacfortheyear1408,nowinthePepysLibraryatCambridge.(The1408tablescontainsimilarastronomicalinformationasthatcontainedintheShoushicalendar.)

ThusZhengHewasabletoprovideEuropeanswithmaps,navigationaltools,andanastronomicalcalendarbeyondanythingtheyhadyetbeenabletoproduceontheirown.Suppliedwiththisrevolutionaryknowledge,thebarbarianswouldbeabletomaketheirwaytotheMiddleKingdom,appropriately“withdeference.”

4

ZHENGHE’SNAVIGATORS’

CALCULATIONOFLATITUDEANDLONGITUDE

Therearenosignpostsinthe

openocean.Theonlywayanavigatorcandeterminehispositionisbyusingthestars,planets,sun,andmoon.

Asafirststep,anavigatormusthaveasystemofprovidingmarkersacrosstheoceans.Thissystemofmarkers,adoptedbyallseafaringcivilizationsformillennia,islatitudeandlongitude.Itinvolvesdrawingimaginaryhorizontaland

verticallinesovertheglobe.Horizontallinesarecalledlatitudelines,andtheverticalarelongitudelines.

Latitudelinesareparallelwiththeequator;eachlongitudelinepassesthroughboththeNorthandSouthPoles.Soanavigator’sprecisepositioncanbefixedontheglobeusingacommonsystem.

Inordertohaveproducedanaccuratemapoftheworldby1418,theChinesefleetsmusthavehadsuchasystemtodeterminetheirpositionsatsea.Withoutanaccuratesystem,captainscouldnothaveknownthetruelocationsofnewlydiscoveredlands,andanymapderivedfromtheirdisparatecalculationswouldhavebeenanincoherentmess.

UnliketheEuropeans,whofollowedBabylonianastronomerswith360degreesoflongitude,theChineseemployed3651/4degrees.TheChineseusedlatitudedegreesbelowPolaris(at90°elevation).TheEuropeansusedlatitudeabovetheequator(Polaris0°elevation).Theresultsarethesameforbothsystems.

Diagramsshowingthelinesoflatitudeandlongitude

aroundaglobe.

Afterestablishingacommonsystemfortheearth,theChinesenexthadto

establishacommonmapoftheheavens.Eachnavigatorwouldhavehadtousethesamenameforthesamestaraswellasthesamestarmapfromwhichlongitudewouldhavebeendetermined.

HowtheChineseFixedtheStars’PositionsintheSky

Inthethirteenthcentury,theastronomerGuoShoujingfixedthepositionsofkey

starsrelativetoPolaris(thePoleStar).Polarisappearsonanextensionoftheearth’saxis,billionsofmilesawayabovetheNorthPole.Becauseoftheearth’srotation,theheavensappeartorotatearoundPolaris.Thefarthernorthonegoes,themoreoftheheavensonecansee.

DiagramshowingthepositionsofshipsAandBonaglobe.ShipAisat20°N20°W,ShipBisat0°N20°

E.

ShipsAandBdiscovering

newlandsatpointCwillhavethesamepositionforthe

newland:10°N0°E.

In1964IwasnavigatorofHMSNarwhal,asubmarineoperatingunderthepolaricecap.Nowandthenwewouldfindclear-water“lakes,”calledpolynyas,wherewewouldsurfaceinordertofixourpositionbythestars.Theheavensappearedlikeavastglobeaboveus.Aswe

approachedtheNorthPole,weseemedtobeinsideabowllookingatahemisphereofstarsspreadinginanarcdowntothehorizonallaroundus.

AttheNorthPole,theChinesecouldfixthepositionofeverystarintheNorthernHemisphererelativetoPolaris.Thestarsaresofarawaythattoanobserveronearththeyneverchangetheir

positionsrelativetooneanother.

TheChinesedividedtheskyintotwenty-eightsegmentsormansions.Pictureanorangewithitsskinsliced;thecutsstartwheretheorangewasfixedtoitstreeandcontinueverticallydownward.Theycalledeachmansionahsiu.Theyfixedthepositionofstarsatthetopofeachofthetwenty-eightmansions

relativetothePoleStar(ABC).

TheChinesefixedthepositionofstarsatthetopofeachofthe28lunarmansions

relativetothePoleStar.

Thentheyfixedstarsinthelowerpart(DEF)ofeachsegmentrelativetothoseintheupperpart(ABC).Becausestarsneverchangetheirpositionrelativetooneanother,eveniftheChinesewerenotneartheNorthPoleandhencecouldnotseethestarsinthelowerpartofeachsegment(becausethesestarswerebelowthehorizon),theyalwaysknewthestars’positions.Sotheycould

producestarmaps.

TheynotedtheverticalpositionsofeachstarbelowPolaris(nonecanbeabovePolaris)andthehorizontalpositionofeachhsiurelativetoNanjing(longitude).TheChinesecalledtheverticalheightofeachstarbelowPolaris“declination”anditspositionaroundtheequatorfromNanjing“rightascension.”Soforthestarsin

thesky,theChinesehadthesamesystemofmeasurementtheyusedtodeterminelatitudeandlongitude.Thissystemwascalledtheequatorialsystem—vastlysimplerthantheequinoctialsystem,usedinmedievaltimesbeforeGuoShoujing,whichreliedontheeclipticorthehorizon.After1434,EuropeansadoptedtheChinesesystem,whichremainsinusetoday.

Next,theChineseneededpreciseinstrumentstomeasureeachstar’sposition.GuoShoujingprovidedthetools.AsightingtubewasfirstpositionedbypointingitatPolarisatpreciselytheangleoftheobserver’slatitude—thatis,iftheobserverwasattheNorthPole,thesightingtubewouldbeat90°elevation.Onthisdiagram,theinstrumentisalignedtoPolarisat39°49'N,

thelatitudeofBeijing.Oncepositioned,theinstrumentwasbolteddown—becauseiftheanglechangedfromthelatitudeoftheobserver,itbecameuseless.

Theobserverthenselectedastar,lookingatitthroughanothertubeattachedtoacirclemarkedindegrees.ThemovementofthetubealongthecirclegavethenumberofdegreesbelowPolarisofthe

selectedstar(thearcy-z),whichisthestar’sdeclination.

Thehorizontalangle,theanglefromNanjing,wasfoundbyrotatingtheringaroundtheequatorialcircle,whichgavethehorizontalangleofthestarfromNanjing(itsrightascension).Thepositionofthestarthenwasenteredinthestartables.TheChineseentered1,461starsin

theirtables,aprocessthatrequiredmanyastronomersandhundredsofyears.

Tableswereprintedand,alongwithastarmap,giventoeachnavigator.Thusallnavigatorspossessedacommonsystemoflatitudeandlongitudetofixtheirpositionsontheglobe,andanidenticalmapoftheheavens,whichenabledthemtorecognizeeachstar.

Atorquetumbasedontheequatorialsystem,asusedbyZhengHe’snavigatorsandpioneeredbyGuoShoujing.

HowtheStarTables

AllowedLongitudetoBeCalculated

Forthefollowingdescription,IamindebtedtoProfessorRobertCribbs,whohastestedthemethoddescribedtoproveitsefficacy.ThismethodallowslongitudetobedeterminedonanycleardaywithoutwaitingforalunareclipseandwithoutsendingmessagesbacktotheobserverinBeijing.Itisa

muchmoreadvancedmethodthanthatdescribedinmybook1421(thatmethod,kindlyexplainedtomebyProfessorJohnOliverandMarshallPayn,isdependentoneclipsesofthemoon,whichdonothappenallthatfrequently).

ProfessorCribbs’smethodisbasedonthefactthattheearthnotonlyrotatesonitsownaxiseverytwenty-three

hoursandfifty-sixminutesbutalsotravelsinanellipsearoundthesun—somethingGuoShoujinghadworkedoutbackin1280.Thecombinationofthesetwomovementsmeansthereisaslipoffourminuteseachdaybetweenthetimewhentheearthisinthesamepositionrelativetothesun(solartime,twenty-fourhours)andthetimewhentheearthisinthesamepositionrelativetothe

stars(siderealtime,twenty-threehoursandfifty-sixminutes).Thisslipbetweensiderealtimeandsolartimeamountstoonedayevery1,461days,orfouryears.Theeffectisthateverymidnight,twelvehoursafterthesunhashititshighestpointinthesky,adifferentstarwillbeinlinewithPolaristhanthedaybefore.

ThisisatypicalstarmapasusedbyZhengHeandhis

navigators.

AstronomersinNanjingobservedthenightskyfor

everydayofthe1,461-daycycleandnotedthestarinlinewithPolarisatpreciselymidnight.Theyproducedatableof1,461days,whichwasdispensedtonavigators.The1408astronomicalcalendarcovers366daysofthatcycle.Acopyofapageofthe1408astronomicaltablesisreproducedlaterinthecolorinsertofthisbook.

Withthetablesinhand,a

navigatorin,say,theIndianOceanmustknowonlywhichdayofthecycleitis,whichhecalculatesbythenumberofsunsetsthathaveoccurredsinceheleftNanjing.IfheleftNanjingonday61ofthecycleandhasnotedeightysunsets,thenitisday141.Onthetables,hecanseethatAldebaranisinlinewithPolarisonday141(totheNanjingobserver).

However,intheIndianOceanheobservesanother,unrecognizedstarinlinewithPolaris.HeconsultshisstarmapandconfirmsfromthetablesthatitisBetelgeuse.Hecannowmakeoneoftwocalculations:hecannotethedifferenceinrightascensionbetweenAldebaranandBetelgeuse,whichwillequalthedifferenceinlongitudebetweentheobserverinBeijingandhimself;orhecan

notethetimeittakesforAldebarantocomeintolinewithPolaris.Ifthisis,say,sixhours(onequarteroftwenty-fourhours),thenhislongitudedifferencefromBeijingis90degrees(onequarterof360°).

Forthecalculationtobeaccurate,boththeobserverinNanjingandthenavigatorintheIndianOceanmustbelookingduenorthatPolaris.

Iftheywishtousethesecondmethodtocalculatelongitude,bothmusthavepreciselythesamemidnight.Theydothisasfollows:Firsttheyuseaverticalsticktomeasurethesun’sshadow.Whentheshadowisshortest,thesunisatitsmaximumheightatmiddayandisduesouth.Bothobserversbuildatrenchrunningduenorth-south,atrenchthatcanbefloodedtoseethereflection

ofPolarisatnightandemptiedofwatertomeasurethesun’sshadowatmidday.

Thesun’sshadowwhenatitsshortestcanbemeasuredonthetrench.Togettheprecisesecond,theshadowissharpenedbyemployingapinholecameraatopapolecalledagnomon(describedonthewebsite).Byusingidenticalgnomonsandastandardizedpinholecamera,

theobserversinNanjingandtheIndianOceancaneachdeterminethesameduesouth/northandthesameinstantwhenthesunisatitshighest—thatis,midday.Ourexperimentsdescribedonthe1434websitehaveshownthattheycancalculatethistowithintwoseconds.Theycannowuseastandardizedclocktocalculatemidnight,twelvehoursaftermidday.The1434websiteexplainshowthis

Chineseclockworkedandhow,inZheng’sera,refinementswerebuilttocompensatefordifferenttemperaturesandairpressures,whichwouldotherwisehaveaffectedthenumberofdripscomingoutoftheclock.Thustimewasaccuratetowithintwoseconds.

Usingthewaterclock,theobserverinNanjingandthe

observerintheIndianOceanestablishthesamemidnight.Aftersunsetthetrenchisfloodedandtwopolesareplacedoneithersideofthetrench;alineissuspendedhorizontallybetweenthepoles.AnotherlineishungverticallysotheobservercanseethereflectionoftheverticalstringinthewaterofthetrenchinlinewithPolaris.Attheinstantofmidnight,thenavigatorintheIndianOcean

looksatthestarinlinewithPolarisreflectedinthewater,whichisinlinewiththestring.(Inourexample,onday141thisstarisBetelgeuse.)Histablesforday141saythatinNanjingthestarisAldebaran.Fromthat,hecandeterminehislongitude.AccordingtoRobertCribbs,themethodisaccuratetowithintwoseconds,whichamountstoamaximumerrorofthree

degreesinlongitude,negligibleformappingtheworld.

Thismethodrequiresthenavigatortobeonland.However,ProfessorCribbshasalsodevelopedamethodofdetermininglongitudeatseabyusingtheequationoftimeofthemoonandtheangulardistancebetweenthemoonandaselectedstar.Todeploythismethod(see1434

website)somecalculusisrequiredtoestablishthefuturepositionofthemoonforthe1,461-daycycle.By1280,GuoShoujinghadestablishedasystemverysimilartocalculus.Theresultsappearedinhistablesandcalendar,whichwereadoptedbytheMingin1384.Consequently,theywereavailabletoZhengHe’sfleets,asweretablesofdeclinationofthesun.

ThankstoTaiPengWang,whobroughtthemattertomyattention,andtotheworkofXiFeilong,YangXi,andTangXiren,whohaverecentlydiscoveredthestarmapsofZhengHe’svoyages,weknowwhichstarsZhengHe’sfleetactuallyusedtodeterminelatitudeandlongitudeontheirpassagetoIndia.Theysailedwiththemonsoonwinds,startingacrosstheIndianOceanfrom

thenorthwesttipofSumatraatPulauRondo,nowcalledBandaAtjeh,onOctober10,1432,determininglatitudeandlongitudeasfollows:“Gaugingtheverticalpositionsofthegivenstarsabovethehorizonintheeast,west,northandsouth,theyreachedSriLanka.”UsingVega,Sagittarius,Gemini,andPoseidon,theyarrivedatCalicut(11°N,76°E)onDecember10.SeetheTPW

paper“ZhengHe’sdelegationtothePapalCourtatFlorence”onthe1434website.

Finally,howaccuratewereZhengHe’snavigators?Twoanswersproducethesameresult:theirmeasurementofdeclinationat22°23'30''(correcttowithintwomiles)andtheaccuracyoftheeye,whichcanbejudgedtowithinaquarterofadegree—thefull

moonappearslargebutitsdiameterisunderhalfadegree(thirtymiles).

ItismysubmissionthatZhengHe’snavigatorswereabletocalculatelatitudetowithinhalfadegree,orthirtymiles,andlongitudetowithintwoseconds,orthreedegrees.WhenthefleetsarrivedinVeniceandFlorence,theirmethodsofcalculatinglatitudeandlongitudewere

transferredtoEuropeans.Induecourse,ColumbusandVespucciusedthemtoreachtheNewWorld.

5

VOYAGETOTHEREDSEA

OnJanuary19,1431,thefleetsleftNanjing,China.TheyinvariablysailedinJanuarybecauseofthefreepowerprovidedbythe

monsoons,whichtothisdaydeterminesailingpatternsfromChinaacrosstheIndianOceantoIndiaandAfrica.1

MonsoonsarecausedbythedifferenceintemperaturebetweenthemassiveHimalayanplateauandthesea.InsummertheAsianlandmassbecomeshotterthantheocean,suckingwindsandwatervaporoffthesea.InAprilthesouthwestmonsoon

isheraldedbywesterlywindsintheIndianOcean.ByMaythesouthwestmonsoonhitsIndochinatoreachitspeakandconstancyinJuly,bywhichtimewindsreachthirtyknotsintheSouthChinaSea.BynowIndiaisfloodedwithmonsoonrain.DuringSeptemberthetemperaturedrops,andbyNovember,whentheHimalayashavebecomebitterlycold,airisdrawnoffthemountainsby

thewarmerseas.

ThenortheastmonsoonstartsinlateDecember,afterwhichthewindgraduallyabatesuntilApril,whenthecyclebeginsagain.ShipssailingbetweenChina,India,andAfricatookadvantageofthesemonsoonstosailbeforethewind,returningonthenextmonsoontotheirrespectivecountries.Theyawaitedthechangeof

monsooninsomeshelteredharbor.Forexample,inSoutheastAsia,bythetimeIndianshipshadarrivedintheMalaccaStraitwiththesouthwestmonsoonwinds,Chinesejunkshadnotyetdepartedtheirhomeports.BythetimetheChinesearrived,theIndianshipsweregone.HencetheneedforharborsaroundtheIndianOceanwheregoodscouldbestoredfromonemonsoonseasonto

thenext.TheChineseandArabsbuiltentrepôtportsinSoutheastAsiaandaroundtheIndianOceanwheregoodswerewarehousedenroutetotheirfinaldestinations.

Monsoonsweresopredictable—andimportant—thattheywereincorporatedintoArabcalendars,whichillustratedthehighlysynchronizedsystemof

regularshippingbetweenEgypt,EastAfrica,India,andtheGulf.Forexample,onesuchcalendardescribesday68(March16):“EndofsailingofIndianshipsfromIndiatoAden:no-oneventuresafterthisday.”(SeeresearchofTaiPengWanginnotes).

ZhengHe’sfleetstookadvantageofthisIslamicnavigationalcalendar,joining

theregularscheduleofshipping.AsthehistorianPaulLundepointsoutin“TheNavigatorAhmadIbnMajid,”onday100(April15)thelastfleetfromIndiawasscheduledtoarriveinAden.ThedeparturefromEgyptofthefirstshipsoftheconvoy,ownedbytheKarimimerchants,wastimedsotheconvoy’sarrivalcoincidedwiththeIndians’.Fourmonthslater,onAugust14

(day220),thelastshipsfromEgyptarrivedinAden.Sixdayslater,shipsfromSriLankaandCoramandelsetoutontheirvoyagehome.ThelastdeparturefromAden,poweredbythemonsoon,wasonday250(September13).

InZhengHe’sera,oceantradewasdominatedbytheArabsandChinese.TheChinesemadegoodsthatthe

restoftheworldcraved—principally,porcelainandsilk.ChinesejunkscarriedthesevaluablecargoestoMalacca,India,andCairo.MalaccawasvirtuallyaChinesecolony.InCalicut,ontheMalabarCoastofIndia,ChineseandArabtradersmetinequalnumbers.

RelationsbetweentheChineseandArabshadbeenfriendlyforcenturies.In

CairotheChinesewereanestablishedminority.Likewise,therewasasubstantialArabquarterintheChineseportofQuanzhou.ManyArabnavigatorsandinterpretersjoinedZhengHe’sfleets.

Ineveryrespect—numbers,shipconstruction,cargocapacity,range,defense,communications,supplies,theabilitytonavigateinthe

tracklessoceans,andtherepairandmaintenanceofshipsatseaformonthsonend—theChinesewerecenturiesaheadofEurope.ThemostpowerfulfleetafterChina’sbelongedtoVenice,whichpossessedaroundthreehundredgalleys—fast,light,shallowshipsrowedbyoarsmen.Venetiangalleys,thelargestofwhichcarriedaroundfiftytonsofcargo,weresuitableforcalm

summerdaysintheMediterranean—butnotforanythinglikethetravailsoftheChinesefleets.

ZhengHe’streasureshipswereoceangoingmonsters,capableofsailingthroughstormsacrosstheoceansoftheworldforweeksatatime.Carryingmorethanathousandtonsofcargo,theycouldreachMalaccainfiveweeks,theStraitofHormuz

intwelve.StateroomswereprovidedforambassadorsandtheirstaffsreturningtoIndia,thePersianGulf,andAfrica.Morethan180medicalofficerswereontheadmiral’sstaff;eachshiphadamedicalofficerforevery150men,andtheytookonsufficientcitrusandcoconutstoprotectthemfromscurvyfortwomonths.Caulkers,sailmakers,anchorrepairers,scaffolders,carpenters,andspecialistsin

tungoilapplicationmaintainedtheshipsduringthevoyage.Inaddition,theshipscarriedinterpreterswhocouldcommunicatewithrulersinIndia,Africa,andEurope—inHindi,Swahili,Arabic,andRomancelanguages.AswithallChineseexpeditions,astrologistsandgeomancersaccompaniedthefleets.

WhileVenetiangalleys

wereprimarilyprotectedbyarchers,Chineseshipswerearmedwithgunpowderweapons—bombards,fragmentationmortars,cannons,flamingarrows,evenshellsthatsprayedexcrementovertheirtargets.Withtheseawesomeweapons,AdmiralZhengHewouldhavenodifficultydestroyingpiratefleets.AcontestbetweenaChinesefleetandarivalnavywould

resemblethatbetweenasharkandaminnow.Inhisfinalvoyage,ZhengHecommandedfleetsmorethantentimesthesizeofNelson’satTrafalgar.2

However,thereweretwomajordistinctionsbetweenthisfinalvoyageandprevioustrips.First,hugeimprovementsincartography,navigationtechniques,andshipconstructionmadethe

voyagessaferandtheirdestinationsmorelikelytobereached.Second,theprincipalpurposeofthisvoyagewastopresentforeignrulerswiththeXuanDecalendarandwithchartsandnavigationalaidstoenableforeignrulerstoreturntributetoChina.WhenZhengHe’sjunksreturnedin1434,theXuanDeemperor,ZhuZhanji,wasabletoclaimthat“tenthousandcountries

[are]ourguests.”3Intheyearsimmediatelythereafter,adozencountriespaidtributetotheemperor,includinganenormousdelegationfromEgypt.

ThankstotheresearchofTaiPengWang,weareabletofollowthepreciserouteofZhengHe’sandHongBao’sfleetstoCalicut.XiFeilong,YangXi,andTangXiren,intheirrecentdiscoveryand

analysisofTheChartsofZhengHe’sVoyages,havereproducedZhengHe’srouteandidentifiedthespecificstarshisnavigatorsusedtodeterminelatitudeandlongitudeonthewaytoIndia.

SailingwiththemonsoonsacrosstheIndianOcean,theirpointofdepartureonOctober10,1432,wasPulauRondo(BandaAtjeh)onthenorthwesttipofSumatra

(6°04'N,95°07'E).ZhengHe’sbookofchartsdescribeshowby“gaugingtheverticalpositionsofthegivenstarsabovethehorizonintheeast,west,north,andsouth(they)reachedSriLanka.”

Thechoiceofstars(moreaccuratelystargroups—somecontainmultipleandbinarystars)usedbyZhengHe’snavigatorsfortheirIndianOceancrossingatfirst

appearsbaffling.Therightascensions(“longitudeintheheavens”)arePoseidon,twentyhours,Vega,eighteenhours,Sagittarius,nineteenhours,andGemini,sevenhours.SothepositionsobtainedfromtheirmeasurementswouldcorrespondtotheirrightascensionandthedistancesfromthestarsillustratedbythelinesCD,EF,GH,andIJonFig6onourwebsite.That

is,anapproximatelineof015/195(sevenhours/nineteenhours).Whydoallthechosenstarshaveapproximatelythesamerightascensions?Whynotselectdifferentstarsfromdifferentpartsoftheheavens?

TheanswerbecomesclearwhenPolarisisconsidered.Polarisisat90°elevationattheNorthPoleand0°attheequator.Thustheheightof

Polarisinthesky(altitude)equalslatitude—thelineAB,Fig6onourwebsite.BymeasuringPolaris’sheight,anavigatorcouldascertainhislatitude.ThebeststarstodeterminelongitudewouldbeatrightanglestoPolaris,thatis,starswithrightascensionsof90and270degrees(sixandeighteenhours).

ThisdiscoveryofTaiPengWangandhiscolleagues

enablesustorefinehowZhengHe’ssailorsdeterminedlatitudeandlongitude.Forlatitude,theyusedthesunatmidday(meridianpassage)andPolarisbynightinthenorth.Forlongitude,theyusedthosestarsintheephemeristablesthathadrightascensionsnearestsixoreighteenhoursor,alternatively,themoon.(Iwasasubmarinenavigatorforfouryearsandnever

thoughtofsuchaningenioussolution.Onewouldhaveneededonlytwolooksthroughtheperiscope—whenonewasatmostrisk—oneatPolarisanotheratPollux.)

WangJinghong,anotheradmiral,wouldleadhisfleettothePersianGulf.

Inthischapter,wedescribethepassageofZhengHeandHongBao,thenfollowthe

voyageofamuchsmallerdetachmentfromHongBao’sfleet,whichsaileduptheRedSeatoCairoandtheMediterranean—followinginthewakeofZhengHe’s1408voyagetotheMediterranean.

OnNovember18,1432,whenthefleetsweresouthofSriLanka,ZhengHeorderedHongBaotoleadthefleettoCalicut,theirnextportofcall.Acommander-in-chiefdoes

notorderoneofhisflagofficerstoleadthefleetintoharborifhehimselfintendstobepresent.ThismeansthatZhengHewasdetachingpartofhisfleetunderthecommandofHongBao.4

WeknowfromthechartsofZhengHe’svoyagesthatHongBaoleftCalicutforDandiBandarfartherupthecoast(16°N,73°E),crossingtheArabianSeaonacourse

ofapproximately330tomakelandfallatJebelKhamish(22°25'N,59°27'E).AfterafewdayshepushedontoBandar‘Abbas,arrivingonJanuary16,1433.HongBao’sfleetsreturnedtoCalicutonMarch25andsailedforChinaonApril9,reportingtherethesadnewsthatZhengHehad“passedaway.”

HowdidHongBaoknow

thatZhengHehadpassedaway?AfterhisordertoHongBao,ZhengHeseemstohavevanished.Inmyview,forreasonstobedescribedinalaterbook,afterdetachingHongBao,ZhengHesailedforAfricaandNorthAmerica,settlingnearwhatisnowAsheville,NorthCarolina,wherehedied.

MaHuan,thehistorianaboardZhengHe’sfleet,5

describesCalicutindetail.AlmostatenthofMaHuan’sbookisdevotedtothiscity-state,whichhadbecomeaveryimportantforwardbaseforZhengHe’sfleets.MaHuan,aMuslim,wasdelightedtofindthereweremorethantwentymosquesforaMuslimpopulationofthirtythousand.Hegivesadetailedaccountofhowtradewasconductedbetweenrepresentativesofthetreasure

fleetandlocalmerchantsandbrokers.Afternegotiations,allpartieswouldclasphandsandswearthattheagreedpriceswouldneverberepudiated.

ThesefascinatingaccountsaremirroredinthoseofNiccolòdaConti,whohadreachedCalicutin1419.AsRichardHallpointsoutinEmpiresoftheMonsoon,MaHuanandNiccolòdaConti’s

descriptionsarealmostthesamewordforword,6notleastinthedescriptionsoftheIndiantestforguilt(theaccused’sfingerwasdippedinboilingoil;ifthefingerwasburned,itsignifiedguilt).

NiccolòaccuratelydescribesconstructionoftheChinesejunks,soIamconfidentthatheboardedoneofZhengHe’sjunksin1421,whichwouldhavegivenhimthe

idealopportunitytoacquireamap.Justsuchamap,asIwilldescribelater,turnedupinVenicebefore1428,andacopycanbeseentodayintheDoges’Palace.(AlthoughNiccolòdaContimaynothavereturnedtoVeniceuntil1434,inthe1420shehadentrustedhismailtoafriend,PieroTafur,whotookittoVeniceonhisbehalf.)

Onhis1432voyage,Hong

BaodidnotstaylonginCalicut.Whenhearrived,CalicutmerchantswereabouttoleaveforTianfang(Egypt)intheirownfleet.HongBaoseizedtheopportunity,detachingtwojunksandsevenseniorofficersforatradedelegationladenwithsilksandporcelains,whichjoinedtheCalicutfleet.7

ThestoryistakenupbyIbnTagriBirdi,thecelebrated

Egyptianhistorian,inhishistoryofEgypt,AlNujunAzZahiraFiMulekMisrWalKahira,whowritesin1432:

AreportcamefromMecca,thehonoured,thatanumberofjunkshadcomefromChinatotheseaportsofIndiaandthattwoofthemhadanchoredintheportofAden,thattheirgoods,chinaware,silks,muskandthelikewerenotdisposedoftherebecause

ofthedisordersoftheStateofYemen….TheSultanwrotetothemtoletthemcometoJeddaandtoshowthemhonour.8

AsTaiPengWangpointsout,therewereverygoodreasonswhytheChineseenvoysshouldrushtoMecca—ZhengHeandmanyofhiseunuchcaptainswereMuslims.TheMingenvoyshadbeenorderedbythe

emperortoannouncetheimperialedictoftheXuanDeemperortothekingdomsofMaijia(Mecca),QianLida(Baghdad),Wusili(Cairo),MulanpiKingdom(Morocco),andLumi(thePapalStates),toinformthemthattheywereallhissubjects.

AccordingtotheMingShi-lu(theofficialMinghistory),EgyptandMoroccowereamongthoseforeign

countriesthatinZhuDi’sreign(1403–1424)hadalreadyreceivedtheChineseimperialedictandgifts(the1408visit—MingShi-lu)buthadfailedby1430toreturntributetoChina.However,theMingShi-lunotedthatthePapalStatesandBaghdadwereamongtheforeigncountriesthathadalreadysenttributetoMingChinaduringthereignoftheemperorZhuDi.

In1432,MeccawaspartoftheMamlukkingdomofEgypt.TheMamluksruledbyfartherichestcountryintheWesternworldatthattime;Cairowastheworld’slargestportoutsideChina.TheshipsthatHongBaohaddispatchedtoMeccahadalsobeenorderedtoCairo,9whichlayfartheruptheRedSeathroughtheRedSea–Nilecanal.Evidenceofthe

ChinesevisittoCairocomesfromthedescriptionofthePyramidsonthe1418ChinesemapandinothercontemporaryChineserecords.

WegetavividdescriptionofearlierChinesejunksfromIbnBattutahwhowroteoftheimmensesizeoftheships,theirpetroleumweapons,theluxuriousquartersformerchants,andthepoorslave

girls.

DescriptionsoftheChineseVessels

TheChinesevesselsareofthreekinds:largeshipscalledjunks,middle-sizedonescalledzaws,andsmalleronescalledkakams.Thelargeshipshaveanythingfromtwelvedowntothreesailswhicharemadeofbamboorodsplaitedlikemats.They

areneverlowered,buttheyturnthemaccordingtothedirectionofthewind;atanchortheyareleftfloatinginthewind.Ashipcarriesacomplementofathousandmen,sixhundredofwhomaresailorsandfourhundredmen-at-arms,includingarchers,menwithshieldsandarbalists,thatis,menwhothrownaphtha.Eachlargevesselisaccompaniedbythreesmallerones,thehalf,

thethird,andthequarter.ThesevesselsarebuiltonlyinthetownofZaituninChinaorinSinKalanwhichisSinalSin[Canton]….Atthesideofthesebaulksaretheiroars,whichareaslargeasmasts,tenorfifteenmenjoiningtogethertoworkeachofthem,andtheyrowstandingontheirfeet.Inthevesseltheybuildfourdecks,[with]cabins,suitesandsalonsformerchants.Asetofrooms

hasseveralroomsandalatrine:itcanbelockedbyitsoccupant,andhecantakealongwithhimslavegirlsandwives….SomeoftheChineseownlargenumbersofshipsonwhichtheirfactorsaresenttoforeigncountries.TherearenopeopleintheworldwealthierthantheChinese.10

IbnBattutahalsodescribedtheexchangeofslavesamong

thepotentates:“TheKingofChinahassenttotheSultan[ofIndia]ahundredMamluksandslavegirls,fivehundredpiecesofvelvetcloth….[Thesultan]requitedthepresentwithanevenricherone…ahundredmaleslaves,ahundredHindusinginganddancinggirls.”11

TradedelegationsbetweenEgyptandChinahadbeencommonplacenotonly

centuriesbeforeZhengHe’svoyagesbutalsocenturiesbeforeIbnBattutah’s.TheywereledbytheKarim,aformationofEgyptianJewishmerchantswhospecializedintradebetweenCairo,India,andChina.12AcertainBazaldeenKulamiKarimi,13bornin1149,wenttoChinafivetimes,amassingagreatfortunefromtheChineseceramicandsilktrade.

Thirteenth-centurychroniclerZhaoRuquamentionsawealthyTazimerchantsojournerwhofinancedanArabcemeteryinthesoutheastquarteroftheChineseportofQuanzhou,sothatArabmerchantscouldbeburiedfacingMecca.14

ChinesemerchantsimportedhugequantitiesofArabicfrankincense.SongrecordsindicatethatChenXinLang,

amerchant,importedfrankincensevaluedat300,000guan.KarimimerchantsinChinalivedinluxurioushousesandwerebigspenders,theenvyofallinthetradingport.Inconsequence,theemperorinstructedlocalofficialstowatchfor“untowardunrulybehaviour.”

TradebetweenCalicutandtheEgyptianMamluks

flourishedinthe1420s.HistorianStanleyLanePooletellsusthatin1425,acaptainconvoyedfourteenvesselswithrichcargoestoJeddah.Thefollowingyear,nofewerthanfortyshipssailedfromIndiatoCairoandPersia,payingdutiestothevalueofseventythousanddinars.15

Reciprocalvisitswerenotrestrictedtomerchants.ThekingdomofMeccasenta

delegationtopaytributetoChinaafterZhengHe’svisitin1414;thesultanhimselfappearedinpersonwithtributesofalionandaquilin(giraffe)tobepresentedtoZhuDi.In1433thesultansentadelegationledbyShuXiantoaccompanytheChinesedelegatesreturningtoChina.16

LiuGang,ownerofthe1418map,pointsoutavery

interestingpatterninseveralChineserecords,includingtheCaptivatingViewsoftheOcean’sShores;NotesontheBarbariansintheWesternOceans;RecordsonTributesfromWesternOceans;andtheMingShi-luitself.17EachofthefourbooksprovidesadescriptionofHormuzthatcannotpossiblycorrespondtotheHormuzweknowtoday.Theydescribevegetationthat

blossomsinspring,leavesthatfallinautumn,andwinterwithfrost,littlerain,andmuchdew.ThebooksalsostatethatHormuzisoneofthebiggestkingdomsinthewesternoceans,andthatbusinessmenfrombarbariancountriesarrivebyseaorroad.Hormuz,theyadd,isclosetotheseashoreattheendoftheWesternSea.Peoplearewhite-skinnedandtall.Societyishighly

developedinliterature,medicalknowledge,astronomy,art,andtechnique—farsuperiortootherbarbarians.Indeed,theycomparethelevelofcivilizationtheretothatofZonghua(China).

NoneofthisisapplicabletoHormuz,whichweknowfrommanyfifteenth-centurymerchants’accountsasasmallislandintheStraitof

Hormuz,betweenthePersianGulfandtheGulfofOman,withlittlevegetationandnofrost,atiny,inaccessibleplacesointolerablyhotitwasinhabitedonlythreemonthsayear.Civilization,includingastronomyandmedicaltechniques,washardlydevelopedatall.

Inmyview,the“Hormuz”describedbytheChinesebooksofthefifteenthcentury

canonlymeanCairo.ThisissubstantiatedbytheMingShiWaiguaZhuan(ProfilesofforeigncountriesinMinghistory)compiledbyYouTonoftheQingdynasty.18ItstatesthatMosili(Cairo)wascalleduponbyChineseenvoys,includingZhengHe,butthatitfailedtoreciprocate.DescriptionsofChinesetradewithCairoproliferate.TheChinese

scholarLiAnshan,inFeiizhouHualikoHuarem(AhistoryofChineseoverseasinAfrica)identifiestheMosilikingdomasEgyptandtheJiegantouKingdomastheportofAlexandria.MosiliwasagaindenotedasEgyptinthepioneeringresearchofZhangXingGangandHanZhenghua.TheyalsoidentifiedJiegentouasAlexandria,aChinesetransliterationoftheArabic

nameZuilkarnain,whichwasusedbytheArabstorefertoAlexandertheGreat.InChineseReligionsandNationalMinorities,theChinesehistorianBaiShouyiwrites,“MiXien[contemporaryEgypt]hadallregularlysenttheirmerchantsandenvoystoChinaandChinasometimeswouldsenditsenvoysormerchantstothesecountries.”

TheMingShi-lusays,“Year6[1408]ZhengHewenttoHormuzandothercountriesreturninghomeinYear8[1410].”FurthercorroborationthatZhengHe’sfleetsvisitedCairoisfoundinmaps.The1418maphasthisdescription:“Thereisahugecityherebuiltwithstone,thedimensionsofstonescanbecomparedtothoseusedintombsoftheQindynastyEmperor.”The

volumeofEmperorQin’spyramidtombandthevolumeofthePharaohKhufu’spyramidatGizaareaboutthesame—Qin’shasalargerbasearea,whileKhufu’sishigher.TheMapofSouthwestMaritimeCountries,fromZhengHe’sera,alsodescribestheEgyptianPyramids.

SoEgyptwasnotanewfrontiertoZhengHe:his

forebearshadbeentravelingthereforcenturies.TheyhadreachedCairothroughtheshallowRedSea–Nilecanal,whichZhengHe’ssmallerjunkswouldhaveusedaswell.FromCairo,theMediterranean—andsouthernEurope—werewellwithinreach.

6

CAIROANDTHEREDSEA–NILE

CANAL

ThebestplacetounderstandtheimportanceoftheRiverNiletoCairoandEgyptis

fromtheWindowsontheWorldonthe36thflooroftheRamsesHilton.EverytimeIvisitCairo,Imakeapointofquaffinglagertheresurroundedbyswiftsandswallowstwitteringatsunset.Tothewest,highlightedbythesettingsun,aretheplateauandthePyramids.TheMoqattamHillsaretotheeast.Northandsouth,thegreatriverstormsoutofAfrica,travelinginagreat

curvepasttheHiltontothegreensmudgeofthedeltaupnorth.

BetweenthePyramidsandtheMoqattamHillsreststhelarge,widevalleyoverwhichmodernCairosprawls.Thisvalleywasoncemorethaneighthundredfeetbelowtheseaandsomethirtytofortymilesacross.Theenormousrivergraduallydriedupthousandsofyearsagoand

becameheavilyforestedandrichingame—elephants,hippopotamus,antelope,andallmannerofdeerandbirds.Theriver,thenasnow,teemedwithfish.Beautifulsunshineformostoftheyearcoupledwiththeendlessflowofwatermadelifeeasyforhunters.1ThisiswhyEgypthasoneoftheoldestcivilizationsintheworld,comparabletothatofChina

alongtheYangtzeandYellowRiversorMesopotamiabetweentheTigrisandEuphrates.

OverthecenturiesthesiltbroughtdownthroughAfricabythemightyriverhasgraduallybeendepositedontheeasternandwesternbanksofwhatisnowmodernCairo.Astherivernarrowed,theportshavemovedsteadilynorth.

ThefirstEuropeansherewereGreeks,whobuiltacityatHeliopolis,aboutfourmilessouthoftheRamsesHiltonontheeastbankoftheNile.TheRomansbuiltBabylon,northofHeliopolis;theArabsbuiltAl-Fustat/Misr(Cairo)stillfarthernorth,andinthelateMiddleAgestheportmovednorthofwheretheHiltonstandsnow—firsttoMaksandthentoBulaq,whichis

nowoppositeCairo’smainrailwaystation.Astheportsmigrated,sodidtheentrancetotheRedSea–Nilecanalfromtheriver.Bythe1420s,theentrancewasbelowwhatisnowtheHilton.LookingtothenortheastfromtheWindowsontheWorld,onecanstillseeitsoutline.Whenitwasfilledin1899,thewallsoneithersidewereleft,allowingittoretainwater.Todaythetramwaypasses

rightoverthisforgottencanal—agreenpencillinestretchingfromtheHiltontotherailwaystation.2OnecantravelbesidethecanaltodayfromCairotoZagazig,asMarcellaandIdidin2006;itremainsaboutonehundredfeetwidetheentireway.

Toseehowtheriverhasgraduallynarrowed,youcantakeafeluccauptheNile,sailingwithagentlebreeze

againstthecurrent,whichinautumnisabouthalfaknot.TheoldRomanfortressofBabylonisstillvisible,withaveryoldCopticchurchontopofit.AlittlegroupofCopticchurchesandasynagoguesurroundtheremainsoftheRomancity.HeretheEgyptianauthorities,haveerectedasignstating:thiswastheentrancetotheredseanilecanal.

AmassofinformationexistsabouttheevolutionofthecanalfromthetimeofthePharaohNechoII(610–595B.C.).Herodotustellsus(Histories)thatfoursteleswereerectedbyDarius(522–486B.C.)tocommemoratethecanal’sconstruction.BerkeleyprofessorCarolA.Redmountin“TheWadiTumilatandtheCanalofthePharaohs”writesthatthesteleswereplacedon

elevationssotheycouldbeseenbyboatsonthecanal.ThewesternmoststelewasdiscoveredatTellel-Maskhuta;theotherswerefoundalongthecanal,endingaboutsixkilometersnorthofSuez.Onefaceofeachstelefeatureshieroglyphs,theothercuneiform(inPersian,Elemite,andBabyloniancharacters).3

ProfessorRedmounttellsus

thatHerodotus,whovisitedEgyptinthemid-fifthcenturyB.C.,wasthefirstclassicalauthortomentionexplicitlythecanalconnectingtheNiletotheRedSea.HesaidthecanalwasstartedbyNechoIIandcompletedbyDarius.Aristotle,writinginthefourthcenturyB.C.,citesSesostrisasthecanal’screator.PtolomyII,Philadelphus(reigned285–246B.C.),recordsthecuttingofthecanalthrough

theWadiTumilat.HeisfollowedbyDiodorusSiculus,who,onavisittoEgyptin59B.C.,confirmedthatthewaterwaywasbegunbyNecho,continuedbyDarius,andfinallycompletedbyPtolemyII,whoprovidedalocktocompensatefortheriseandfalloftheNile.AccordingtoStrabo(64B.C.–A.D.24),thecanalwas46meterswideandofsufficientdepthto

accommodatelargeships.InhisNaturalHistory,Plinystatesthatthecanalwas100feetwideand40feetdeepforadistanceof371/2RomanmilesuptotheBitterSprings.TheAlexandrianastronomerClaudiusPtolemaeus,orPtolemy,calledthecanal“theRiverofTrajan”andindicatedthatitstartedfromthemainNilestreamupriverfromBabylon—thatis,from

Heliopolis.Lucien,anEgyptianofficialundertheAntonineemperors,inaboutA.D.170describedatravelerwhosailedthecanalfromAlexandriatoClysmaontheGulfofSuez:

ThencametheArabs.

[The]CaliphMuizhadinvestedafortuneofhisowntoconquerEgypt,soheobviouslywantedtogetback

hisinvestmentasquicklyaspossible,andasalwaystheRedSeaCanalwastobeimplementofhiswealth.ThecustomsportofAlMaks,whichmeans“customstax,”layinthebendoftheriverwhichcamealmostuptothewallsofKahiraonthewestsidenearthecanal,andthisMu’izimmediatelytookoverandexpandedintoaproperdockyard,keepingitstaxcollectingcharacterbutalso

layingthefoundationsthereforanewportofhisown,whichimmediatelytookawaymuchofthebusinessthatusuallywenttoFustat-Misr.

HereMu’izbuiltsixhundredshipsandabout77yearslater,whenNasirIbnKhusraucametoCairo[inthe11thcentury],sevenofhisshipswerestilllyingontheriverbank.“I,theauthorofthisnarrative,IbnKhusrau

says:‘Ihaveseenthem’”.Theymeasuredthirtyerichbysixtyarech(275feetlongby110feetabeam).Theseshipswerenodoubtabrilliantinvestmentbecausetheycouldmovelargequantitiesofcargoatonetime,ratherlikethemodernmonstrousoiltankers.NothingthatcouldmakemoneyescapedMu’iz,andhereorganisedthewholetaxsystemintoacentralcollectingbodywhichdid

awaywiththelocalcollectors,whousedtotakeaconsiderablerake-offoftheirown.Inonedayhecollectedover475,000USdollars(modernequivalent)intaxesfromFustat-Misralone.4

InAHistoryofEgyptintheMiddleAges,StanleyLanePooletellsus,Onehundredandtwentythousandlabourerswerekeptatworkwinterandsummerin

maintainingandimprovingdamsandcanals.TheoldcanaltraditionallycalledtheAmnisTrajanusconnectingBabylon(Cairo)withtheRedSeawascleanedandreopenedinlessthanayearandcornwassenttoMedinabyshipinsteadofbycaravanasinthepreviousyear.5

Inshort,awealthofevidencefromGreek,Roman,andArabwritersstatesthat

thecanalenabledshipstocarrygoodsfromtheNiletotheRedSeaandviceversa.GrainwastransportedfromthewheatfieldsoftheSudantoRome,Mecca,Arabia,andIndia.ChineseporcelainandsilkcouldbebroughttoRome,VenetianglasstoIndia.

In642,AmiribnAl-Asdredgedouttheoldcanal,whichwasfillingwithsilt

broughtdownbytheNile.AcenturylatertherewasarebellioninMeccaandMedina,andin767theAbbasidAbuJa’faral-MansurblockedthecanaltostopcornsuppliesfromreachingMecca.Shortlyafterward,in780,duringthecaliphateofAlMahdithecanalwasreopened.Thenin870AhmadibnTulundredgedthecanalonceagain,andafurtherexpansiontook

placein955.

ThenexthugeimprovementtothecanalwascaxrriedoutbySultanal-Malikan-Nasirin1337,whoassignednofewerthan100,000mentothejob.HealsobuilttheNilometeronthesouthofRodaisland,whichcanbeseentothisday.Itmeasuredtheheightoftheriverandthusservedasafloodwarning.

ThisfinalcanalwideninganddredgingissummarizedbyhistorianJamesAldridgeinCairo:BiographyofaCity,basedondescriptionsbythefifteenth-centuryEgyptianhistorianal-Madkrizi:

ThelandwhichemergedroundElephantIslandwasmarshyandsoftandMakrizi,whotellsusallthis,saystheMamluksusedtopractisearcherythere.Butinthe

middleofthefourteenthcenturyAlNazirjoinedtheRedSeacanaltothenewbankoftheriverthroughthisnewswampyland,thusdrainingit.ThisnewexitfortheoldcanalwascalledKhaligAlNasir,anditremainedtheexitoftheRedSeacanaluntilthiscentury,althoughitwaslaterdivertedagainandcalledtheIsmailiyaCanal.ItmettheriverwheretheEgyptianPharaonic

Museumisnow,neartheNileHilton.ThisfinalversionofNazir’scanalwasonlyfilledinattheendofthenineteenthcenturytomakewhatisnowRamesesIIStreet,andanyonewithamomenttospareontopoftheNileHiltoncanlookdownonthisstreetandtracethelineoftheoldcanalrightuptothestationsquarewhichwasoncetheportofAlMaks.6

Aswehavenoted,oneoftheChinesenamesforCairowasMisr,anamederivedfromthepharaonicnamefortheriverportinBabylon.Astimepassed,Al-FustatandMisrbecameinterchangeablenamesfortheportandthecityofCairo,“nodoubtbecausealltradewithEgyptwasdirectedeventuallytotheriverportofMisroritcamefromMisr,”Aldrichexplains.“Soitseemslogicalthat

soonerorlateritwasallknownasFustat-Misr(whichiswhatal-Makrizioftencallsit)andthensimplyasMisr.Today,EgyptiansstillcallboththeircountryandCairosimplyMisr.”

OnNovember26,2004,theOrientalCeramicSocietyofFranceheldaconferenceinParisontradebetweenChinaandtheMediterraneanpriortothesixteenthcentury.The

conferenceproducedawealthoffascinatingdetailabouttheexportofChineseceramicstoEgypt,theMiddleEast,andtheMediterranean.7

ExcavationsitesinthesouthernsuburbsofCairohaveproducedChineseceramicsdatingfromthetenthtothefourteenthcenturies.In“ChinesePorcelainfromFustat,”archaeologistR.L.Hobson

describesthesignificanceoftheporcelainandceramicsfinds:

…TurningoverthepilesoffragmentsstoredatFustatandintheArabMuseuminCairo…werealisemostclearlytheextentandantiquityofthetradebetweenEgyptandtheFarEast.Thereare,forinstance,piecesofbuffstonewarewithcreamglazemottledwithgreenand

brownishyellow,whichcamefromChinaintheTangdynasty;thereareseveralvarietiesofceladonporcelainwhichtellofSungtraders.AndthereareblueandwhiteporcelainsrangingfromtheYuantotheendoftheMingperiod….

ThetypicalLungch’uanandch’u-chouceladonsoftheSung,YuanandMingperiodsabound,bowlsanddishes

withcarveddesignsorwithreliefsoffishesorrosettes,thingstoowellknowntocallfordetailednotice….

ItwasonlynaturalthatthevolumeoftradewithChinashouldincreaseintheMingdynasty….ThisisevidencedinEgyptbythelargequantityofblueandwhiteporcelain,ofwhichfragmentsaboundnotonlyatFustat,butallaroundCairo.

…Amongtheearliestspecimensisthebottomofabowlwiththereign-markofYungLo(1403–1424)”—vizZhuDi.8

ThisextraordinarytradeinporcelainandceramicswaslubricatedbytheKarim.TheKarimhadtheirownwarehouses(fonduqs)stretchingfromCairotoIndiaandbeyond.Theybuilttheirownshipsandsometimes

leasedthemtoothers.Theyalsooperatedasbankers,whichprovedtobetheirundoing.

In1398theKarimmadeamassiveloantotheMamluksultan,tofinanceanarmytohaltTamburlaine’smarchtowardCairo.Whentheloanswerecalled,thesultancameupshort.Al-AshrafBarsbaynationalizedtheNile–RedSeacanaltoreplenishhis

coffers,settingthepricesatwhichgoodsbroughtthroughEgyptcouldbeboughtandsold.Withasinglestroke,thesecurityfortheKarim’sloans—tradethroughthecanal—unraveled.TheKarimwereruinedwithindecades.WhenChinawithdrewfromtheworldstageinthe1430s,afterZhengHe’sfinalvoyage,Chinesegoodscamenomore.

Cairo:TheQuintessentialTimelessIslamicCity

Cairostandstodayjustasitdidin1433.Thefortifiedcityhaswithstoodinvadersforfivecenturies.DuringtheMongolwars,Saladin’sfortificationsprovidedarefugeforallofIslam,makingCairoahavennotonlyforthecaliphbutforphilosophers,artists,craftsmen,andteachersas

wellashundredsofthousandsofordinarypeoplefleeingGenghisKhanandhissuccessors.Enormouswealthflowedintothecityandwasdeployedonasumptuousarrayofmosques,madrassahs,mausoleums,andhospitals.ThisisthedomedmedievalCairothatZhengHewouldhavefound.9

Atfirstsight,Islamictownsandcitiesappearchaoticto

Westerneyes,withtheirelaborate,twistingstreetsleadinghiggledy-piggledyinalldirections.Theyhad,however,amasterplan.At“thecentreoftheIslamiccitystandstheFridayMosque;toitandfromiteverythingflowsasifitwereaheart.”10Nexttothemosquestandsthemadrassah,whereIslamiclawandtheologyaretaught,theforerunneroftheWestern

university.Aroundmosqueandmadrassahsprawlsthebazaarwithitskhansandcaravanseraiswheremerchantsrest,feedtheircamels,andstoretheirgoodsinsafety.

TradeandreligiongohandinhandunderIslam,whichaffordsmerchantsgreatprestige(Muhammadwasone).Thestatusofthemerchantwasevidencedby

thedistanceofhisshopfromtheFridaymosque:perfume,spice,andincenseshopswerenearest,followedbygoldmerchantsandsilversmiths.Cobblerswerefarthestaway.Mosqueandmarketwerebothwithineasyreachofthecaravanserais.

Thecentralsquareplayedhosttoallmannerofentertainment,resoundingwiththecriesofsnake

charmers,bears,dancers,andstorytellers.Radiatingoutwardbeyondthebazaarwasajumbledassortmentofresidentialdistrictsdividedbyraceandreligion.Surroundingthemwasadefensivewall(inCairoitwasSaladin’s)tokeepoutMongolsandrobbers.

AtthecenterofmedievalCairowasthecity’sFridaymosque,Al-Azhar,founded

in970,assoonastheenclosurewallsofAl-Qahirawerecompleted.Itisperhapsthemostprestigiousmosqueintheworldandisconnectedtotheworld’soldestuniversity.FormorethanathousandyearsAl-AzharUniversityhasprovidedMuslimstudentsfromaroundtheworldwithfreeboardandatheologicaleducationfocusedontheKoranandIslamiclaw,logic,grammar,

rhetoric,astronomy,andscience.

Forcenturies,themosqueonFridayshasbeenpacked.Asitoverflows,menlaytheirmatsoutsideonthepavement.Theyprayinuniformlines,richandpoorsidebyside,oldmenandyoung,goldencloaksnexttodirtykashmaks.AllmenareequalinIslam;noboxesarereservedforthegentry.

Inside,Al-AzharresemblesLondon’sSouthwarkCathedral,thoughitisnotquiteastallandrathermoreaustere.Gownedstudents,seatedbetweengraymarblecolumns,aretaughtbyawizenedimamperchedinahighchair.(ThegownsofOxfordandCambridgewerecopiedfromthosewornbyIslamicstudents,justasouruniversity“chair”isderivedfromtheimam’sperch.)

TheAl-AzharcompeteswiththemosquesofSayyidHasan,al-Ghoury,andSultanal-AshrafBarsbay—allwithinastone’sthrow.TheEgyptianpresidentworshipsattheMosqueofAl-Azhar.Theirmuezzinscallthefaithfultoprayerfivetimesaday.Traditionally,muezzinsarechosenfromtheblind,whocannotseedownintothehouseswhereunveiledwomenaredressing.

Inthesquare,Cairo’sfestivals,themoulids,areheldandtheSufibrotherhoodprayswithbannersanddrums;musicblastsallnightlong.VastcrowdscomeupfromthedeltafortheholidayofEid,congregatingatthecafésaroundthesquare,eachonefavoredbyaparticulardeltavillage.

OnecanreadilyunderstandwhyCairowouldhavebeena

magnetforallpeoplesofIslam,includingZhengHeandhisfellowMuslimsreturningfromMecca.Inbroadterms,foreignerslivedinCairo,whitenativeEgyptians,thefellahin,livedonthedeltaandintheNileValley.Withtheholiestmosqueintheworldsituatednexttothelargestmarketintheworld,thecityhadeverything.HeretheycouldstudytheKoran,selltheir

goods,andenjoythecity’sstoriedeveningdelights.

Today,asintheMiddleAges,Cairoisacityofgood-naturedpeoplelivinginclosequarters,bustlingandjostlingfromonecornertothenext.Tomotoristsandpedestriansmakingheadwaythroughthecrowds,afewhundredyardscanseemlikeamile.Cairo’spopulationispolyglot,fulloftheoffspringofSudanese,

Armenian,Jewish,Georgian,Persian,NorthAfrican,andIndianmerchants.Indeed,Egyptiansintermarriedwiththedescendantsofconquerorsandmerchantstosuchanextentthattodayitisdifficulttofinda“pure”Egyptian.

ZhengHe’ssailorswouldhaveseen,alongsideAl-AzharMosque,twoimposingcomplexes:themadrassahandtheWikalaofal-Ghouri,

namedafteroneofthelaterMamluksultans.WikalaistheEgyptiannameforacaravanserai.Bothcaravanseraiandmadrassahcomplementedthemosqueandwerefrequentlyfundedbyacharity,orwakf,setupbythesultanorawealthymerchant.

Cairo’smadrassah,typicalofanearlyIslamicuniversity,isalarge,rectangular

buildingwithanopencourtyardatitscenter,surroundedbybroadcloisters.Inthecloisters,smallgroupsofstudentsdebatewithteachers;greatimportanceisplacedonmentalagility.WhileEuropestumbledthroughtheDarkAges,Cairosafeguardedtheworld’slargestlibrary.Here,thegreatbooksoftheancients,includingAristotleandPlato,werestoredbefore

atlastbeingsummonedtoaidtheEnlightenment.

Inthecaravanseraiofal-Ghoury,merchantsfromChinaladenwithgold,silk,andceramicscouldrestinsimple,cleansurroundings,astone’sthrowfromthecoolmosque.InZhengHe’stime,therewereelevencaravanseraisinCairo,twenty-threemarketsforinternationaltrade,fifty

smallermarkets(souks)forlocaltrade,andelevenracecourses.

Al-Madkrizigaveavividaccountoflifeinthecaravanseraisinthe1420s.Everysortofspicewasforsale,alongwithallmannerofsilksandmoremundanegoods—fruits,nuts,andjamsgalore.Merchantscarriedwiththemtheirchestsofgoldandsilver,alltheirworldly

wealth.Theftwascommon.Thepunishment(stillenforcedinSaudiArabia)wasseveringoftherighthand.

InthelateMiddleAges,Cairowastheworld’sleadingemporiumforthreeofthemostimportantcommoditiesofinternationaltrade—gold,spice,andperfume.CairohadbecomebullioncapitaloftheworldasaresultofIslam’s

expansion.Arabcaliphs,needingevermoregoldtolubricatetrade,initiallyadoptedByzantinecoins,overstampingthemwiththecaliph’shead.AfterArabarmiesoverranNorthAfrica,theycapturedthegoldtradefromMaliandGuinea,whichhadbyfarthelargestgoldseams.

Arabs’dominationofthegoldtradeledtothegold

dinarbecomingthecurrencyofMediterraneantrade.TherulersofCastile,Aragon,andLeóncopiedAlmoraviddinars,whichtheycalledmorbetinos.

Cairo’sspicebazaar,theKhanel-Khalili,facestheAl-AzharMosque.ItwasbuiltbyawealthyMamlukofthatnamein1382andstillteemswithbusinesssixhundredyearslater.Themost

prestigiouspartofthebazaar,nearestthemosque,iswherethefabledincenseisfound.BroughtfromthewadisofsouthernArabia,theseconcentratedessencesaresoldbytheounce,dilutedwithalcoholoneparttonineforperfume,onetotwentyforeaudetoilette,onetothirtyforeaudecologne.Cairo’sshopsstillmaintainthemedievaltraditionofsellingperfumesinlarge

bottlesalongsideherbsandspices,andEgyptremainsasourceformanyoftheessencesusedbyFrenchcouturehouses.

IntheMiddleAgesperfumeandspicewereequallyvaluable.ThespicetradewiththeEast,transactedthroughCairo,wasthecornerstoneofVenetianwealth.

Europeansdevouredspices,

thebettertomakepalatabletheirsaltedmeatanddriedfish.Inadditiontoenliveningfood,spiceswereextensivelyusedbyapothecaries.Purgeswereaccomplishedbycassiaorrhubarb;theriac,madeofanassortmentofherbsandspices,wasapanaceaforillsrangingfromconstipationtofeverandeventheplague.Gingerjamsweresaidtoencouragetheflowofurine.Cinnamonassisted

menstruationandwasvaluableforwindycolic;nutmegrelievedcoughsandasthma.AsIrisOrigopointsoutinTheMerchantofPredo,therewashardlyanEasternspice,howeverrareorexpensive,thatdidnotreachthecookingpotsormedicinechestsofItalianbankersandmerchants.

Walkingoutwardfromthespicemarkettoday,one

encountersthebrassandcopperwareshops,stackedwithArabcoffeepots,waterjugs,tabletops,coalscuttles,andtrays.Tinypiecesofmother-of-pearl,bone,andebonyareinlaidinintricatemosaicpatternsonwoodenboxes.AlthoughamberprayerbeadsareusedtocountthemerciesofAllah,muchasCatholicsuserosaries,amberappearslessvaluableinthemarketplace

thancopper.

Fartherout,thereareleatherandclothingstalls.Egyptianmen,liketheirmedievalpredecessors,weargalabayas,collarlesstunicsresemblinglarge,floppynightshirts.(Caftansarethemorecolorfulversion,embroideredatthefrontandonthehems.)WomenseekdowrydressesmadebydesertBedouin.Themarket

encompassesaworld.Remarkably,almosteverythingsoldheretodaywasavailabletoZhengHe’ssailorsandChinesemerchantsastheypassedthroughCairoin1433.ItisaneasypassagedownstreamfromCairowiththecurrent.JustnorthofCairotheNiledivides,theWesternRosettaChannelleadingtoAlexandria,linkedtotheNilebyacanal.InAlexandriathe

Mamlukauthoritiesinsistedallpassingshipsdepositedmapstheyhadusedfortheirjourney.Thesewerecopiedandtheoriginalsreturned.Thatdone,theChinesedriftedintotheMediterranean.

II

ChinaIgnitestheRenaissance

7

TOTHEVENICEOFNICCOLÒDA

CONTI

IntheMiddleAges,seatrafficbetweenEgyptandEuropewasdeterminedby

thegeographyoftheMediterranean.1SurroundingtheMediterraneanaremountainranges—inthesouthwesttheAtlasMountainsofMorocco,thenmovingclockwise,theSierraNevadainsouthernSpain;thePyrenees;theFrench,Italian,andYugoslavAlps;themountainsofGreece,Bulgaria,andTurkey;andfinallytheAnti-Lebanon

RangebetweenLebanonandSyria.

ThesemountainsdictatetheMediterraneanclimate.BetweentheSeptemberandMarchequinoxes,ahighanticyclonebuildsovertheAzores,allowingAtlanticdepressionstorushthroughtheStraitofGibraltarandthenscurrywesttoeast,thelengthoftheMediterranean.Asthesewarm,wetwinds

reachthecoldmountainsonthecoast,theycreateblusterywindsandrain.ThemistralinFranceisperhapsthebest-known,buteveryMediterraneanregionhasgustywetsquallsinwinterthatmakeseavoyageshazardous.

ThewholeMediterraneansharesacommonclimate;wetwinterisfollowedbycalm,hotsummer.Asregular

asclockwork,thesunmovesnortheachyear,carryingwithittheanticycloneovertheAzoresuntilitstopsoppositetheStraitofGibraltar.ThewetAtlanticwindsarenowshutoutoftheMediterranean,andtheairisstill.ByJuly,thewholeseaisflatasglass,withoutabreathofwind.DrySaharanairmarchesnorth,theskiescleartoinfinity,andsearinghotsummerwinds—typicallytheterralinsouthern

Spain—blowacrossthecoast.ThethreemajorseafaringpowersofEurope—Aragon,Genoa,andVenice,exploitedthisgeographytoconducttradewiththeeastthroughAlexandriaandCairo.VeniceandGenoawereentirelydependentontradefortheirhugewealth.TheVenetianceremonyofLaSensa,whichtakesplaceonAscensionDay,suggestsjusthowpassionatelyVenice

embracedthesea.2

ThedogeembarksatSaintMark’sinhisgreatgildedship,theBucintoro.Perchedonagoldenthrone,hesitshighaboveacrewof150oarsmen,whorowacrossthelagoontotheLido.Thedoge’sgoldenrobesareembroideredwiththeLionofSaintMark’sandhewearsadiamond-studdedcap,larenza—thesamehatwornby

ChineseadmiralsintheearlyMing.Silkstandardsflutterabovehishead.Afterashortservice,thedogecastsagoldenringintothelagoon.Asitsinksthroughtheazureseaheproclaims:“Mare,noitisposianoinsegnedelnostroveroperpetuadominio”(OSea,wewedtheeinsignofourtrueandeverlastingdominion).

By1434,themarriageritual

wasalreadymorethanfourhundredyearsold.ItoriginatedwhenPopeAlexanderIIIgavethedogearingandtoldhim:“Receivethisringasthesymbolofyourempireoverthesea….Youandyoursuccessorsbemarriedtohereachyear,sothatsucceedinggenerationsmayknowthattheseaisyours,andbelongethtoyouasaspousetoahusband.”3

Venice’swealthwasrootedinhercaptureofByzantium.In1204aCrusadehadbeenlaunchedtotakeJerusalem.FinancingfortheCrusadewashardtocomebyuntiltheDogeDandoloofferedsupport—providedtheCrusaderswouldcaptureZara(contemporaryZadarinCroatia)ontheirwaysouth.TheCrusadersagreed,becomingmercenariesintheprocess.

ThetemptationtocaptureByzantiumforVenice,aswell,provedirresistibletotheCrusaders,whoinitiatedthesackoftheOrthodoxChristiancapitalbyanotherChristianstate.4WhenByzantiumfell,herempirewasdividedamongstthevictors.Venetianspoils,exemplifiedbythefourbronzehorsesandmarbleonthefaçadeofSaintMark’s

Basilica,includedByzantineislandsandportsfromtheBlackSeathroughtheAegeantotheIonianSea.VenetiangalleysthushadfriendlyharborsallthewaytoByzantiumandAlexandria.

VenicenowcontrolledtheAdriatic.In1396,sixyearsaftershehaddefeatedGenoaandfourteenyearsaftertheCretanrevolt,sheacquiredCorfu.ToVenetians,Corfu

wasofvitalimportanceduetoitsstrategiclocation.CorfubecamethefortifiedbasefromwhichVenetiangalleyspolicedthestraitleadingtotheAdriatic.

VenicebuiltlovelycolonialtownsontheseAdriaticislands.Herports,modeledinherownimage,eachwithitscampanile,cathedral,piazza,andeveningpromenade,linetheDalmatiancoast.From

UlcinjinthesouthtoPiraninthenorth,theportsofBar,Dubrovnik,Korcula,Hvar,Split,Zadar,Rab,Krk,Pula,andPorecaresublimelegaciesofVenetianarchitecture.By1433theywerehavensforthearmadascarryingceramics,silk,andspicesfromAlexandriaandCairotothewarehousesofVenice.WhiletheSlavicchantsofOrthodoxchurchesresoundinthemountains,on

thecoastSundaysarepunctuatedbybellssummoningCatholicstomass.5SaintJacob’sinSibenik,SaintMark’sinPiran,SaintLaurence’sinTrogir,andOurLady’sinRijecaaresuperbbyanystandard.TheyareamongthesightsthatgreetedZhengHe’sshipsontheirpassagefromAlexandriatoVenice.Evenwithfifteenmentoeach

oaritwouldhavebeenaten-dayslogfromAlexandriatoCreteacrossanairlesssea.OnceintheAdriatictheywouldhavepickedupalighteveningbreezeblowingonshore.Whatareliefthatwouldhavebeen!

Iknowthoseislandswellfollowingavisitin1966.InDecember1965IhadmetMarcella;webecameengagedinJuneanddecided

totakeaholidaytravelingthroughtheDalmatianislandstoMontenegroandSerbia.InthefouryearsbeforemeetingMarcellaIhadbeennavigatingofficerofHMSNarwhal,asubmarine.ItwastheeveofthecoldwarandourpatrolswerespentintheNorth.Wintersweredrabandcold;thesunshoneforanonlyhourorso,atmidday;mostofthetimeonelookedatice,sea,andskyin

everlastingshadesofgray.

InAugust1966,Marcella,myuncleEdward,andIboardedaferryinVeniceboundforDubrovnik,enroutewendingthroughtheDalmatianarchipelago.WepassedMarcoPolo’shomeonKorcula,Diocletian’svastpalaceatSplit,andhoney-coloredHvar.Thesearingcolorsofazureseaandskyemphasizedbythebrilliant

whiteKarstofthecoastline,theredcampaniletowers,andtherussetandgoldofdryingtobaccoareetchedonmybrainandwillremainwithmeallmylife.

Wesleptontheupperdeckunderthestars,swamoffremotebeacheswatchedonlybyseagulls,andfeastedonlocalseafishwasheddownbyDingaz,arough,full-bodied,almostblackwine.

ThesameidyllicscenewouldhavegreetedZhengHe’ssailorsandfemaleslavesashisjunksrowedslowlyupthecoast.Theywouldhaveseentheoutlinesofthesemini“Venices”frommilesouttosea,dottedalongthecoastallthewayfromDubrovniktoTriestetoVeniceitself.TheywouldhavenoticedDiocletian’senormouspalace,Hvar’sspectacularharbor,andthe

glisteningwhitefortresswallsofDubrovnik,andwouldhavesurelycalledatsomeofthoseports.

SoinmyviewweshouldfindevidenceofZhengHe’sfleets’visitsinmuseumsalongtheDalmatiancoast.Overtheyears,MarcellaandIhavevisitedthemostlikelymuseums—theoldmaritimeschoolatPerast,theMatkofamilymuseumatOrebic,the

Seamans’Guild(Museum)intheGulfofKotor,IvoVizin’sMuseumatPrcanj,andtheMaritimeMuseuminKotoritself.Wefoundnothing.

However,myinterestwasrenewedandsharpenedin2004aftermeetingDr.GunnarThompsoninSeattle.HehadbroughtAlbertindiVirga’sworldmaptomyattention.Thismaphadbeenfoundinasecondhand

bookshopatSrebrenicaneartheDalmatiancoast.Itwasdatedtobetween1410and1419andshowedtheworldfromGreenlandtoAustralia,includingAfrica,accuratelydrawndecadesbeforeEuropeansknewAfrica’sshapeandcenturiesbeforetheyknewtheshapeandrelativepositionsofChina,Japan,andAustralia.ThemaphadbeenauthenticatedbyProfessorFranzVon

Wieser,theleadingcartographerofhisday.Itmusthavebeencopiedfromanon-Europeanmap,andintheopinionofDr.Thompsonandme,itcouldonlybeacopyofaChinesemapthathadbeenpublishedbefore1419.Moreover,Dr.ThompsonhadfoundevidencethatshipsfromtheDalmatiancoasthadsailedtoNorthAmericainthe1440sandsettledneartheRoanokeRiverinVirginia—

thefamous“Croatans.”6Inmyview,DalmatianshipswouldnothavevisitedAmericafiftyyearsbeforeColumbusunlesstheyhadmapsshowingtheway—onceagainpointingtoZhengHe’sfleetshavingvisitedDalmatiaandleavingmaps.By2005wehadsoldSerbo-Croatliteraryrightsto1421,whichIhopedwouldleadtonewevidenceofChinesevisits

alongthecoast,butalas,noneemerged.

ThenoutoftheblueonOctober21,2007,Ireceivedtwoe-mailsfromDr.A.Z.Lovric,ageneticistwhoseoldfamilynamewasYoshamya(nameswereforciblychangedaftertheOttomaninvasionsinthesixteenthcentury).Dr.LovrictoldmethathisdistinguishedpredecessorProfessorMitjelYoshamya

hadpublishedalengthypaper(ofnearlytwelvehundredpages)claimingthataDalmatianadmiral,HarvatyeMariakyr,hadsailedtheworldbeforeOttomaninvasions.HehaddonesohavingreceivedworldmapsfromaChineseadmiralwhohadvisitedtheDalmatiancoast.Copiesofthee-mailsareincludedonthe1434website.

HereisasummaryofthepointsmadeinDr.Lovric’se-mail:

1. AlegendpersistsamongislandpeopleofftheAdriaticthatpriortotheOttomaninvasions(priorto1522)foreignsailingshipsmannedby“Oblique-eyedyellowEasterners”(inoldDalmatic:

pashoglavizihodane)visitedtheAdriatic.

2. AftertheorientalnavalvisitsthemedievalDalmatianadmiralHarvatyeMariakyrwithsevenAdriaticshipsreciprocatedthevisitbysailingthroughtheIndianOcean(Khulap-Yndran)totheFarEasttoZihodaneinKhitay

(Cathay).3. Onhisreturnfrom

theFarEast,AdmiralMariakyr,havinglearnedofanewlandintheWest,decidedtosailtherewithhisfleettoSemeraye(SouthAmerica);helosthislifeinmedievalParané(Patagonia).Thisvoyagewasrecordedinmedieval

Glagoliticscript.4. RecentDNAstudies

haveconfirmedthatinsomeAdriaticislands(Hvar,Korcula)andontheadjacentcoasts(Makarska)certainfamilieshaveEastAsiangenotype.

5. UpuntilthetwentiethcenturysomeoftheseAdriaticislanders

hadsurnamesofnon-Slavicandnon-Europeanorigin,forexample,Yoshamya,Yenda,Uresha,Shamana,Sayana,Sarana,andHayana.In1918whentheAustro-Hungariansweredefeated,theislanderswereobligedtoSlavicizesuchforeignsurnames,butthey

persisttothisdayinnicknamesandaliases.

6. MedievalDalmatian-coloredsymbolsformapswerethesameasthoseusedbytheChinese:black=north,white=west,red=south,blueandgreen=east.

7. Adriaticislandershaveuntilrecentlyusedanon-European

nomenclatureforAmericaandtheFarEastbasedontranslationsofChinesenomenclature.

8. Americancactuses(chieflyOpuntia)inmedievalDalmatia,atDubrovnikandelsewhere,weresaidtohavebeenbroughtbyearlyshipsfromtheFarEast.

Dr.Lovric’se-mailreferredtoProfessorMitjelYoshamya’sresearchinCroatian,publishedinZagrebin2004.ThelengthypapercoversthespreadofoldDalmatiannamesacrossthePacificbeforetheSpanishexplorers;Sion-Kulap(Pacific):Skopye-Kulapne(Philippines),Sadritye-Polnebne(Melanesia),Sadritye-Zihodne(Micronesia),Skopye-

Zihodne(Japan),Artazihod(Korea),andVelapolneb(NewZealand).GoawasthemainDalmatianbaseforFarEasttrade.(TheseoldDalmatiannameswereusedonGermanmapsofthePacificuntilGermanywasdefeatedinWorldWarII,afterwhichtheywereexpungedandreplacedbySpanish,French,andPortuguesenames).Ihopethatyoungscholarswill

translatethewholeofProfessorYoshamya’smanuscriptintoEnglish,sinceonlyexcerptshaveyetbeentranslated.

AswillbeseenwhenwereachVenice,tensofthousandsofAsianslavegirlsandwomenwerebroughttoVenice.DoubtlessmanyofthesewouldhaveescapedasthefleetsberthedattheislandsenroutetoVenice,

andthiswillbeshownupinthemitochondrialDNA.

ThefirststepinsettingupaDNAresearchprogramforVenetianandDalmatianpeoplewastoseewhatexistingDNAresearchhadalreadybeencarriedout.Dr.Lovric,whoworksintheDepartmentofMolecularGenetics,kindlyprovidedmewiththeinformation.TherewereadozenlocalDNA

reportsofpeopleonAdriaticislands,whichwereallsummarizedinLovorkaBara,MarijanaPeriietal.,“YChromosomalHeritageofCroatianPopulationanditsIslandIsolates.”7Asmaybeseenintheabstract,ProfessorBaraetal.state:“InoneoftheSouthernIsland(Hvar)populations,wefoundarelativelyhighfrequency(14%)oflineagesbelonging

toP*(xM173)cluster,whichisunusualforEuropeanpopulations.Interestingly,thesamepopulationalsoharbouredmitochondrialhaplogroupFthatisvirtuallyabsentinEuropeanpopulations—indicatingaconnectionwithcentralAsianpopulations,possiblytheAvars.”

Thenatparagraph3onoftheirreport:

WorthyofnoteisthefindingofconsiderablefrequencyhaplogroupP*(xM173)inthepopulationoftheislandofHvar.AccordingtoWellsetal(44—seefootnotes)thislineagedisplaysamaximumincentralAsiawhilebeingrareinEurope,MiddleEastandEastAsia.ItspresenceinHvarrecapitulatesourfindingofMtDNAhaplogroupFontheislandofHvarandinmainlandCroatianpopulation

thatisvirtuallyabsentinEuropebut,again,commoninpopulationsfromcentralandEasternAsia(51—seefootnotes).ThereareseveralpossibilitiesfortheoccurrenceoftheancestrallineageofM173.OneisthewelldocumentedallianceofAvars(aMongolpeople)andSlavs(Croatians)thatfollowedAvararrivaltotheEasternAdriaticin6thCenturyAD.Theotheristhe

expansionoftheOttomanEmpirefromthe16thto18thCenturyADwhenrefugeesfromtheWesternBalkansfrequentlyimmigratedtotheislands.Lastly,theancientSilkRoadlinkingChinawithWesternAsiaandEuropecouldbeapossiblepathofP(xM173)lineagetoo.Anyofthesemigratorypatternscouldhaveintroducedthemutationtotheinvestigatedpopulation.

Asmaybeseen,thedistinguishedprofessorsdonotincludeafourthpossibility:thattheinheritanceofChineseandAsian(Mongol)genescamebyseafromsailorsonshipssailingfromAlexandriatoVenice.Lookingatamaprevealsthisisbyfarthemostlikelymethod.TheAvarssettledneartheDravaRiverontheHungarianborder—whyshouldtheythendecide

tomigratewestwardacrosssomeofthemostruggedmountainsontheplanettoreachHvar?Whychoosethemostextremeisland,thefarthestoutintheocean,onwhichtosettle?

Second,iftheyhadfollowedthisbizarreroute,theirgeneswouldbeseeninthepopulationsbetweenwheretheysettledontheDravaandHvar;theyarenot.

ThesamecouldbesaidfortheOttomaninvasionsdowntheDanube.WhyshouldtheychoosearemoteplaceoutatseatosettlewhentheyhadthefertileDanubeplain?TheamountofAsianDNA,14percent,isremarkable;well-documentedDanishinvasionsofBritainrevealacomparable7percent.Also,inmyview,thefactthatbothAsianmen(Ychromosome)andwomen(mitochondrial)

settledonHvarmeansmenandwomenfromAsiaarrivedtogether.MongolarmiesinvadingfromtheEastwouldhavetakenwomenwheretheyfoundthem.Theywouldnothavebroughttheirwivesandconcubinesalong.QuitetheoppositeprevailedonChinesejunks,wherefemaleslavesandsailorslivedsidebyside.

TherearenoDalmatian

accountsofAsianpeopletrekkingoverlandacrosstheDinaricAlpstoHvar,buttherearelocalaccounts(collatedbyProfessorLovric)thatpriortothesixteenthcenturyOttomaninvasions,foreignsailingshipsmannedby“Oblique-eyedyellowEasterners”visitedthecoast.Hvar,asmaybeseenfromthemap,issmackonthedirectroutefromAlexandria(viaCorfu)toVenice.Inmy

submission,theDNAresultsarepartofalogicalsequenceofevents.ZhengHe’ssquadronarrivesintheMediterraneaninlate1433orearly1434.OneormoreofhisshipsberthsatHvarwhensailorsandslavegirlsjumpship.TheothershipsproceedtoVenice,wheretheyunloadtheslaves.OfficersthentravelontoFlorence,wheretheymeetthepopein1434.Thesquadronreturnsvia

Dalmatiainlate1434,whenaDalmatianfleetjoinsthemforpassagebackthroughtheRedSea–NilecanaltoChina.OnarrivalinChinatheChinesefleetisimpounded:AdmiralHarvatyeMariakyrtakeshissevenshipsintothePacificand“discovers”thirtyPacificislands,towhichhegivesDalmatiannames.Hebringshisfleetbackhomeinthelate1430s/early1440swithaChinesemapoftheAmericas

andsailsforAmericaintheearly1440s.Ifthisscenarioiscorrect,theDNAofVenetiansshouldreflectthatofthepeopleofHvar,asshouldtheDNAofindigenousNativeAmericanswhereAdmiralMariakyr’sfleetvisited(andleftGlagoliticinscriptionsrecordingtheirvoyagesaroundNewEnglandandNovaScotia).

ThisDNAresearchwillbepursued,andresultswillbepostedonourwebsite.WehopetheGlagoliticmanuscriptswillalsobetranslated.

NowtoreturntoZhengHe’ssquadronleavingHvarforVenice,afewdaysvoyagetothenorth.HeretheChinesewouldhavefoundexcellentrepairyards,whichwouldhavebeenofthe

greatestimportancetothem,fortheirshipshadbynowbeenawayfromtheirhomebasesfornearlythreeyears.TheChinesewerelucky—Venicehadbeenbuildingandrepairinggalleysforhundredsofyears.

TodeveloptradebetweenAlexandria,Cairo,andVenice,Venicebuiltgalleysandmannedthemwithskilledseamen.TheArsenal,the

greatestmedievaldockyardofEurope,wasthekeytoVenetianmaritimesupremacy.By1434,Venicecouldputthirty-fivelargegalleystoseaalongwiththreethousandsmallercraftmannedby25,000sailors.Atthebeginningofthefifteenthcentury,theshipworkers’guildhadmorethan6,000membersoutofatotalVenetianpopulationof170,000.TheSenatepassed

stringentlawstocontrolshipbuilding.Thenumberofgalleysbuiltforexportwasrestricted.AnyforeignerwishingtoplaceanorderfirsthadtoobtainauthorizationfromtheGreatCouncil.

Galleyswerebuiltona“conveyorbelt”onwhichshipsweretowedpastasuccessionofstations,wheretheyacquiredropesandsails,armamentsanddry

provisions.8WhenHenryIIIofFrancevisitedVenice,theArsenal’sshipwrightsassembledagalleyweighingsixthousandpoundsinthetimeittookthedogeandhisroyalvisitortoeattheirwaythroughastatebanquet.GalleyswerebuilttostandardspecificationssothatreplacementpartscouldbestoredinVenetianyardsdowntheAdriaticandacross

theMediterranean.

FinancialincentivesweregiventoshipbuildersandownerstokeeptheArsenalproductivewithexperiencedshipwrightsonthejob.Bankerswerediscouragedfromchargingexorbitantinterest.Thepublicbankhadauthoritytograntsoftloans:intheeventthatitwasnecessarytoaccelerateconstruction,costscouldbe

subsidized.AlmosteverycitizenhadastakeinmaritimecommercewiththeEast—eventhegalleyoarsmenhadtherighttotradeontheirpersonalaccounts.AsinglevoyagetoAlexandriaorCairocouldenrichavessel’sentirecompany.

Venicewasequallycommittedtotraininghernavalofficers,pilots,andratings.Theadmiralandfleet

navigatorofVenetianarmadaswereusuallygraduatesoftheVenetiannavalcollegeatPerast,aportintheGulfofKotorinsouthernDalmatianearHvar.Theporthadaninternationalreputation9:CzarPetertheGreatofRussiasenthisfirstofficercadetsthere.Thearmadas’in-shorenavigationwashandledbyprofessionalpilots,trainedatPoreconthe

northDalmatiacoast.Thecreamofthesemariners,thepedottigrandi,wouldsteeranarmadaintothelagoonattheendofitsjourneyfromAlexandria.

ForcenturiesDalmatiahasbeenrenownedforherseafarers.Thenamesofherillustriousofficerscropuptimeandagainintalesofepicbattles—fromCoromandeltotheSpanishMain.Venetian

galleyswerebuiltalmostentirelyfromDalmatianwood—pineforplanks,resinforcaulking,oakforrudders,keels,andstraits.RoughlyhalfthecrewofeachgalleywouldbeDalmatian.

Venicebrilliantlyexploitedhermaritimeassets.WiththeacquisitionofportsontheDalmatiancoast,shegainedabundanttimber.Centuriesofhistoryandtraditionhadbred

skillfulandhardyseamen.JourneyingnorthfromAlexandria,ZhengHe’sfleetswouldhavefoundnumerousports,firstinCrete,thenacrosstheIonianSeatotheAdriatic.Itwasaneasyjourney,eveninthecalmsofsummerwhentheChineseoarsmen—fifteentoanoar—wouldeatupthemiles.TheChinesecouldhaveexpectedtobeguidedbyexperiencedlocalpilots.

Cairo’scontactwithEuropewasthroughVenice,whichhadenteredacommercialtreatywiththeMamluksgivingthemexclusivetradingrights.Thetwocitieswerejoinedbytheirpursuitofamonopolyoneast-westtrade.

ThelinkwithCairoopenedupadditionalpossibilitiesoftradewithChinaandnewwaysofreachingthatdistantland.Astreamofmerchants

andFranciscanmissionariesleftVeniceforChina.OrientaladventureswererelayedviachroniclersincludingthePolos;GiovannidaPiandelCarpineinhisHistoriaMongalorum(1247);WilliamofRubruckwhowroteItinerarium(1255);RabanSauma(1287)andOdoricofPordenone(1330);andJordandeSévérac’sMirabilia(c.1329).TheJewshadtheirowntraveling

merchants,notablyJacobofAnconapriortoMarcoPolo.VenicewasintimatelyacquaintedwithChina.Hermerchants,thePolosinparticular,madefortunestradingexoticChinesesilksanddrappitartareschi.PopesandemperorswereburiedwrappedinChinesesilk.

Smallwonder,giventheircenturiesoftradewithChina,thatVenetianswerethefirst

Europeanstoobtainworldmapsfromtheirtradingpartner.DiVirga’smapoftheEasternHemispherewaspublishedin1419,andPizzigano’smapoftheCaribbeanappearedin1424.Today,youcanseeonthewalloftheDoges’Palaceaworldmappublishedpriorto1428thatincludesNorthAmerica.Astheroundelsonthewallstestify,thismapwascreatedfromevidence

broughtbackfromChinabyMarcoPoloandNiccolòdaConti.TheinscriptionrelatingtodaContisays:“ORIENTALISINDIASHACTABULAEXPRESSUSPEREGRATIONIBUSETSCRIPTISILLUSTRAUNTENNARATISMERCANTORIAMADJIUVIERESAECOLOXVNICOLAUSDECOMITIBUS.EDITO

ITENERARIOLUSITANEPOSTMODUMVERSONOVAMLUCEMNAUTISALLATURO.”Mytranslation:“OrientalIndia[vizChinaandtheIndiesinfifteenth-centuryterminology]asdrawninthiswayisclearlyaresultoftheforeigntravelsandillustratedwritingsnotleastthenarrativesofthemerchantofthefifteenthcentury,NiccolòdaConti.Publicationofthis

itineraryshedsnewlightonthe[travelsof]mariners.”

Thismapwasprobablycompletedbefore1428(inaugurationofDoges’Palace)butdestroyedbyfirein1486;theoriginalmaps(ofwhichacopywasgiventoDomPedro)werehungonthewalls.AccordingtoLorenzetti,themapwasrepaintedbyRamusioin1540afterthefire—thesame

RamusiowhohadsaidthatFraMauro’sworldmapwascopiedfromoneintheCamolodensianMonasteryonthe(current)IslandoftheDeadinthelagoon.GiovanniForlani’smapshowsOregonandtheBeringStraitsbeforeBeringorVancouver.Zatta’smapshowsVancouverIslandalsobeforeCookorVancouverandplacesonit“ColoniadeiChinesi”(ChineseColony).

By1418VenicehadbecomethericheststateinEurope.Thecity’smulecaravanscouldtrampunmolestedthroughVenetianterritorytotheBrennerPass.10AstheseaportnearesttheheartofEurope,VeniceexploitedheraccesstoLakeConstance,whichwastheprincipaltradingcenterformerchantsfromFrance,Germany,Austria,Poland,

andRussia.

Formorethan150yearsbeforeZhengHeappeared,Venetianbankershadbeenusingacashlessgirosystem,creditingonemerchantanddebitinganother.11ItalianbankersledbytheBardisandPeruzzispioneeredinternationalbankingthelengthandbreadthofEurope.AlmosteverycitizenoftheVenetianRepublicwas

involvedinsomeaspectoftrade12—shopkeepersinretailmarkets,portersandfishtradersinwholesalemarkets,dockerstoloadandunload,shipwrightsintheArsenal,oarsmeninthegalleys.Therewerefewbeggarsandhardlyanyunemployment.

EssentialtotheContis,thediVirgas,theCorrers(thefamilyofPopeEugeniusIV’smother),andtheContarinis

werethegreatoaredgalleysthatlefttheRialtoforAlexandria,Beirut,Cairo,Flanders,andLondon.ThegalleyroutestoAlexandriaandtheEastresemblethespokesofavastspider’sweb.13TheMagistratesoftheWatersissueddetailedsailingorderswithwhichmerchantswererequiredtocomply.Thefollowingorder,issuedtoagalleydepartingforAigues-

MortesinProvence,underscorestheimportanceofthesilktrade.

ThegalleywillloadclothsandspicesofVeniceuptothe13thofJanuarynext;sheistoleaveVeniceonthe15thofthesamemonth.Thesetermsmaynotbeextended,suspendedorbrokenunderpenaltyofafineof500ducats.Nosilkengoodsmaybeloadedorshippedonthis

galley,anywhereintheGulfofVeniceoroutsideit,apartfromveils,taffetasandSaracencloth.Ifthemasterofthegalleyloadsorpermitstheloadingofanysilkengoods,hewillbesuspendedforaperiodoffiveyearsduringwhichtimehemaynotcommandanyofthegalleysofthestateorprivatepersons.14

TheMagistrateofthe

Waterstightlycontrolledthemovementofshipsandwheretheywerepermittedtoloadandunload.Eachtypeofgoodhaditsdesignatedloadingwharf—stonebargesattheIncurabile,timbershipsattheMisericordiaandtheFondamenteNuove.ZhengHe’sjunksfromAlexandriawouldhavetiedupattheRivadegliSchiavoni.Venetianmerchantssubmittedtothisdiscipline

knowingthatitbenefitedall.ThedominantfamiliesappointedagentsinCrete,Alexandria,Cairo,andeveryimportantharbortofacilitatetheirinternationaltrade.

Today,theareaaroundSaintMark’sBasilicastillswarmswithboatsunloadingpassengers,vegetables,fruit,andwine.IhavebeentoVeniceinnumerabletimessincefirstvisitingasayoung

officerontheHMSDiamondfiftyyearsago.MymostvividmemorywasasultryAugusteveningtwentyyearsago,afterMarcellaandIhadattendedvespersatSaintMark’s,thefinestByzantinebuildingintheworld,theepitomeofmedievalChristianart,andthesymbolofVenice’stradewithAlexandriaandtheEast.

Formorethanonethousand

yearsthisgloriouscathedralhasbeenthemostimportantbuildinginVenice.HereCrusadeswereblessed,includingtheonefinancedbytheblindolddogeDandolo,whoimploredSaintMarktodeliverByzantiumtoVenice.HereVenetiansmettoprayfordeliveranceintimesofdangerortothankGodinvictory.GenerationaftergenerationofVenetianmerchantshavepouredtheir

wealthintothecity’sfabulouscathedral.15

BuiltintheshapeofaGreekcross,thecathedraloverlooksthelagoon,allowingonetoenjoytheviewfromeitherlandorsea,inchanginglightasthedayprogresses.Thefinestartistshaveendowedtheexteriorandinteriorwithmasterpiecesofmarbleandmosaics.Thewestfaçadeisablazeofgreen,purple,gold,

andbluemarblecollectedfromacrosstheVenetianempire.

Within,worshippersseetheresidueofwealthinthegoldceilings.Thebasilicaisatitsbestbycandlelightatvespers,fromapewbeneaththecentraldome.FromhereJesusappearstoascendtoheaven,carriedbyfourangelssurroundedbytheapostlesandtheVirgin.Everyinchof

thevastceiling,walls,andfloorsisencasedinmosaics.Treasuresliesprawledbeforeone.Analtarofsolidgoldisstuddedwithrubiesandemeralds.PanelsdepictscenesfromthelivesofChristandSaintMark.Chinesesilkandceramics,Byzantinereliquaries,cutPersianglass,crystalgoblets,andsilverswordsfromTartaryfillthemuseum.Allofthisresultedfromcenturies

ofseabornetrade.

Thewealthoffifteenth-centuryVeniceiscapturedinthespeechdeliveredbythedyingdogeTommasoMocenigo:

Thiscitynowstandsoutinthewayofbusinesstodifferentpartsoftheworld.Tenmillionsofducatswereearnedyearlybyshipsandgalleysandtheprofitisnot

lessthantwomillionducatsayear.Inthiscitytherearethreethousandvesselsofone,twohundredamaforewithseventeenthousandseamen.Therearethreehundredlargeshipswitheightthousandsailors.Everyyeartheregotoseaforty-fivegalleyswitheleventhousandsailorsandtherearethreethousandshipcarpentersandthreethousandcaulkers.Therearethreethousandweaversofsilkand

sixteenthousandweaversofcommoncloth.Housesareestimatedtobeworthsevenmillionfivehundredthousandducats.Therentsarefivehundredthousandducats.Thereareonethousandnoblemenwhoseincomeisfromsevenhundredtofourthousandducats.16

Venicepridedherselfonwealthbutalsoonarepublicangovernment

enshrinedinawrittenconstitutionrepletewithcomplexchecksandbalances.Althoughthedogewasheadofstate,hewasconstrainedbyvariouscommitteesandcouncils.WhenGenoawasdefeatedin1380,theItaliancity-statesofVerona,Vicenza,andMantuawillinglyacceptedthePaxVenetica.TheirgoverningbodieswereaddedtotheGreatCouncil.By1418,

VenicehadoutmaneuveredtheHolyRomanEmperorandexpandedherterritoriessouthward.RepresentativesofIstria,Friuli,andDalmatiafurtherswelledtheGreatCouncil.GentiledaFabriano,AntonioVeneziano,andJacobelódelFiorewereretainedbytheprocuratorsofSaintMarktoadornthewallsoftheGreatCouncilChamberwithpaintingsoftheglorioushistoryofthe

Serenissima.Roberticarvedhiswonderfulmarblecapitals,whichadornthefaçade.In1419,Pisanello’sfrescoeswereunveiled.

TheDoges’Palacewasdesignedfordifferentfunctions.Atthefront,overlookingthelagoon,istheGreatCouncilChamber.Atthefarend,nexttoSaintMark’s,thedoge’squartersarelinkedtothelegislative

areasbygoldenstaircases.AttheheartoftheDoges’Palaceisthemaproom—thebiggestinhisquarters.

ThemaproommightwellbedescribedastheheartoftheVenetianEmpire.Herethedogewouldreceivevisitingheadsofstate,includingChinesedelegations.Thetwolongwallsoftheroomarecoveredwithelevenpaintedmapsof

theworld.FacingthevisitorisamapoftheVenetianEmpireintheeasternMediterraneanshowingtheroutetoChinaandtheEast.TotheleftistheVenetianEmpireinthewesternMediterranean.Neitherofthesemapsshowslatitudeorlongitude.Theycoverthesameareaasmapsontheoppositewallshowingtherestoftheworld.TheVenetianEmpireisthus

shownfarlargerthanitwas.

TheoppositewallisdividedbythedoorintotheSaladelFilosofi.TotheleftofthedoorisamapofcentralAsiafromCretetoTibet—theformertradingempireofByzantium.TotherightisamapoftheworldfromArabiaacrossthePacifictoCalifornia.IndiaandtheIndies,China,Japan,thePacific,andNorthAmerica

fromAlaskatoCaliforniaaredepictedwithgeneralaccuracy.OthermapsshowtheNortheastPassagefromtheFaeroestotheriversofSiberia;NorthandSouthAmerica;theRedSeaandArabia;theAtlanticcoastofNorthAmericato55°N,andcentralAsia.ThewholeworldistheresaveforsouthernAustralia.

Ofgreatestinterestisthe

worldmapshowingthePacificandNorthAmerica.Therearetworoundelsonthismap:onedescribesthepartthatMarcoPoloplayedingatheringtheinformation;theotherrecountstheroleplayedbyNiccolòdaConti.ThesearetheworldmapsthatDomPedrowasgivenduringhisstatevisittoVenicebetweenthefifthandtwenty-secondofApril1428.AhostofVenetianrecordsdescribes

thatvisit:LesChroniqueVenetienne:TheDiariesofAntonioMorosonefrom1416–1433;themanuscriptZorsidelfine.AnextensivebibliographyexistsinF.M.Rogers’smarvelousbookTheTravelsoftheInfante,DomPedroofPortugal.

Therearenomaterialdifferencesamongthevariousaccounts,whichProfessorRogerssummarizes:“In

Marchof1428,MarioDandolo,theVenetianAmbassadortotheKingofHungary,reportedthattheInfanteDonPedrohadleftforVenice.TheDoge(FrancescoFoscari)andtheCouncildecidedtoreceivethePortugueseprinceandhiscompanionsinregalfashionastheirguestsandattheirexpense….theDogereceivedDomPedroonboardtheBucintoro(royalbarge).”

OfthegiftsbestoweduponDomPedroduringhisvisittoVenice,ProfessorRogerscitesseveralaccounts,17thefirstbythecelebratedhistorianAntonioGalvão:

Intheyear1428itiswrittenthatDomPeter[Pedro],theKingofPortugal’seldestson,wasagreattraveller.HewentintoEngland,France,Alamaine,fromthenceintotheHolyLandandtoother

places;andcamehomebyItaly,takingRomeandVeniceinhisway;fromwhencehebroughtamapoftheworldwhichhadallthepartsoftheworldandearthdescribed.Thestreight[sic]ofMagellanwascalledinittheDragon’sTail;theCapeofBonaSperanÇa[GoodHope],theforefrontofAfrikeandsoforthofotherplaces;bywhichmap,DomHenry,theKing’sthirdsonnewas

muchhelpedandfurtheredintohisdiscoveries….

ItwastoldmebyFrancisdeSouzaTavaresthatintheyear1528DomFernando,theKing’ssonandheir,didshowhimamapwhichwasfoundinthestudyoftheAlcobazawhichhadbeenmadeonehundredandtwentyyearsbefore[1408]whichmapdidsetforthallthenavigationoftheEastIndieswiththeCape

ofBoaEsperanzaasourlatermapshavedescribedit;wherebyitappeareththatinancienttimestherewasasmuchormorediscoveredthannowthereis.(TratadoDosDiversoseDesayadosCaminhos,Lisbon,1563).

FurthercorroborationisprovidedbyProfessorRogers:“Inearly1502inLisbonthefamousGermanprinterValentinFernandes

publishedabeautifulvolumeoftheIndiesoftheEast[China]….HeincludedPortuguesetranslationsoftheIndiesbasedoninformationgatheredinFlorencefromNicolodaContianddelegatestotheCouncil[presidedoverbyEugeniusIV]andincludedinBookIVofhistreatiseDeVariaetateFortunae.”LaterProfessorRogerswrites:

Inthesecondpartofhis

lengthyintroductiontoMarcoPolo,ValentinFernandesmakesthefollowingstatementpregnantwithmeaningfromseveralpointsofview:“ConcerningthismatterIheard…thattheVenetianshadhiddenthepresentbookformanyyearsintheirTreasureHouse.AndatthetimethattheInfanteDonPedroofgloriousmemory,youruncle,arrivedinVenice[1428]…offered

himasaworthygiftthesaidbookaboutMarcoPolothathemightbeguidedbyitsincehewasdesirousofseeingandtravellingthroughtheworld.TheysaythisbookisintheTorredeTombo.”

ProfessorRogersalsosummarizedMarcoPolo’sanddaConti’scontributionstoworldmaps:

WiththeCape[GoodHope]

rounded,theall-waterroutetoIndialayrevealed.ValentinFernandescouldthinkofnogreaterservicetohismonarchthanthepublicationinPortuguesetranslationthethreebestavailabledescriptionsoftheworldoverwhichKingManuelnowassumeddominion.OnewasthatofMarcoPolo;anotherwasthedescriptionoftheIndies(vizChina)writtenbyPogiothe

Florentine,basedontheinformationsuppliedtohimbythedelegatestotheCouncilofFlorenceandbyNicolodaConti.”

ItseemstomebeyondargumentthattheworldmapondisplaytodayintheDoges’Palaceis,astheVenetiansclaim,basedoninformationthatreachedVenicefromMarcoPoloandNiccolòdaContiandthatthis

wasthesameworldmaptakentoPortugalbyDomPedroin1428.Consequently,boththeVenetiansandthePortugueseknewthecontoursofthewholeworldbeforethePortuguesevoyagesofexplorationevenstarted.WeknowthatdaContiwasinCalicutthesametimeasZhengHe’sfleets,forhedescribesthejunksandhisdescriptiontallieswiththoseofMaHuan,ZhengHe’s

historian,whowasinCalicutin1419.18

AsketchofMongolfacesbytheVeroneseartistPisanello,

1430s.

Asnoted,in1419,Pisanello(1395–1455)hadpaintedmuralsintheDoges’Palace.PisanellocamefromVerona,whichbythenhadjoinedthePaxVenetica—hergrandeeswereelectedtotheGreatCouncilofVenice.Inabout1436Pisanellopainted

anotherfrescointhechurchofSaintAnastasiaatVeronaentitledSaintGeorgeandthePrincessofTrebizond.Intheleft-handsectionisagroupofhorsemen.SeatedonarichlycaparisonedhorseisaMongolgeneralwithfacialfeatures,clothes,andhatverysimilartothecarvingsofZhuDi’sgeneralsthatlinetheroadthatleadstoZhengHe’stombnorthofBeijing.TheMongoldignitarywearsrich

silkclothes.Pisanello’ssketchesofthehard,powerfulMongolfacecanbeseenseparatelyintheLouvreinParis.ThesketchandpaintingaresovividthatitsseemstomeinescapablethatPisanellopaintedwhathesawinthelate1430s—aMongoliangeneralinVeniceorVerona,acaptainoradmiralofoneoftheChinesejunks.19(Seenote20forPisanello’sother

sketchesofChinesevisitorstoVeniceinthe1430s).InmyviewPisanello’ssketchesdepicttheChineseAdmiralandhisseniorMandarinadvisorintheirformaldresswhentheymettheDoge.AscaptainofHMSRorqualIwouldwearmyceremonialswordwhencallingonlocaldignitariesatthestartofanofficialvisit.TheChineseadmiralwouldhavecarriedhisceremonialbow.

TheChinesejunksberthedattheRivadegliSchiavoni,orQuayofSlaves,wouldhavecreatedlittlefuss—ChineseandArabshipswerethereasamatterofcourse.Theambassadorandthecaptainswouldhavepresentedtheircredentialstothedogeinhispalaceafewhundredyardsaway,togetherwiththeShoushiastronomicalcalendargivingdetailsoftheXuanDeemperor’s

conceptionandbirth.Ceremonialgiftsofsilkandblue-and-whiteimperialporcelainwouldhavefollowed,andfinallymapsofthevoyagefromChina.Thebarbarianswouldnowbeabletoreturntribute.

Freshmeat,fruit,fish,vegetables,andwaterwouldbeembarked,paidforpartlyinVenetianducats(whichtheChinesewouldhaveacquired

inCairo)andpartlyinrice.ZhengHe’sfleetswouldhavedisposedofthepoorconcubinesandslaveswhohadnotdiedintransitorbeengivenawayatapreviousport,dispatchingthemtotheslavemarketorshippingthemontoFlorence.

Adatewouldhavebeensetforaregulationtofixthepriceforthesaleoftheceramicsthatcrammedthe

holds.Tampionswouldhavebeenplacedontheguns;thenthesailorscouldbegintheirshoreleave.WecanimagineChinesesailorspreparingtogoashoreinamannerverysimilartothatofmyfellowsailorsfiftyyearsagowhentheHMSDiamondberthedoppositetheRivadegliSchiavoni:wetrimmedourbeards,cutourlonghair,gaveourselvesagoodwash.FortheChinese,perhapsfirst

aswimintheLidobeforedonningtheirbestclothes,havingadrink,andcollectingpresentstogiveouttothegirls.In1434thesewerelikelytohavebeenchildren’stoysorminiaturecarts,junksorwhirligigs,orperhapsoneofthepocketencyclopediassuchastheNungShu,showinghowtodesignfarmmachinery.

Onceashore,theChinese

sailorscouldhavebeenexcusediftheythoughttheywerebackinQuanzhou—theirMongoliancounterpartswereeverywhere.VenicewasthegatewaytoTuscanyandthefunnelthroughwhichslavesreachedEurope.Lazariwrites:“ManyoftheslavegirlsdescribedintheRegistrodegliSchiavi,mostlyintheirteensweresoldinastateofpregnancyandlaterusedasnurses….Inthiswayalarge

influxofAsiaticbloodpenetratedintotheTuscanpopulation.”

LynnWhitequotesLazari:“Lazari,whohasstudiedmostcarefullytherecordsoftheseunfortunatesinVenice,assuresusthatthelargestnumbercamefromtheregionsborderingTibetandChinainthenorth.‘Astheycameintheirthousandsandwererapidlyabsorbedbythe

indigenouspopulation,acertainMongolianstraincouldnothavebeenrareinTuscanhomesandstreets.’”20

IrisOrigopaintsavividpictureoftheslaveswhoreachedFlorencefromVenice:

AtravellerarrivinginTuscanyatthistimemightwellhavebeenstartledbytheappearanceoftheserving-

maidsandgroomsoftheFlorentineladies.Mostlysmallandsquat,withyellowskins,blackhair,highcheek-bonesanddarkslantingeyes…theycertainlyseemedtobelongtoadifferentracefromtheFlorentine…andifthetravellerhadfriendsinoneoftheFlorentinepalazziandwenttocall,hefoundseveralotherexoticfigurestheretoo:swarthyoryellowlittlegirlsofelevenor

twelve…actingasnursemaidsorplaymatesforthelittleFlorentinemerchant-princes.

Allthesewereslaves:mostofthemTartars….

Evenanotary’swife,orasmallshopkeeper’s,wouldhaveatleastone,anditwasfarfromuncommontofindoneamongthepossessionsofapriestornun.Andaglimpseofthem—perhapsslightly

romanticised—evenappearsinapopularsongdescribinglittleslavesshakingthecarpetsoutofthewindowsontheLungarno:

“LaschiavetteamoroseScotendolerobelamattinaFrescheegiorosecomefiordispina”*

[*“Thecharminglittleslave-girls—shakingouttheclothesinthemorning—as

freshandjoyfulashawthornbuds.”]21

NowletusfollowtherichChineseambassadorandthepoorslavegirlsacrossthewoodedplainsofTuscanytoFlorence.

8

PAOLOTOSCANELLI’SFLORENCE

ArrivinginFlorence,theChinesedelegationswouldhaveseentoweringabove

themthemassivedomeoftheCathedralofSantaMariadelFiore,asymbolofreligiousfaithandatributetoFlorence’sbrilliantarchitectsandengineers.

Anargumentative,opinionatedgenius,FilippoBrunelleschi,wasthecathedral’sarchitect.Tobuildhiscreation,hehaddesignedalifttohoistupthefourmillionbricksthejob

required.Anovelinvention,theliftcouldoperateattwospeeds,dependingontheload,andwascapableofreversingdirectionwithoutstoppingthebullocksthatsupplieditspower.Oncethebricksarrivedatthebaseofthecupola,giantcranes,anotheringeniousdesign,shiftedthemintoplace.

Thedomewasunique,resemblingalemonwiththe

bottomslicedoff.Standingaslicedlemonupright,withtheseveredsectionasthebase,oneseesthecurveincreaseasthedomerises.Initially,thecathedralbricksrisevertically,thentheycurvemoreandmoreasthetiersgethigher,until,atthetop,theyarealmosthorizontal.Withoutinternalsupportstosecurethem,onewouldhaveexpectedthebrickstofallinward.ButBrunelleschi

solvedthisproblembydeployingcomplex,three-dimensionalmathematicsapplicabletothevolumeofinvertedcones—anextraordinarysolutionhereachedwiththeassistanceofPaoloToscanelli.1

Brunelleschidesignedandorganizedeverythingconcernedwiththishugestructure,atthetimethelargestintheworldafter

SantaSofiainByzantium.Hesupervisedthekilnswherethebricksweremade;hespecifiedtheproportionsoflimeandsodiumbicarbonateforthemortar;hedesignednewformsformoldingthebricks.Heevenbuilthisownships—articulatedtofacilitatesailingalongtheshallow,twistingArnoloadedwithmarblefromCarraraquarries.Hewasgrantedapatentforthisinvention,accompanied

bytherighttoburnrivalboats!Forthreeyears,allmarblewascarriedinSignorBrunelleschi’sbarges.ItappearedthatBrunelleschi,likeLeonardodaVinci,neverwenttouniversityyethebecameageniuswhocouldturnhishandtoanything.

Thecitythatsprawledaroundthecathedralinthe1430swasonevastbuildingsite,afrenzyofcivicworks.2

Thedomealonecreatedthousandsofjobs;bricklayers,masons,carpenters,blacksmiths,winchers,plasterers,andtoolsharpenerstoiledlikeworkerbees.Contractorsquarriedstonefromthesurroundinghills,providingmarblefromCarrara,Siena,Monsummano,andCampiglia.Florence’sleadfurnacesfiredfullblast;tileandbrickfactoriesin

Castinno,Lastra,Campi,andImprunetaworkedinshiftsatfullcapacity.Farmersplantednewvines,sanknewwells,andraisedmorebarns.

BetweentheacquisitionoftheportofPisain1406andthatofLivornoin1421,Florencehadenjoyedacontinuouseconomicboom.Merchantsmadefortunesandpatronizedastreamofarchitects,sculptors,painters,

andengineers.Inthisextraordinaryera,Florencereachedherapogee,“throwingupgeniuseswiththeeaseofajuggler.”3Orsoitseems.

Italyinthefourteenthcenturywasapatchworkofsmall,independentstatesofnegligiblepoliticalandmilitaryweight.Dialect,money,evenweightsandmeasuresvariedfromstateto

state.Florenceitselfwasabackwater.Yetfrom1413to1470,Florenceproducedaseriesofworkssomajesticthatnearlysixcenturieslatertheycanstilltakeyourbreathaway.WhydidtheRenaissancesuddenlyexplodeinthissmallItaliantown?WhatcausedGothicarchitects,sculptors,andpainterstoadopttheradicalstylewecallRenaissance?Howdidsuchabountyof

geniusemergefromobscurityinthespaceofafewyears?Whythere?Whythen?

OneexplanationbeginswiththefactthatNaturewasverykindtonorthernItaly.TheAlpssweepinadefensivesemicirclearoundhernorthernfrontiers;inspring,theirmeltingsnowsfeedthePoanditstributaries,whichmeanderacrosstheplainofLombardytotheAdriatic.

Rainfallsthroughouttheyear;eveninhighsummerthehayfieldsarelushandgreen,thesweetcornninefeethigh.Threeorfourcropsprovidewinterfodderforanimals.Brilliantsunshine,abundantwater,andrichalluvialsoilproducecropsofeverydescription:walnutsandchestnutsinthemountains;apples,pears,grapes,andpeachesinthefoothills;ontheRiviera,

oranges,lemons,andpersimmons.FromAlexandriatoMantuastretchmileupongoldenmileofricefields.FourthousandsquaremilesofintensivelycultivatedlandinthePoValleyprovideplentifulfoodforeveryone.

Italyenjoyedotherblessings,aswell.ThroughouttheMiddleAges,lifetheredifferedfromlifeinthebarbariannorth.4The

urbanlifecreatedbytheRomanssurvivedtheOstrogothandHuninvasions.AfterthefalloftheRomanEmpire,Italians(unlikethebrutishEnglish)werenotdrivenbackintoforests.Feudalismdidnottakeroot(ItalyprovidedfewwarriorsfortheCrusades).

NorthernItalyhadafarmoredensepopulationthanelsewhereinEurope.Urban

wealthandcommercehadencouragedaninflowoflaborfromthecountryside,stimulatingfurthereconomicgrowth.OldRomanwalledcitiesaffordedprotection.Cities,ratherthanstatesorkings,dominatednorthernItaly’slife.Peoplewereborn,lived,fought,anddiedasindividuals.

Formillennia,VenicehadbeenthehubofEuropean

trade,exchangingtherichesoftheEastforrawmaterialsfromthenorth.Venice’swealthspilledoverintotheVenetoandalongthevalleyofthePo.Genoese,Florentine,andVenetianmerchantssetupbusinessinAlexandria,Byzantium,andTrebizond.InnorthernEurope,bycontrast,generationsstruggledtoekeoutalivinginthecoldforestsandmarshessurrounding

them.Therewaslittlesurpluslaborforcommerce.

Florence,nestledintheleeoftheApennines,enjoysahostofnaturaladvantages.AneasyjourneyfromVenice,sheisapproachedthroughlush,greenvalleys,theirgentle,undulatingslopescoveredwithoaks,sweetchestnuts,mountainash,andacacia.Despitecalamitousfloods,onbalancetheRiver

Arnohasprofitedthecity,providinganabundanceoffishwhiletransportingsewageandbuildingmaterialsdownstream.Florencehasneverbeenmuchtroubledbythewatershortagesthatlimitedgrowthinthehilltowns.Almosteveryaspectofthewooltrade—separatingfleeces,tanninghides,washing,spinning,andfulling—requiredcopiousamountsofwater.

Bythefourteenthcenturyanall-weatherroadhadbeenbuiltbesidetheArno.TrafficfromVeniceandtheLombardplainconvergedatBologna,fromwhichtheshortestroutetoRomelayacrosstheApennines.Florenceoccupiedbothtraderoutes—fromtheAdriatictotheMediterraneanandfromVenicetoRome.

Florence’saccesstoVenice

enabledhertoreapsomeofthebenefitsofVenice’stradewiththeEast.ItalsoexposedthecitytoaninfluxofChineseandotherAsians,aswecanseefromperiodpaintingsandsculpture.“Aboutthistime,”explainedarthistorianBernardBerensoninEssaysintheStudyofSienesePainting,“theartsandcraftsofthecontemporaryorientwere

beginningtoinvadeItaly.”5

AmbrogioLorenzetti,whoneverleftTuscany,paintedTheMartyrdomoftheFranciscanFriarsinthechurchofSanFrancescoSiena,depictingChinesemerchantswithconicalhats.Previously,orientaleyeshadappearedinfacespaintedbyGiottoandDuccio.AsLeonardoOlschkiwrotein“AsiaticExoticisminItalian

ArtoftheEarlyRenaissance,”“theimpressionhasbeengiventhatTuscanywasalmostaneighbouringcountryofthegreatMongolianEmpireandthatMandarins,KhansandOrientaldignitarieswerealmostasmuchathomeinFlorenceandSienaasinPeking,TabrizandCalicut.”6

TherewasaverysubstantialChineseandMongolian

populationinFlorenceinthedecadesafter1434,whichOlschkidescribeshere:

Bythis[slave]tradetheMongoliantypebecameveryfamiliarinNorthernItalyandespeciallyinFlorencewherethemostconspicuousfamiliessuchastheAdimari,Alberti,Cavalcanti,Medici,Strozzi,Vespucciandmanyothershadtheirservants“degenereTartarorum”andwere

emulatedbynotaries,priests,physicians,merchantsandfinallycraftsmenandartists….AnancestorofAlessoBaldovinettiboughtthreeofthoseexoticgirlswhoseportraitshedrewonthemarginofhisstillunpublishedJournal….TheMongolianslavegirlsseemtohavebeenattractiveenoughtotheFlorentinemalefolktobecomeadisruptiveelementinthefamilylifeandgeneral

moralityofthetown.ItissymptomaticthataladyoftherankofAlessandraMacinghiStrozziwrotejocosely,in1464,aboutagirlslaveflirtingwithhersonandbehavinglikealadyofhishousehold.Thereisevidenceenoughfortheimportantpartplayedbythesewomenintheamorouslifeofthetown.Figuresspeakanimpressivelanguage.Amongthe7534infantsdeliveredbetween

1394and1485intheFlorentinefoundlinghospitalupto32percentwereillegitimatechildrenofthoseorientalslaves.

InthiswayalargeinfluxofAsiaticbloodpenetratedintotheTuscanpopulationduringthemostbrilliantepochofitsculturalandeconomicevolution.7

Florentinefamilieswere

abletokeepAsianslavegirlsduetothewealthgeneratedbythewoolandsilktrade.ButthattradewouldneverhaveflourishedwithouttheinnovationsofItalianbanking.

Florenceproducedtwobankersofgenius:Giovannide’MediciandFrancescodiMarcoDatini.8From1398untilhisdeathin1410,Datinidevisedarangeofnew

financialinstrumentsthatrevolutionizedEuropeanbanking.Giovannide’MedicitookoverwhereDatinileftoff,9leadinghisfamilytobecomethewealthiestinFlorenceandfarandawaythemostimportantpatronsofRenaissancelearningandart.TheMedicisfundedartists,astronomers,engineers,architects,andcartographersonagrandscale.

Inadditiontoart,thefamilypurchasedpower,assiduouslycourtingthepapacy.Duringtheschismthatresultedintwocompetingpopes,oneinAvignonandtheotherinRome,apiraterejoicinginthenameofBaldassareCossawaselectedPopeJohnXXIII.TheMedicishadboughtBaldassarehiscardinal’shatwithaloanoftenthousandducats.WhenBaldassaribecamepope,theMedicis

promptlybecameprincipalbankerstothepapacy.(ForashortperiodtheSpinisreplacedthem,butattheendof1420,theSpinibankbecameinsolventandtheMedicisacquiredtheirbusiness.)

In1421,forthestatutorytwo-monthperiod,Giovannide’Medicioccupiedtheofficeofgonfalonieri,theheadofFlorence.Withina

fewyearsnotonlydidtheMedicibankbecamethemostsuccessfulcommercialenterpriseinItalybutthefamilybecamethemostprofitableinthewholeofEurope.Forthenext150years,MedicipowerandmoneyfiredtheRenaissance.

TheRenaissanceproducedanenormousappetitefortalent—engineers,astronomers,mathematicians,

andartistswhoseindividualworksweresowidelyacclaimedthatotherswereinspiredtofollowwithconfidence.Inthis,Florenceonceagainhadanidealclimate.

WhiletheMedicisandotherwealthypatronsprovidedthefunds,substantialprojectswereoverseenbytheoperas,10committeescomprisingofacrosssection

ofsociety.Artists,engineers,andbankerssatalongsidelawyers,astronomers,andaristocrats,justastheydidinthecity’sgoverningbody,theSignoria.Thisrelaxedcommunicationamongdifferentsocialclassestookplaceinasocietythatvalueddiversity.TheMediciscountedthepope,thechancellorofFlorence(LeonardoBruni),Toscanelli,Brunelleschi,LeonBattista

Alberti,andNicholasofCusaamongtheirfriends.Theyate,drank,andprayedtogether,frequentlymeetingeveryday.Theyexaminedalmosteveryaspectofhumanendeavorwithacold,inquisitiveeye.Ifmancouldexplainthefundamentalworkingsoftheheavens,hecouldexpoundwithequalcomfortonsculpture,painting,drama,poetry,music,medicine,civilengineering,andwarfare.

Averyimportanttradition,whichboundtheFlorentinehierarchytogether,wastheirprivategroupmeal,themensa,heldtwiceadayattheheadquartersoftheSignoriainthePalazzoVecchio.AsTimothyJ.McGeewrotein“DinnerMusicfortheFlorentineSignoria,1350–1450”:11“TheMensatookplaceinthecivicofficebuildingnowknownasthe

PalazzoVecchiowhichhasservedastheseatofFlorentinegovernmentsinceitsconstructionin1300….TheSignoriawastheexecutivebranchofthecitygovernment….Presentatthemensaitselfwereafewseniormembersofthesignoriastaff(thefamiglia),occasionaldistinguishedvisitorsandguestsofthecity….”

TheChinesedelegation,withtheirnewideas,fabulousinventions,anddepthofculture,wouldhavemadeaveryforcefulimpressiononFlorentineintellectualsmeetingforthemensa,includingPaoloToscanelli.FlorencewastheidealloamforChineseintellectualseeds.

Bypurechance,theChinesearrivedinFlorencejustastheMedicisreturnedfromexile.

InSeptember1433theSignoriahadexiledCosimode’Medicialongwithmostofhisfamily.However,intheelectionsofSeptember1434,theconservativefactionintheSignoriawasrouted.TheStrozzis,opponentsoftheMedicis,wereexiledorbarredfromoffice.

FinanceforthewinningsidehadbeenprovidedbyCosimo,whohadbecome

chiefexecutiveofthefamilybankin1420.Heprovedtobeabrilliantbanker.Profitsfortheyears1420–1435totaled186,382florinsandroseto290,791florinsbetween1435and1450.Itwasahugesum,morethantheincomeofsomeEuropeanstates.CosimoopenedbranchesinAncona,Pisa,Genoa,Lyons,Basel,Antwerp,Bruges,andLondon,becomingthefirst

Europeaninternationalbank.HefinancedtheCouncilofFlorence(1438–1439)andprovidedthefundstotoppletheViscontisinMilan,Florence’soldrival.

AsMaryHollingsworthhasshown,Cosimotookadramaticturnafter1434,embarkingonanorgyofpatronage.Hefinancedexoticpalacesandchapels—SanLorenzo,SanMarco,andthe

MediciPalace—fittingthemwithmagnificentlibraries.Hefinancedtheproductionofnewbooks,maps,andscientificinstrumentstofillthem.VespasianodaBisticci,aleadingFlorentinebookseller,describedCosimoemployingfifty-fivescribestocopytwohundredtexts—asmallundertakingbythestandardsofZhuDi’sencyclopediabutvastbyEuropeanstandards.(Henry

VofEnglandownedtwentybookswhenhediedin1422.)

TheMedicifamilyspent663,755florinsonpatronagebetween1434and1471.RecipientsincludedPopeEugeniusIV,Toscanelli,Alberti,PoggioBracciolini,FriarMauro(fortheworldmapof1459),ChristopherColumbus(describedinchapter10),andtheyoungAmerigoVespucci.12

ThefamilysupportedFlorentinehumanistssuchasToscanelliandAlberti,whoshowedanewapproachtotheworld,explainingitthroughreasonratherthanmysticism.Cosimofinancedartistswhousedperspectiveandproportionandscientistswhoarguedthattheearthwasaglobe,whocouldenvisionnewlandsfullofrichesthatcouldbereachedbysailingacrosstheseasandnever

fallingofftheedge.Hesupportedandfinancedscientistswhocouldexplainman’splaceintheuniverse.

MaryHollingsworthcitesCosimoandhisbrotherLorenzo’sembellishmentofthesacristyatSanLorenzoasanotableinsertionofscienceintotheveryheartofthechurch:

Inthelittledomeabovethe

altar,anastronomicalfrescodepictedthepositionofthesun,moonandstarsfor6July1439,theofficialdayofUnionbetweentheEasternandWesternChurchessignedattheCouncilofFlorence….Hischoiceofsuchanexplicitlymodernthemetocommemoratethiseventwassignificant.CeilingspaintedblueandstuddedwithgoldstarstorepresentHeavenwerecommoninmedieval

churches.Butthisscientificallyaccuratedepictionofaparticularday’sskywasunfamiliar….13

Thepositionofthesun,moon,andstarsforJuly6,1439,asseeninFlorencemaybecheckedbysettingupthesoftwarepackage“StarryNight”forthatdayatlatitude43°48'N.Thepuzzlingquestionis,howdidCosimo’sartist—withoutthe

benefitofcomputer-basedastronomicaltables—knowthepositionofthesun,moon,andstarsforthatday?

Myfirstthoughtonseeingthepaintedheavensonthebluedomeabovethealtarwasthattheartistmusthavehadsomesortofcameratophotographtheskysoaccurately.ThemysterydeepenedafterIstudiedcolorphotographsofthedome,

whichdisplayeddetailedcelestialinformation.

Someoneknewtheprecisepositionsofthestarsrelativetooneanother,aswellasthepositionsofthesunandmoonrelativetoeachotherandtothestars.Whoeverpaintedthatfrescounderstoodthesolarsystem.AuthorPatriciaFortiniBrown,in“LaetenturCaeli:TheCouncilofFlorenceandthe

AstronomicalFrescointheOldSacristy,”states:“Thisisnotjustanotherstar-patternedvault:withitscarefullydefinedcelestialmeridiansandgraduatedbandoftheecliptic,distinctlymarkedoffinmeasureddegrees,itrepresentsadatedandlocatedskywithapparent‘scientific’exactitude.”

CanisMajorasdepictedinAlberti’snightskyintheSacristyofSanLorenzo.

Asdescribedinchapter4,theapparentpositionofthestarsrelativetosunandearth

changesdailyovera1,461-daycycle.Becauseoftheastonishingaccuracyofthefresco,itispossibletodatethedayinthiscyclethatthefrescorepresents.Brownexplains:

TherecentdevelopmentofcomputerbasedastronomicaltableswhichaccordadegreeofaccuracyunavailabletoWarburg’sastronomer[apreviousattemptatdating]

nowmakesitpossibletoascertainwithcertaintythedateindicatedbylunarandsolarpositionsintheoldSacristyfresco….ProfessorJohnHeilbronhasbeenabletoverifyindependentlythe6July1439datingfirstmentionedbyBingandtofixthetimeofdayatapproximately12noon.14

AtnoononJuly6,1439,amasscelebratedthetriumph

ofPopeEugeniusIV,who,attheCouncilofFlorencethedaybefore,hadsealedtheunionofthewesternandeasternChristianchurches.(Withtheunionachieved,Venice’snavysubsequentlydefeatedtheOttomannavyandliftedtheblockadeofByzantium.)July6wasnamedapublicholiday,andtheCathedralofSantaMariadelFiorewaspreparedwiththronesfortheCatholicand

Orthodoxbishops.PopeEugeniusIVcelebratedapontificalmassatnoonwiththeepistleandgospelreadinbothLatinandGreek.TheDecreeofUnionwasthenproclaimedinapapalbull,whichbegan,“Laetenturcaeli,”Lettheheavensrejoice.

Thedomewaslaterpaintedtodepictthemomentofheavenlyrejoicing.Buthow

wasitpaintedwithsuchaccuracy,andbywhom?

Myfirstthoughtwasthatthepaintingwasdonebyobservationofthesky.Onexamination,Irealizedthiswasimpossible.Itwasbroaddaylight;althoughthestarswereindeedinthepositionsrevealedbythedome,theycouldnothavebeenseenatnoon.

WhatiftheskyhadbeenobservedonthenightofJuly6,andthestarpositionsextrapolatedbackward?Thissuggestionfailsfortworeasons.First,thefrescoshowssun,moon,andstars,butthesun,ofcourse,isnotvisibleatnight.Second,anarmyofobserverswouldhavebeennecessarytomeasurepreciselytheanglesbetweenstarsandbetweenthestars,sun,andmoon—all

atatimewhenthesunwasnotvisible.Florencein1439hadneitheranarmyofqualifiedobserversnorsufficientmeasuringinstruments.

Thiscomplexpaintingrequiredyearstoexecute,duringwhichthepositionofthestarsrelativetotheearthwouldhavechangedaccordingtothe1,461-daycycle.Thusitcouldnothave

resultedfrompiecemealobservationsoverthecourseofthejob.Instead,theinescapableconclusionisthattheartisthadaccesstoaccurateastronomicaltables.

Fromthefinancialaccounts(quotedbyJamesBeck,listingpaymentstotheartistsinLeonBattistaAlbertiandtheNightSkyatSunLorenzo),15itappearsthatthepaintingwasstartedafterthe

deathofGiovanniandhiswife,PiccardaBueri,inApril1433,possiblyhaltedduringtheMedicis’exile(October1433–October1434)andstartedagainin1435,laterpaymentsbeingmadeinMay1439andJanuaryandSeptember1440.Thepaintingthustookatleastsixyears.Theexplanationfortheastonishinglyaccuratedatingseemstomethattheconstellationswiththeir

figures(themajorpartofthework)werepaintedoversixyearsupuntiltheUnionoftheChurches,afterwhichspecificstarswerepaintedinpositionstheywouldhaveoccupiedatnoononJuly6,1439—arelativelyminorandeasypieceofworkifthedeclinationandrightascensionsofthestarswereknown.

Beck,hasshownthatthe

painterwasLeonBattistaAlberti,perhapsassistedbyhisfriendPaoloToscanelli.ThesetwowereFlorence’sleadingastronomersandmathematiciansin1439.Albertiin1434hadaccompaniedEugeniusIVtoFlorence,wherehemetToscanelli.

Asweshallshortlydiscover,themostlikelyexplanationofthefresco

mysteryisthatAlberti,whoservedasthepope’snotary,mettheChinesedelegatesandobtainedacopyoftheastronomicalcalendarpresentedbytheChinesetoEugeniusIV.Thecalendarprovidedthenecessaryinformationofrightascensionsanddeclinationsofstarstodrawthenightskyforaparticulardayandhour.

9

TOSCANELLIMEETSTHECHINESE

AMBASSADOR

HereisatranslationofPaoloToscanelli’sletter,

writteninFlorenceonJune25,1474,toCanonFernanMartins(MartinezdeRoriz),KingAlfonsoofPortugal’sconfessoratthecourtinLisbon.

CanonofLisbon,Paulusthephysician[i.e.Toscanelli]ItpleasedmetohearofyourintimacyandfriendshipwithyourgreatandpowerfulKing.OftenbeforeIhavespokenofthesearoutefrom

heretoIndia,thelandofspices:aroutewhichisshorterthanthatviaGuinea.YoutellmethatHisHighnesswishesmetoexplainthisingreaterdetailsothatitwillbeeasiertounderstandandtakethisroute.AlthoughIcouldshowthisonagloberepresentingtheearth,Ihavedecidedtodoitmoresimplyandclearlybydemonstratingthewayonanauticalchart.IthereforesendHisMajestya

chartdrawnbymyownhand,onwhichIhaveindicatedthewesterncoastlinefromIrelandinthenorthtotheendofGuinea,andtheislandswhichlieuponthispath.Oppositethem,directlytothewest,IhaveindicatedthebeginningofIndia[i.e.,China,usingthenomenclatureofthe15thcentury],togetherwiththeislandsandplacesyouwillcometo:howfaryoushould

keepfromtheArcticpoleandtheequator;andhowmanyleaguesyoumustcoverbeforeyoucometotheseplaces,whicharemostrichinallkindsofspices,gemsandpreciousstones.AndbenotamazedwhenIsaythatspicesgrowinlandstotheWest,eventhoughweusuallysaytotheEast:forhewhosailswestwillalwaysfindtheselands,inthewestandhewhotravelseastbylandwill

alwaysfindthesamelandsintheeast.

Theuprightlinesonthischartshowthedistancefromeasttowest,whereasthecrosslinesshowthedistancefromnorthtosouth.ThechartalsoindicatesvariousplacesinIndiawhichmaybereachedifonemeetswithastormorheadwindoranyothermisfortune.

Thatyoumayknowasmuchabouttheseplacesaspossible,youshouldknowthattheonlypeoplelivingonanyoftheseislandsaremerchantswhotradethere.

Therearesaidtobeasmanyships,marinersandgoodsthereasintherestoftheworldputtogetherespeciallyintheprincipalportcalledZaitonwheretheyloadandunloadonehundredgreat

shipsofpeppereveryyear,nottomentionmanyothershipswithotherspices.Thatcountryhasmanyinhabitants,provinces,kingdomsandinnumerablecitiesallofwhichareruledbyaprinceknownastheGrandKhan,whichinourlanguagemeans“TheKingofKings,”whomainlyresidesintheProvinceofCathay.Hisforefathersgreatlydesiredtomakecontactwiththe

Christianworld,andsometwohundredyearsagotheysentambassadorstothePope,askinghimtosendthemmanylearnedmenwhocouldinstructtheminourfaith;buttheseambassadors[thePolos]metwithdifficultiesontheway,andhadtoturnbackwithoutreachingRome.InthedaysofPopeEugenius[1431–1447],therecameanambassadortohim,whotoldhimoftheirgreatfeelingsof

friendshiptoalltheChristians,andIhadalongconversationwiththeambassadoraboutmanythings:aboutthevastsizeoftheroyalbuildings,abouttheamazinglengthandbreadthoftheirrivers,andaboutthegreatnumberofcitiesontheirbanks—sogreatanumberthatalongoneriverthereweretwohundredcitieswithverylong,widebridgesofmarblethatwereadorned

withmanypillars.Thiscountryisricherthananyotheryetdiscovered,notonlycoulditprovidegreatprofitandmanyvaluablethings,butalsopossessesgoldandsilverandpreciousstonesandallkindsofspiceinlargequantities—thingswhichdonotreachourcountriesatpresent.Andtherearealsomanyscholars,philosophers,astronomers,andothermenskilledinthenaturalsciences

whogovernthatgreatkingdomandconductitswars.

FromthecityofLisbontothewest,thechartshowstwenty-sixsections,oftwohundredandfiftymileseach—altogethernearlyone-thirdoftheearth’scircumferencebeforereachingtheverylargeandmagnificentcityofKinsai.Thiscityisapproximatelyonehundred

milesincircumferenceandpossessestenmarblebridgesanditsnamemeans“theHeavenlyCity”inourlanguage.Amazingthingshavebeenrelatedaboutitsvastbuildings,itsartistictreasures,anditsrevenues.ItliesintheProvinceofManji,neartheProvinceofCathay,wheretheKingchieflyresides.AndfromtheislandofAntilliawhichyoucall“theIslandoftheSeven

Cities,”totheveryfamousislandCipanguaretensections,thatis,twothousandfivehundredmiles.Thatisland[Cipangu]isveryrichingold,pearlsandpreciousstonesanditstemplesandpalacesarecoveredingold.Butsincetheroutetothisplaceisnotyetknown,allthesethingsremainhiddenandsecret;andyetonemaygothereingreatsafety.

Icouldstilltellofmanyotherthings,butasIhavealreadytoldyouoftheminperson,andasyouareamanofgoodjudgementIwilldilatenofurtheronthissubject.Itrytoansweryourquestionsaswellasthelackoftimeandmywork[would]havepermittedme,butIamalwayspreparedtoserveHisHighnessandanswerhisquestionsatgreaterlengthshouldhesowish.

WritteninFlorenceonthetwenty-fifthofJune1474.1

PopeEugeniusIVwasbornGabrieleCondulmerin1383inVenice.2HewaspopefromMarch3,1431,untilhisdeathonFebruary23,1447.Hismother’ssidewasarichmerchantfamily,theCorrers,whosemagnificentpalacescanbeseenalongsidetheGrandCanalinVenicetothis

day.3HewascrownedpopeatSaintPeter’sinRomeonMarch11,1431.AfterJune1434,hespenthispontificateinFlorenceuntilhemovedtoFerrarain1438.

AshortwhileafterhislettertoCanonMartins,ToscanelliwrotetoChristopherColumbus:

Paul,thePhysiciantoChristopherColumbus,

greeting.Ireceivedyourletterswiththethingsyousentme,andwiththemreceivedgreatsatisfaction.IperceiveyourmagnificentandgranddesiretonavigatefrompartsoftheEasttotheWest[i.e.,tosailwestwardtoChina]inthewaythatwassetforthintheletterthatIsentyou[acopyofthelettertoCanonMartinez]andwhichwillbedemonstratedbetteronaroundsphere.Itpleases

memuchthatIshouldbewellunderstood:forthevoyageisnotonlypossibleitistrue,andcertaintobehonourableandtoyieldincalculableprofit,andaverygreatfameamongallChristians.ButyoucannotknowthisperfectlysavethroughexperienceandpracticeasIhavehadintheformofthemostcopiousandgoodandtrueinformationfromdistinguishedmenof

greatlearningwhohavecomehereintheCourtofRome[i.e.,Florenceatthattime]fromthesaidparts[China]andfromothersbeingmerchants,whohavehadbusinessforalongtimeinthoseparts,menofhighauthority.Thuswhenthatvoyageshallbemadeitwillbetopowerfulkingdomsandcitiesandmostnobleprovinces,veryrichinallmannerofthingsingreat

abundanceandverynecessarytous,suchasallsortsofspicesingreatquantityandjewelsingreatestabundance.4

InthesetwolettersToscanellitellsCanonMartinsandChristopherColumbusthattheearthisasphereandthatChinacanbereachedbysailingwestfromSpain.ToscanelliwritesthatEugeniusIVreceivedan

ambassadorfromChinaandthathe,Toscanelli,obtainedthisinformationfromhimandfrommenofgreatlearningwhocametoFlorenceinthetimeofEugeniusIV(1434orlater).

Yetin1474,whenToscanelliwrotetheseletters,EuropeanshadnotreachedsouthernAfrica,anditwasanothereighteenyearsbeforeColumbussetsailforthe

Americas.SohowdidToscanelliknowChinacouldbereached,notonlyviatheeastaroundAfrica,butviathewest?

Toscanelli’sclaimstoColumbusaboutthemaporglobeseemextraordinary.5Heassertsthatthechartshowsthatthedistance,sailingwestward,fromLisbontoKinsaiinChinaisonlyone-thirdoftheearth’s

circumferenceandthatfromAntilia(IslandoftheSevenCities)tothe“veryfamousislandCipangu”isadistanceof2,500miles.HeimpliesinhislettertoColumbusthattheinformationisonaroundsphereandthatthelandsofspicescanbereachedbysailingwestward.

ThefamousislandCipanguisJapan.SoToscanelli’sclaimthatitisonly2,500

milesfromJapantoAntilia,intheCaribbean,seemsabsurd.SodoeshisclaimthatthemapshowsthedistancefromLisbonwestwardtoChinaisone-thirdoftheearth’scircumference;infact,itisnearertwo-thirds.IfToscanelli’saccountistrue,itmusthavebeenaverydistinctivemap.

Ihavesearchedforthismapfortwelveyears,startingwith

aninvestigationintothemapsofToscanelli’sfriendRegiomontanus.Asdescribedinlaterchapters,RegiomontanusworkedcloselywithToscanelli.Somehistorians,notablyErnstZinner,theleadingauthorityonRegiomontanus,andGustavoUzielli,believethemapToscanellisenttoColumbuswasdrawnupwithhelpfromRegiomontanus.6

HereisZinner:

Toscanelliwasfamousforhis1474letterstoColumbusandCanonMartinsinwhichheadvisedthemaboutreachingtheIndiesbycrossingtheworldoceanandsuggestedamapforthejourney.ItispossiblethattherewasaprototypeofthismapinoneofBessarions’snauticalchartswhichcontainedislandssimilartothosefound

byColumbus;thiswasreportedbyMarcoParentiinMarch1493.NowBessarion[backerofRegiomontanusandfriendofthepope]diedin1472,soUzielliwhodescribedToscanelli’sworktookthepositionthatthemaphadbeendesignedbyRegiomontanuswithToscanelli’sassistance.Suchacollaborativeworkisnotimpossiblefor…thetwomen

wereincorrespondence.7

Atfirstthisseemedafruitfullineofenquiry.In1471,RegiomontanusreceivedpermissiontomakeNuremberghishome,andthenextyearhesetupaprintingpresstoprintdocuments.In1472hestatedhisintentiontopublishmaps:“etfietdescriptiototiushabilitatisnotequamvulgoappellantMappamMundCeteru

germanieparticularistabula;iteItali;Hispanie:gallieuniverse;Greciq.”(Mytranslation:“tomakeadescriptionoftheentirehabitableworldcommonlycalledamappamundi.Germanyisdescribedindetail,likewiseItaly,Spain,Gaul,andGreece.”)

ForthenextthreeyearsRegiomontanuswaspreoccupiedwithephemeris

tablesandcalendars.In1475thepopesummonedhimtoRome,whereRegiomontanusdied,probablyoftheplague.Henevergotaroundtopublishinghisworldmap.Zinner,inhislengthybookonRegiomontanus,doesnotmentionpublicationofaworldmap.Sothatlineofenquiryendedinacul-de-sac.

Then,outoftheblue,inApril2007Ireceivedane-

mailfromMr.A.G.Self,afriendofourwebsite,whoattachedtenpagesfromabookonMagellanbyF.H.H.Guillemard.8

Inthebook,GuillemardexhibitedglobesthatJohannesSchönerpublishedin1515and1520.9TheauthorwishedtodemonstratethatbeforeMagellansetsail,Europeanglobeshadbeenpublishedshowingthestrait

leadingfromtheAtlantictothePacific,whichwenowcalltheStraitofMagellan.TheglobesalsoshowedthePacificandChina.TheauthenticityofSchöner’sglobesof1515,1520,and1523hasneverbeenchallenged.

IstudiedSchöner’s1515globewiththegreatestinterest.Itwasvirtuallyidenticaltothecopyofa

globeshownonWaldseemüller’s1507worldmap.Bothareshowninthesecondcolorinsertofthisbook.

Thenthelightningboltstruck.Schöner’s1515globecorrespondedexactlywiththedescriptionoftheglobeinthelettersToscanellisenttothekingofPortugalandColumbus.ItisasifToscanellihadSchöner’s

globeinfrontofhimwhenwritingtheletters.BelowIhavequotedToscanelli(Q)andfollowedwithmyremarks(R).PleasehaveSchöner’sglobestohand.

1. Q:“OftenbeforeIhavespokenofthesearoutefromheretoIndia,thelandofspices,aroutewhichisshorterthanthatofGuinea.”R:Thisis

whatSchöner’s1515and1520globesshow.

2. Q:“AlthoughIcouldshowthisonagloberepresentingtheearth,Ihavedecidedtodoitmoresimplyandclearlybydemonstratingthemaponanauticalchart[i.e.,Toscanelli,likeSchöner,iscopying

fromaglobe,puttingthecopyonachart].”

3. Q:“IthereforesendHisMajestyachartdrawnbymyownhand.”R:Schöner’s1515and1520maps(orcharts)arecopiesofaglobe.

4. Q:“onwhichIhaveincludedthewesterncoastlinefromIrelandinthenorth

totheendofGuinea,andtheislandswhichlieuponthispath.”R:Thispartisshownonthe1515globe’seasternhemisphere.

5. Q:“Oppositethem,directedtothewest,IhaveincludedthebeginningofIndia.”R:Chinaisshownas“India,”“IndiaSuperior,”and“IndiaMeridconalis”by

Schöner.6. Q:“Theuprightlines

onthischartshowthedistancefromeasttowest,whereasthecrosslinesshowthedistancefromnorthtosouth.”R:TherearemoreuprightandcrosslinesonSchöner’s1520globe,butbothofSchöner’shavethese.

7. Q:“FromtheCityofLisbontothewest,thechartshows26sectionsof250miles[6,500miles]each—altogethernearlyonethirdoftheearth’scircumferencebeforereachingtheverylargeandmagnificentcityofKinsai.”R:TheCanaries(FortunateIslands)

areshown120degreeseastofQuisaya[Kinsai];thereforeLisbonis125degreesfromQuisaya,approximatelyone-thirdoftheearth’scircumference(earth’scircumferenceis360×60miles,viz21,600miles;one-thirdis7,200miles).

8. Q:“It[Kinsai]liesintheProvinceofManji.”R:QuisayaisshowninManjiprovincebySchöner.

9. Q:“neartheProvinceofCathay.”R:Thisiswhatthe1515globeshows:“QuisayaManjiwhichisshowninManjiprovinceandshownaboveManji

is“Chatay”[Cathay].10. Q:“andfromthe

islandofAntiliawhichyoucall‘theIslandoftheSevenCities,’totheveryfamousislandofCipanguaretensections,thatis,twothousandfivehundredmiles.”R:Antiliaisshownonthe1520chartat335°andZipanguat

265°,adifferenceof120degrees,whichatlatitude15°Nisapproximately2,500miles(one-thirdofearth’scircumferenceatthatlatitude).

Insum,Schöner’s1515and1520globesaccordcompletelywithToscanelli’sdescriptionssenttothekingofPortugalandto

ChristopherColumbus.ToscanelliandSchönermusthavebeencopyingfromthesameglobe,aglobethathadexistedbefore1474(whenToscanelliwrotetoColumbus).ItappearsToscanelliwastellingthetruth.InthenexttwochapterswediscoverhowSchönergottheglobethathecopied.

10

COLUMBUS’SANDMAGELLAN’SWORLDMAPS

BeforediscussinghowSchönerobtainedtheglobethatservedasthemodelfor

his1515and1520globes,weshouldconsidersomeotherpossiblerecipients:first,thekingofPortugal1;second,Columbus2;third,thepope3;andfourth,Regiomontanus,whoappearstohaveassistedToscanelli.4

LetusconsiderthekingofPortugal.

Inmybook1421IgaveabriefdescriptionofMagellan

quashingamutinybyclaimingtohaveseenamapinthekingofPortugal’slibrary.Thisstoryisnowfleshedout.(IdonotdisparageMagellan,whoinmyeyesstandsheadandshouldersabovealltheearlyEuropeanexplorers—honest,brave,clever,determined,butabovealldecentandfair,notleasttopeoplewhocouldnotprotectthemselves.)

Magellan’sexpeditionwaswellprovisionedandfittedout(equippedwithPortuguesemaps)5eventhoughhewasundertheauspicesofSpainwhenhesailedfromSanlúcardeBarramedaontheestuaryoftheGuadalquivironSeptember20,1519.6BythetimeheandhiscrewreachedthecoastofPatagonia,inSouthAmerica,theyhad

finishedtheirhardtack(biscuits)andwerereducedtoeatingrats7(whichthesailorscaughtandsold),thepriceofwhichhadtrebled.Magellanwasindesperatetrouble.Hewashalfwaythroughthestrait,surroundedbymountains,withnosignofthePacific.

Amutinybrokeout,andEstebanGómezseizedcontrolofoneofMagellan’s

fiveships,theSanAntonio.Pigafetta,thehistorianaboardMagellan’sflagship,tellsuswhathappenednext:“Weallbelievedthatit[thestrait]wasacul-de-sac;butthecaptainknewthathehadtonavigatethroughaverywell-concealedstrait,havingseenitinachartpreservedinthetreasuryoftheKingofPortugal,andmadebyMartinofBohemia,amanofgreatparts.”AsIhavebeen

accusedofinventingthistranslation,hereistheoriginal:“Senonfossestatoilsaperedelcapitano-generale,nonsisarebbepassatoperquellostretto,perchétutticredevamochefossechiuso;maeglisapeadidovernavigareperunostrettomoltonascosto,avendociòvedutoinunacartaserbatanellatesoreriadelRediPortogallo,efattadaMartinodiBoemia,uomo

excellentissimo.”8

Whenwriting1421,IhadtriedtofindMartinofBohemia’schartbuthadbeenunableto;itseemstohavebeendestroyedorlost.Becausethecharthasneverbeenfound,somehaveassumedthatMagellanwasbluffing,pretendingheknewwherehewassoastoquellthemutiny.

However,therearefourpiecesofconvincingcorroborativeevidencethatMagellandidhaveachartthatshowednotonlythestraitbutalsothewayacrossthePacific.

Thefirstisdescribedin1421.MagellanshowedthekingofLima-sawainthePhilippinesamapthat,Magellansaid,showedhowhehadreachedthe

PhilippinesacrossthePacific.9

ThesecondistheaccountofthecelebratedPortuguesehistorianAntonioGalvão(alsoquotedin1421),whowrotethatthekingofPortugalhadamapshowingtheStraitofMagellan:

Intheyeere1428itiswrittenthatDonPeter[DomPedro]theKingofPortugal’seldest

sonne,wasagreattraveller.HewentintoEngland,France,Al-maine,andfromthenceintotheHolyLand,andtootherplaces;andcamehomebyItalie,takingRomeandVeniceinhisway:fromwhencehebroughtamapoftheworldwhichhadallthepartsoftheworldandearthdescribed.TheStreightofMagelanwascalledinittheDragon’staile.10

Third,thestraitwasmentionedduringtheexaminationofMagellanbyKingCharlesV’sministersbeforeMagellansetsail.Aglobewasproducedinwhichthestraitwashighlighted:“deindustriadexòelestrechoenblanco.”

Magellanstresseditwasasecretstrait:“estrechodemarnoconocidohastaentoncesdeningunapersona”(“a

straitthatwasknowntonobodyuntilnow/then”11

Finally,thecapitulación,thecontractbetweenthekingofSpainandMagellansignedonMarch22,1518,usesthephrase“parabuscarelestrechodeaquéllasmares”—togoinsearchofthestrait.12

Sobefore1421waspublishedIsoughtamapthat

wouldhavebeenpublishedbeforeMagellansetsailbutstillhavedepictedthestrait.Therewereseveralcandidates.IntheVenetianDoges’Palacethereisanearly-fifteenth-centurymapshowingAsiaandthePacific(describedinchapter7).Thismaphastworoundels,whichstatehowitwascomposedfrominformationbroughthometoVenicebyMarcoPoloandNiccolòdaConti.

MarcoPoloreturnedin1295andNiccolòdaContiby1434,possiblyasearlyas1424.

DespiteshowingthePacificandAmerica,thedoge’smapdoesnotshowthesouthernpartoftheAmericas.ThereisanothermapinthemaproomthatdoesshowSouthAmericaandaroutefromAtlantictoPacific,butunfortunatelyitisundated.

Waldseemüller’s1507worldmap(seecolorinsert2)showsSouthAmericaandthePacificwithremarkableaccuracy,butitiscenterdon20°Nandstopsat45°S.Thestrait,whichisat52°40'S,ismissing.However,WaldseemüllersaidinhisCosmographiaeIntroductiothattheAmericas“havebeenfoundtobesurroundedonallsidesbysea.”13So

WaldseemüllermusthaveknownthattherewasawayfromtheAtlantictothePacific.

TheoneEuropeanmappublishedbeforeMagellansetsailthatdoesshowastraitleadingfromtheAtlantictothePacificisJohannesSchöner’s1515globe.ThiswaspublishedbeforeMagellan’sexaminationbyCharlesV’sministersand

beforethecapitulaciónbetweenMagellanandthekingofSpain.Itisthusconsistentwithalltheevidence.TheauthenticityofSchöner’sglobeshasneverbeenchallenged.In1520,beforeMagellan’sexpeditionreturned,Schönerpublishedasecondcopyofaglobe,whichshowsasimilarstrait.

IfweassumeforthemomentthatSchöner’s1515

globewasthesameasthatwhichToscanellicopiedforColumbus,wefacetwoquestions:First,whatwouldColumbus’sreactionhavebeen?Second,isthereasimilarmapthatcanbepositivelyidentifiedashavingbeenreceivedandacteduponbyColumbus?

ColumbusknewthePortuguesewerepushingdownthecoastofAfricato

exploittheeasterntraderoutestotheIndianOceanandbeyond.ItseemsclearfromToscanelli’slettertoColumbusthatColumbuswasinterestedinfindingawesternroutetoChina:“Iperceivedyourmagnificentandgranddesiretonavigatefrompartsoftheeasttothewest[i.e.,tosailwestwardtoChina],”Toscanelliwrote,“inthewaythatwassetforthintheletterthatIsentyou[a

copyofthelettertoCanonMartinez]andwhichwillbedemonstratedbetteronaroundsphere.”Inshort,ToscanelliisclearlyhelpingColumbusachievehisaimofreachingChinabysailingwest.

ColumbusthenreceivedthemapfromToscanelli(chapter9,note1),whichindeedshowsthewaywestwardtoChinaasToscanellidescribed

it.However,italsoshowsanunknowncontinent(America)betweenPortugalandChina.WhatwouldColumbushavemadeofthisnewcontinent?Verylikelyhewouldhavedonehisbesttogethishandsonit.Hewasagreedyman,asweknowfromhislawsuitwiththekingofSpain(PleitosdeColón.)14

Inthe“PrivilegesandPrerogatives”thatColumbus

signedwithKingFerdinandandQueenIsabellaeighteenyearslater,beforehis“firstvoyage”totheAmericas,ColumbushadabandonedanythoughtofgoingtoChina.HewasafterthelandthathadbeendiscoveredonthewesternsideoftheAtlanticOcean.

PRIVILEGESANDPREROGRATIVESGRANTEDBYTHEIRCATHOLIC

MAJESTIESTOCHRISTOPHERCOLUMBUS:1492.FERDINANDANDISABELLABYTHEGRACEOFGOD,KINGANDQUEENOFCASTILE,OFLEON,OFARAGON,OFSICILY,OFGRANADA,OFTOLEDO,OFVALENCIA,OFGALICIA,OFMAJORCA,OFMINORCA,OFSEVILLE,OFSARDINIA,OFJAEN,OFALGARVE,OFALGEZIRA,OFGIBRALTAR,OFTHECANARYISLANDS,COUNTANDCOUNTESSOFBARCELONA,LORDANDLADYOFBISCAY

ANDMOLINA,DUKEANDDUCHESSOFATHENSANDNEOPATRIA,COUNTANDCOUNTESSOFROUSILLIONANDCERDAIGNE,MARQUESSANDMARCHIONESSOFORISTANANDGOCIANOetc.

Forasmuchasyou,ChristopherColumbus,aregoingbyourcommand,withsomeofourvesselsandmen,todiscoverandsubduesomeislandsandContinentinthe

ocean,anditishopedthatbyGod’sassistancesomeofthesaidislandsandContinentintheoceanwillbediscoveredandconqueredbyyourmeansandconduct,thereforeitisbutjustandreasonablethatsinceyouexposeyourselftosuchdangertoserveus,youshouldberewardedforit.AndwebeingwillingtohonourandfavourYouforthereasonsaforesaid;Ourwillis,thatyou,Christopher

Columbus,afterdiscoveringandconqueringthesaidislandsandContinentinthesaidocean,oranyofthem,shallbeourAdmiralofthesaidislandsandContinentyousoshalldiscoverandconquer;andthatyoubeourAdmiral,Viceroy,andGovernorinthemandthatforthefutureyoumaycallandstyleyourselfD[Don]ChristopherColumbusandthatyoursonsandsuccessors

inthesaidemploymentmaycallthemselvesDons,Admirals,ViceroysandGovernorsofthem;andthatyoumayexercisetheofficeofAdmiral,withthechargeofViceroyandGovernorofthesaidislandsandContinent….

GivenatGranadaonthe30thofAprilintheyearofourLord1492,ItheQueen,ItheKing,bytheirMajesties

Command,JohnColoma,SecretarytotheKingandQueen.15

Columbus’sdiariesshowthathesailedwithmapsofthewesternAtlantic.16ThelogentryforWednesday,October,4,1492,whenhewasapproachingtheCaribbean,17saysthis:“Ishouldsteerwestsouthwesttogothere[thatis,toreach

theislandsheisseeking]andinthesphereswhichIhaveseenandinthedrawingsofMappaeMundiitisinthisregion.”18

IsthereamapwecantietoColumbusbeforehesetsail?

MarcelDestombesdescribedtwomapsthathehadstudiedintheBibliotecaEstenseUniversitarianowinModena.IquoteArthur

Davies’descriptionofDestombes’sdiscovery:

OnewasachartoftheAtlanticandborderinglandslistedasCGA5A.Thismaporiginallyextendedfurthernorth,westandsouthbuthadbeencutsothatitnowextendsfromNormandytoSierraLeoneandeastwardstoNaplesandTunis.Destombesconcludedfrom[whatDestombescalls]Rhumb

linesthatthemapwasdesignedtoextendwestasfarasthelegendaryislandsofAntiliaandSatanaxia(PuertoRicoandGuadeloupe).He[Destombes]assignedhismapwithouthesitationtoBartholomewColumbusonthebasisofhisexcellentletteringanditsGenoesestyleofcartography.19

Inhighexcitement,MarcellaandIsetoffforModena.Dr.

AurelioAghemowasmostcourteousandhelpfulandenabledmetohaveaphotooftwoversions20ofCGA5,acopyofwhichisreproducedincolorinsert2.Asmaybeseen,thetwomapshavebeentorninhalfandthelefthalves,whichcouldshowtheAmericas,havebeendestroyed.Wecansayforsurethistearisdeliberate,forthecoastofWestAfrica

downtoCapeBlanco(21°N)isshown,asistheGulfofGuineafarthersouth.Thebitofcoastbetweenthetwo,thatis,thecoastalongthe“bulge”ofAfrica,ismissing.Someonedoesnotwantpeopletoknowwhatwasoriginallyontheleft-handportionofthosetwomaps.Sowhatgivesusaleadastowhatthemissingpartonceshowed?

ClearlyitshowedtheAtlantic—buthowmuchofitandhowfarwest?DidthemaporiginallygoasfarwestasProfessorDestombesthought?DiditshowtheAmericas,andifso,howmuch?

ProfessorDestombesusedwhathecalledrhumblinestosupporthissupposition.Iinitiallytriedadifferentapproachbyanalyzingwhat

wasdepictedonCGA5A,whichfromnowwewillcalltheColumbusmapbecauseofBartholomewColumbus’swritingonit.Themaphasseveraldistinctivefeatures,notleastamassofnamesaroundtheBightofBenin,southofthe“bulge”ofAfrica.Myfirststepwastoseeifthosenamescorrespondedwiththenamesonothermapsdrawnaround1480–1485,themostlikely

dateoftheColumbusmap(ProfessorDaviesindicatesthatColumbushadhismapbefore1492).

IquicklyfoundthattheWaldseemüller(1507)andtheColumbusmapsharedcommonnamesinGuinea,fromRiodeLagotoCapodiMonte,thoughtheColumbusmapshowedmorenamesandmuchmoredetail.IthenreducedtheColumbusmap

andtheWaldseemüllertothesamescaleandcutoutWestAfricafromtheColumbusmap,placingitontopoftheWaldseemüller,sonamescommontobothwereinthesameplace.FinallyIprojectedtherhumblinesfromtheColumbusmapontotheWaldseemüller.FivesetsterminatedpreciselyandneatlyonCubaandSouthAmericafromtheWaldseemüller(usingthe

Canariesas0°W,asWaldseemüllerdid)—seecolorinsert2.

Destombeswasquiteright—therhumblinesextendedtoAntiliaandSatanazesandfarther—tothePacificcoastofSouthAmerica.Itcannotbeacoincidencethatalltheendsoftherhumblinesfallonacircle.Inmysubmission,thisistheevidencethattheColumbusbrothershadamap

thatshowedtheAmericas.ColumbushimselfacknowledgedinhislogsthathehadseenCaribbeanislandsonaworldmap.Hewasalsocontractedtobecomeviceroyoflandacrosstheocean.ThishypothesisisfurthersupportedbySchöner’s1515copyofaglobe,whichshowstheAmericas,andaccordspreciselywithToscanelli’sdescription.

Moreover,aswewillseeinthenextchapter,theColumbusmap,Schöner’sglobe,andtheWaldseemüllerareallderivedfromthesamesource.

Let’sturnnowtoJohannesSchöner,whomusthavebeenarecipientoftheoriginalglobebecausehisdrawingmatchesToscanelli’sdescription.SchönercertainlycouldnothavemetToscanelli

ortheChineseambassador.HewasnotbornuntilJanuary16,1477,inKarlsstadt,inwhatisnowtheGermanprovinceofThuringen.HeattendedschoolnearbyatErfurt.Thearea,asIknowwell,isapleasantwoodedcountrysidefamousforitsplums.ItisaboutasfarfromtheseaasispossibleinEurope,withnonauticaltraditionwhatsoever.

Johannesdoesnotappeartohavebeenarenownedscholar;heleftschooltostudyattheUniversityofErfurtbutseemstohaveflunkedhisexams—heleftwithnodegree.Hewasordainedapriestin1515andbecameaprebend,anapprentice,atthechurchofSaintJacobBamberg.Hewaspunishedforfailingtocelebratemassandrelegatedtothesmallvillageof

Kirchenbach,wherehewasdetailedtoofficiateatearly-morningmass.21How,onemaywonder,didthispriestproducenotonlymapsofSouthAmericaandtheAntarcticbeforeMagellansetsail,butalsoelaboratestarglobesoftheSouthernHemisphere?22

Therearenoprizesforguessingtheobviousanswer:hemusthavecopiedthem.

Butfromwhom?

InJanuary1472,Toscanelli’sfriendRegiomontanushadaprintingpressinstalledinNuremberg,asearlierdescribed.WhenRegiomontanusdiedin1475,hispressrevertedtoBernardWalther,whohadprovidedthefinanceforit.InalettertoafriendonJuly4,1471,Regiomontanuswrote:

QuiterecentlyIhavemadeobservationsinthecityofNuremberg…forIhavechosenitasmypermanenthomenotonlyonaccountoftheavailabilityofinstruments,particularlytheastronomicalinstrumentsonwhichtheentirescienceisbased,butalsoonaccountofthegreateaseofallsortsofcommunicationwithlearnedmenlivingeverywhere,sincetheplaceisregardedasthe

centreofEuropebecauseofthejourneysofthemerchants.23

In1495,JohannesSchöneralsomovedtoNuremberg,wherehestudiedpracticalastronomyunderthesameBernardWaltherwhohadfinancedRegiomontanusandtakenbackhisprintingpress.WhenWaltherdied,SchönerinheritedRegiomontanus’slibraryandprintingpressas

wellasRegiomontanus’snauticalinstruments,globes,andtreatises;SchönerpublishedRegiomontanus’sTabulaandhisbookonsphericaltriangles.AlloftheselegaciesarenowintheAustrianNationalLibraryinVienna.24

Regiomontanushadintendedtopublishhisownworldmapbutdiedbeforedoingso.25Schönerinherited

thisunpublishedmapandpublisheditunderhisownname.Hencehis1515and1520copies.AfterMagellanreturned,Schönerpublishedhis1523globe,whichhemaintaineddidnotimproveuponhis1515and1520(pre-Magellan)maps.26The1523globedid,however,correctthewidthofthePacificacrosswhichMagellanhadbythen(1523)sailed.

Finally,isthereanycorroborativeevidencethatPopeEugeniusIVorhissuccessorsobtainedaworldmapshowingtheAmericasbeforeColumbussetsailfortheAmericas?

AfterColumbus’sdeath,hisfamilyinstitutedlegalproceedingsagainsttheSpanishmonarchy,thePleitosdeColón(PleadingsofColumbus).Evidencewas

givenattheseproceedingsonbehalfofMartínAlonsoPinzón,Columbus’sflagcaptain.Pinzón’ssonstatedthathisfatherhadseenacopyofamapoftheAmericasatthepapalcourtinRomeandhadbasedhisownexpeditiontotheAmericasuponit.27However,hisfatherhaddecidedtojoinColumbus’sexpeditioninstead.

FromSchöner,Magellan,Columbus,Regiomontanus,andPinzón,wenowhaveevidencecorroboratingtheexistence,notedbyToscanelliinhisletters,ofaworldmapshowingtheAmericas.Toscanellitoldthetruth.HehadmettheChineseambassador,whohadgivenhimaglobeormapshowingthewaytotheAmericasandaroundtheworld.Wemustnowfindtheoriginalthat

Toscanellicopied.

11

THEWORLDMAPSOFJOHANNESSCHÖNER,MARTIN

WALDSEEMÜLLER,ANDADMIRAL

ZHENGHE

In1507JohannesSchönerboundthedifferentsheetsofWaldseemüller’s1507worldmaptogetherandplacedtheminsideacover.ThisisthesetpreservedattheLibraryofCongressinWashington,D.C.Waldseemüller’sworldmapshowsSouthAmerica

andthePacific.Thefirstquestionis,howdidWaldseemüllerknowoftheAmericasandthePacificbeforeMagellansetsail?Thesecondis,howdidSchönergetacopyofWaldseemüller’ssheetsinordertobindthem?

MartinWaldseemüllerwasbornatWolfenweilernearFreibergin1475,twoyearsbeforeSchöner.His

birthplaceisabout250milesfromSchöner’sbirthplace.WaldseemüllerspenthisworkinglifeasacanonatSaint-Dié.In1487heenteredtheUniversityofFreibergtostudytheology.ThereisnoevidencethatWaldseemüllerwasaparticularlycleverstudentoreventhatheobtainedadegree.In1514,asaclerkofthedioceseofConstance,heappliedforacanonryatSaint-Diéand

obtainedthepost.Hediedtherein1522.

Waldseemüllerhadaboutathousandcopiesofhis1507mapprinted.InadditiontothecopyownedbytheU.S.LibraryofCongress,acutoutset(readytobemadeupintoaglobe)isownedbytheJamesFordBellLibraryinMinneapolis.Athirdcopywasacquiredin2003bythewell-knownmapdealer

CharlesFrodsham,fromChristie’sauctionhouse.

Inthesummerof2004IcarefullyexaminedWaldseemüller’s1507map.Itssignificance,ofcourse,isthatitshowedthePacific,SouthAmerica,theAndes,andtheRockyMountainsbeforeeitherMagellansetsailorBalboa“discovered”thePacific.Soitappearedsomeonehadbeeninthe

PacificbeforeMagellanandhadmapped23,000milesofAmericancoastline.

Onthemap,theAmericaslooknothinglikethecontinents;theyappearmorelikeanelongatedsnake.Waldseemüllerhadusedthemostextraordinarymethodtomakehismap.1Itwasprojectedfromaglobeontoaflatpieceofpaperusingaheart-shapedprojection.Asa

consequence,adegreeoflongitudeneartheequatorwassometentimeswhatitwasnearthePolesand,conversely,adegreeoflatitudenearthePoleswassometentimeswhatitwasneartheequator.Evenmorecurious,longitudescalesvariedfromonepartofthemaptotheotheratthesamelatitude,andSouthAfricapokedoutofthebottomfornoapparentreasonatall.(See

colorinsert2andthe1421websiteforapictureofthemap.)

ForseveralmonthsItriedtomakesenseofthis.HowcouldIconvertwhatWaldseemüllerhaddrawnintoamapthatwewouldallunderstand?

Then,atdawnonalovelysummer’sday,aheronarrivedforhisbreakfastand

perchedverynearthegazeboinwhichIwasworking.Iwatchedhim,admiringhispatienceashisneckcranedovertheNewRiver,whichrunsatthebackofourgarden.Afterhepounced,hisneckswelled.Anelectricshockwentthroughmybody,anditdawnedonmethatifIreversedWaldseemüller’sprocess—putbackontoaglobewhathehadlaidoutonaflatpieceofpaper,andthen

photographedit—Imighthaveamapinaformthatwouldmakesensetoustoday.

Irushedintothebasementthatservesasour1421officesandphotocopiedWaldseemüller’smapintoblackandwhite,usingbluelinestoemphasizelongitudeandredforlatitude(seecolorinsert2).ThenIwentdownthecoastofSouthAmerica

andmarkedpointsa,b,c,andsooneverytendegreesoflongitude(yellowpoints).OnaseparatepieceofpaperIwrotethelatitudesandlongitudesofeachyellowpoint.IrepeatedtheprocessforthePacificcoastofSouthAmericaandNorthAmerica,thenconcludedwiththeAtlanticcoastofNorthAmerica.Next,Itransposedthesepointsa,b,c,andsoonontoaglobe,connectingthe

points.ThenIphotographedtheglobe(seecolorinsert2).

ThereontheglobewastheworldthatWaldseemüllerhadoriginallycopied:anextraordinarylikenessofNorthandSouthAmerica,whichwewouldrecognizetoday,withthecorrectlandmass,shape,andpositionrelativetoAfrica.BeforeMagellansetsail,Waldseemüllerhadproduced

awonderfulmapoftheAmericasfromaglobe.

Sohowdidthisclerkinholyorderswithnoknownknowledgeofmapcollectingorcartography,workinginwhatwasthenthelandlockedbackwaterofSaint-Dié,managetoproduceaglobewiththefirstaccuratedescriptionoftheAmericas?

Waldseemüllerinitiallysaid

hehegothisinformationfromAmerigoVespucci.AssumingthatVespuccireached45°S,andthatWaldseemüllerhadreceivedhisreports,WaldseemüllercouldhaveobtainedfromhimtheinformationnecessarytodrawtheAtlanticcoastofSouthAmerica.VespucciwasanexcellentnavigatorandhadRegiomotanus’sephemeristables,whichenabledhimtocalculate

latitudeandlongitude.YetVespuccineverclaimedtohavereachedthePacific.HespecificallytoldtheFlorentineambassadorthathehadfailedtofindthepassagethatledfromtheAtlantictothePacific,thepassagewenowcalltheStraitofMagellan.

Waldseemüller’smapshowsthePacific,theAndesuptoEcuador,andthentheSierra

MadreofMexicoandtheSierraNevadaofCalifornia.SoforhimtohavecreditedVespucciforhisdepictionofPacificAmerica(acredithelaterwithdrew)isnonsense.Waldseemüllermusthavecopiedhismap—butfromwhoseglobe,andwhen?

ThereisahostofevidencesuggestingthatWaldseemüllergothisinformationfromthesame

sourceasSchöner.

First,Schöner’sglobeof1515andtheglobeshownonWaldseemüller’smapof1507arethesame.

PhotographicInsert1

AdmiralZhengHe,apioneerofglobalexploration,whowasingreatpartresponsibleforthisremarkableadventure.

TheLiuGang1418/1763map—atributetoZhengHe’s

courageousvoyagesofdiscovery.

BronzeChineselionfigureattheentrancetotheEmperor’sSummerPalace,Beijing.

VisitorsattheSummer

Palace,Beijing,c.1902.

AviewofthemagnificentForbiddenCity,Beijing,

whoseconstructionflourishedunderthegreatemperorsof

theMingdynasty.

Adelicatepieceofbeautiful

Mingporcelain,astradedaroundtheworldbythe

Treasurefleet.

AviewoftheGreatWallofChinasnakingalongtheruggedmountainridgeat

Simatai.

AvastfleetofChinesejunks

couldcarryaconsiderableamountmorethanacaravan

ofcamels!

ThefleetjourneyednorthwardupthecrystallineRedSeawaters,throughtothebustlingsouksofCairo,

andbeyond.

12

TOSCANELLI’SNEWASTRONOMY

RelationsbetweenChinaandtheWestbeganlongbefore1434.TheCatholicEncyclopediapresentsaconcisesummary:

SomecommentatorshavefoundChinainthispassageofIsaias(xlix,12):“thesefromthelandofSinim.”PtolomydividesEasternAsiaintothecountryofSinaeandSerice…withitschiefcitySera.Strabo,Virgil,Horace,PomponiusMela,Pliny,andAmmianusspeakoftheSeres,andtheyarementionedbyFlorenceamongthenationswhichsentspecialembassiestoRomeatthe

timeofAugustus.TheChinesecalledtheeasternpartoftheRomanEmpireTaTs’in(Syria,Egypt,andAsiaMinor),Fu-linduringtheMiddleAges.ThemonkCosmoshadacorrectideaofthepositionofChina(sixthcentury).TheByzantinewriter,TheophylactisSimocatta(seventhcentury)gaveanaccountofChinaunderthenameTaugas.ThereisaChineserecordofa

RomanEmbassyinA.D.166.1

TaiPengWangkindlyprovidedChinesedescriptionsofpapalenvoys.2TheambassadorwhoreachedFlorencein1434wasbynomeansthefirst.AccordingtoYuLizi,YuanChinacalledthePapalStates“thecountryofFarang”andthePapalStatesasawhole“Fulin”or“Farang.”3TheofficialMing

historystatesthatdiplomaticexchangesbetweenthePapalStatesandMingChinabeganasearlyas1371,whenHongWu,ZhuDi’sfather,assignedaforeignerfromFulinorFarangcalledNeiKulan(Nicholas?)astheChineseambassadortothePapalStatestoinformthepopeofthedynasticchangeinChina.Lateron,HongWuappointedadelegationledbyPula(Paul?),whobroughtgifts

andtributetoFarang.

After1371,diplomacybetweenChinaandEuropewasatwo-waystreet,withthePapalStatesandChinaexchangingambassadors.YanCongjianinvolume11oftheShuyuZhouziLudescribedthevisitoftheChineseambassadortothePapalStatesinthereignofZhuDi.

YanCongjianstartsbycommentingthatItaly’sclimatewasrathercold,thencontinues:

UnlikeChina,thehousesherearemadeofcementbutwithoutrooftiles.Thepeoplemakewinewithgrapes.Theirmusicalinstrumentsincludeclarinet,violin,drumandsoon.TheKing[thepope]wearsredandyellowshirts.Hewrapshisheadwith

goldenthreadwovensilk.InMarcheveryyearthePopewillgotothechurchtoperformhisEasterservices.Asarulehewillbesittingonared-colouredcarriercarriedbymentothechurch.Allhisprominentministers[cardinals]dressliketheKing[thepope]eitheringreenorbeigeorpinkordarkpurpleandwraptheirheads.Theyridehorseswhengoingout….Minoroffencesareusually

punisheduptotwohundredtimes.Capitaloffences,however,arepunishablewithdeathusuallydrowningtheoffendersinthesea.These[Papal]statesarepeace-loving.Asisoftenthecasewhenaminordisputeorrivalryarose,thedisputingstatesonlywagedawarofwordsintheexchangeofdiplomaticdespatches.Butiftherewereaseriousconflicterupted,theywereprepared

togoasfaraswar.Theymadegoldandsilvercoinageastheirmonetarycurrencies.ButunliketheChinesecoinage,whichcanbestringedasaunittocount,therearenoholesintheircoinageforsuchpurpose.Onthebackofthemoneyisthefaceoftheking[thepope]bearinghistitleandname.Thelawforbidsanymonetarycoinagemadeprivately.ThelandofFulinproducesgold,

silver,pearls,westerncloth,horses,camels,olives,datesandgrapes.4

YanCongjian’sdescriptionsarereflectedinaPinturicchiofrescoofAeneasSylviusPiccolomini,thefuturePopePiusII.5Bornin1405toadistinguishedSienesefamily,AeneaswaseducatedattheuniversitiesofSienaandFlorence.Between1431and1445,heopposedEugenius

IV.In1445hesuddenlychangedsides.Hetookordersin1456,becameabishopin1450andacardinalin1456,andwasnamedpopeuponthedeathofCalixtusIIIin1458.

PinturicchiopaintsPiusIIbeingcarriedonathroneintotheBasilicaofSaintJohnLateran,Rome(wherePisanellowasalsosketching).Thepopewearsared-linedcloak,andhishatiswrapped

withgoldenthread.Beforehimarehiscardinalsingreen,beige,pink,andblue,theirheadscoveredinwhitetricornhats.(Seecolourinsert3.)

AMingdynastybook,ProfilesofForeignCountries,atteststocontinueddiplomaticexchangesbetweenMingChinaandtheCatholicChurchinItaly.6This

Chineseprimarysourceincludes“Lumi”amongtheforeignnationsthatpaidChinaanofficialvisitandrenderedtributeduringZhuDi’sreign(1403–1424).LumiisRome.ThenameisderivedfromLumei,whichiswhattheSongauthorZhaoRuqua(1170–1228)calledRome.Inhis1225bookZhufanZhi(Descriptionofvariousbarbarians),Zhaowrotethat“allmenare

wearingturbansastheirheadwear.Inwintertheywillbewearingcolouredfurorleathercoatstokeepwarm.Oneoftheirstaplefoodsisthedishofspaghettiwithasauceofmeat.Theytoohavesilverandgoldcurrenciesusedasmoney.Therearefortythousandweaverhouseholdsinthecountrylivingonweavingbrocades.”7Clearly,theChinesewerenot

strangerstothePapalStates.

NowforsomedetectiveworktoseewhatPopeEugeniusIV,Toscanelli,andhisfriendsRegiomontanus,Alberti,andNicholasofCusalearnedfromZhengHe’sdelegatebesidesobtainingworldmaps.

AftertheChineseambassadorhadpresentedhispowerofattorney

(representedbythebrassmedalliondescribedinchapter2)toEugeniusIV,hewouldhaveformallypresentedtheXuanDeastronomicalcalendar,whichwouldhaveestablishedtheprecisedateoftheinaugurationoftheemperor—“wheneverythingwouldstartanew.”

ZhengHeandthefleethadspenttwoyearspreparingto

leaveChinaandnearlythreeyearsreachingFlorence.Bythetimetheyarrivedin1434atthecourtofEugeniusIV,ithadbeennineyearssincetheemperor’sinauguration.Foreignrulersalsohadtoknowthedateoftheemperor’sbirth,whichwascalculatedfromconception.InthecaseofZhuZhanji,thiswouldhavebeen1398.Sothecalendarhadtogobackthirty-sixyears.Tocertify

thattheemperorhadcontinuedtoholdthemandateofheavenduringthatperiod,thecalendarwouldalsoneedtoshowthatthepredictionofsolarandlunareclipses,comets,positionsofplanetsandstarsanduntowardlunarconjunctions(themoonwithMercury)hadbeenaccuratethroughoutthosethirty-sixyears—thousandsofpiecesofastronomicaldatahadtobe

included.

OneofPisanello’ssketchesshowingaMongolface.

However,thecalendaralsohadtopredictthefuture.Thisrequiredthatitcontainastronomicalcalculationsoftheaccuratepositionsofsunandmoon,tablesofthefiveplanets,thepositionsofstarsandcomets,datesofsolsticesandequinoxes,andamethodofadaptingthosedatesandtimestothelatitudeofFlorence.WeknowfromtheYuanShi-lu,theofficialhistoryofYuandynasty,that

thisastronomicaldatawasincludedintheShoushicalendar,andonecanseeacopyofthe1408calendarinthePepysMuseuminCambridge,England.Twopagesareshownonour1434website.

WhentheChinesevisitedFlorencein1434,Toscanelliwasinhisprime,thirty-sevenyearsold.Sincegraduatingfromuniversitytwentyyears

earlier,hehadworkedwithBrunelleschi,amathematicalgenius,andotherleadingintellectualsoftheday.Inparticular,ToscanelliandBrunelleschihad,forthepreviousthirteenyears,beencollaboratingonthecomplexsphericaltrigonometryrequiredtobuildFlorence’sgreatdomeoverSantaMariadelFiore.Toscanellithushadampleopportunitytoobserveandaccuratelymapthe

heavensindetailbeforetheChinesevisit,butneitherhenoranyotherofhiscircledidso.Toscanelliwasasecretivebachelorwholivedwithhisparentsuntiltheydied,afterwhichhelivedwithhisbrother’sfamily.Althoughhenevercitedaparticularinfluenceorsourcefortheprodigiousmathematicalandastronomicalskillshedisplayedafter1434,hedidbequeathaconsiderable

collectionofbooks,researchpapers,astronomicalinstruments,andworldmapstohismonastery.Allbutoneofthesehavedisappeared.Asidefromthatoneremainingrecord—amanuscripthousedattheBibliotecaNazionaleCentraleinFlorence—weareleftprimarilywithadmiringreferencestohiminlettersamonghisfriends.Butwedoknowabitabouthisactions.

Didhebehavedifferentlyafter1434?Ifso,how?

JaneJervis,in“Toscanelli’sCometaryObservations:SomeNewEvidence”8examinedToscanelli’ssurvivingmanuscript,acollectionoffolios.ShecomparedthewritingonthefolioswiththatonthelettersfromToscanellitoColumbusandCanonMartinsandconcludedthatallbutthreeof

thefolioswerewrittenbyToscanelli.JervisthencomparedToscanelli’sstudyoftwocomets—onein1433,beforetheChinesevisit,andanotherin1456,afterthevisit.Folios246and248describethe1433comet;folios246,252,and257describethe1456comet.

ThefirstcometpasswasonSunday,October4,1433,inthefirsthourofthenight.

Toscanelli’sobservationsconsistofafreehanddrawing.Hedidnotalignthecomet’spositionswithanystarsorplanets.Notimesarelisted,norarerightascensionsordeclinationsofthestarsorcomets.

ThisisinstarkcontrastwithToscanelli’streatment,twenty-threeyearslater,ofthe1456comet.Folios246randv,252,and257containa

wealthofevidence.Forthe1456comet,heusesaJacob’sstafftogivethecomet’saltitude(declination)andlongitude(rightascension)towithintenminutesofarc.9Timesarenowgiven,asarethedeclinationandrightascensionsofthestars(Chinesemethods).Toachievethisradicalimprovementintechnique,Toscanellimusthavehada

clock,anaccuratemeasuringdevice,astronomicaltables,andaninstrumenttoshowthepositionofthecometrelativetostarsandplanets.

Iftrue,JamesBeck’sdeductionthatAlbertiwasassistedbyToscanelliindrawingtheprecisepositionsofstars,moon,andsunatnoononJuly6,1439onthedomeintheSacristyofSanLorenzosimilarlysuggestsa

greatleapinToscanelli’sscientificcapabilities.Formanyyearspriorto1434,ToscanellihadtheopportunitytousethedomeofSantaMariadelFioreforastronomicalobservations.Yetheneverdid.

By1475,ToscanellihadadoptedaChinesetypeofcameraobscura,aslitoflightandabronzina(bronzecasting),whichheinsertedin

thelanternofthedomeoftheFlorencecathedral.Thepinholecamerahasseveraladvantageswhenmeasuringobjectsilluminatedbythesun.Theedgesofthecirclereceivelessexposurethanthecenter.Sincethefocallengthofanobject’sedgesisgreaterthanthatofitscenter,thecenteris“zoomedin.”Shadowscastbythesun,orvisionofthesunitself,thusappearsharper,thinner,and

clearer.

BytheearlyMingdynasty,ZhengHe’sastronomershadrefinedthiscameraobscuraanduseditinconjunctionwithanimprovedgnomontoenablemeasurementofthemiddleoftheshadowofthesunwithinone-hundredthofaninch.ToscanelliusedtheChinesemethodinamostingeniousway,adaptingthedomeofSantaMariadeFiore

asasolarobservatory.

BetweenMay20andJuly20thesunatnoonshinesthroughthewindowsofthelanternonthetopofthedome.Toscanellihadthelanternwindowscoveredinfabricwithasmallslittoallowsunlightthroughatnoon.Afterpassingthroughtheslit,thesunlightbecameabeam.Abronzinawaspositionedsothatthebeam

landedonit,andinthecenterofthebronzinawasahole.Asthebeamstruckthebronzina,theholewouldchannelitdowntothemarblefloorthreehundredfeetbelow.Onthefloor,Toscanellidrewanorth-southmeridianline,withincisionstonotethepositionofthesunatthesummersolstice.Regiomontanussaidthatusingthemeridianline,Toscanellicouldmeasurethe

sun’saltitude(andhencedeclination)towithintwosecondsofarc.

In1754aSicilianJesuitpriest,LeonardoXiménes,experimentedwithToscanelli’sinstrument.XimenescompareddatafromthesolsticesinToscanelli’seratohisownmeasurementsof1756.HefoundthatToscanelliwasabletodeterminenotonlytheheight

ofthesunatthesummersolsticebutalsothechangeinheightovertheyears,whichresultedfromthechangeintheshapeoftheearth’sellipticalpassagearoundthesun.

Theminutedifferencesinthesun’saltitudefromoneyeartoanotherpreoccupiedRegiomontanusaswell,ashesaid:

Mostastronomersconsideredthemaximumdeclinationofthesuninourdaysis24degreesand2minutesbutmyteacherPeurbachandIhaveascertainedwithinstrumentsthatitis23degreesand28minutesasIhaveoftenheardMasterPaolotheFlorentine[Toscanelli]andBattistaAlbertisaythatbydiligentobservationtheyfound23degrees30minutes,thefigureIhavedecidedtoregisterin

ourtable.10

WhatissoimportanttoToscanelliandRegiomontanusabouttheprecisedeclinationofthesun?WhenIfirstjoinedtheRoyalNavyin1953,sailorstroopedtotheFarEastbypassengerlinerratherthanbyaircraft.Eachdayatnoon,theship’snavigator,captain,andofficerofthewatchwouldmarchresplendentinwhite

uniformsontotheopenbridgeandstandsidebysidelookingatthesun.Shortlybeforenoontheywouldstarttakingthealtitudeofthesunwiththeirsextants.Justbeforeitwasatitshighesttheywouldcry,“Now!now!now!”UponthefinalNow!theywouldreadoutthesun’smaximumaltitudetakenfromtheirsextants.Theywouldthendeclarethedistancetraveledfromtheprevious

noon.Theluckysweepstakeswinnerwouldbeannouncedovertheship’saddresssystemandwouldbeexpectedtobuydrinksallaround.

Distancefromonedaytothenextwascalculatedbythedifferenceintheship’slatitude.Thereisasimpleformula:Latitudeequals90—sun’smaxaltitude±declination.Declination

tablesofthesunareissuedforeachdayoftheyear,sowiththesun’saltitude,thenavigatorcandeterminelatitude.It’sthatsimple.

However,thiswasnotwhatRegiomontanus,Toscanelli,andAlbertiwereafter.Afewmiles’difference(between23°28'and23°30')wasinitselfcompletelyunimportanttoToscanelli.Instead,he,Alberti,andRegiomontanus

wereinterestedinthechangeinthesun’sdeclination.AcopyofthatchangecanbeseeninNeedham’sgraph,bykindpermissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.Itshowsthechangeinthesun’sdeclinationfrom2000B.C.tothepresentday,determinedbyGreekandChineseastronomersfortheearliermeasurementsandbyEuropeanastronomersforthelaterones,endingwith

Cassini.

Fromthisgraph,wecanseethatToscanelli’sfigure—23°30'—wasrecordedbythegreatIslamicastronomerUlughBeghalsoused23°30'inhismassivestudycompletedinSamarkandin1421—somefiftyyearsbeforeToscanelli’smeasurement.(Regiomontanus’sfigureof23°28'wasdeterminedby

CassinitwohundredyearsafterToscanelli,soitwouldhavebeeninaccuratehadRegiomontanususedit.)

Thisisnotsomemathematicalquibble.Ifthesuncircledtheearth,therewouldbenochangeindeclination.Arecognitionofthechange—theflattertheearth’strajectory,thesmallerthedeclination—istantamounttorecognitionthat

theearthrevolvesaroundthesuninanellipse.

TheirobsessionwithmeasuringthechangeindeclinationisevidencethatToscanelli,Alberti,andRegiomontanusunderstoodthatAristotleandPtolomy,whobelievedthesunrevolvedinacirclearoundtheearth,werewrong.Consequently,EuropeanswhofollowedToscanelliand

RegiomontanuswerebasingtheirastronomyonaChinese,ratherthanaGreek,foundation.ThisfoundationalsoenabledRegiomontanustoproducetablestodeterminelatitudeindifferentpartsoftheworld,whichhepublishedin1474.ColumbusandVespucciusedthem,asdescribedinchapter21.

TheexercisesatSantaMariadelFiorecouldbe

duplicatedtoobservethemovementofthemoonandproduceequationsoftimeofthemoon.These,inturn,couldbeusedincombinationwiththepositionsofstarstodeterminelongitude(seechapter4).Regiomontanusproducedsuchtables,andColumbusandVespucciusedthemtocalculatelongitudeintheNewWorld.DiasusedthemtodeterminethelatitudeoftheCapeofGoodHope.

EachoftheinstrumentsToscanelliusedinhisobservationsatSantaMariadelFiore—cameraobscura,gnomon,andclock—wasusedbyZhengHe’snavigators,asweretheinstrumentsToscanelliusedtodeterminethepassageofthe1456comet—Jacob’sstaff,clock,andtorquetum.AllofToscanelli’sdiscoveries—declinationofthesun,obliquityofthe

ecliptic,passageofcomets,ephemeristablesofthestarsandplanets—werecontainedinthe1408Shoushiastronomicalcalendarpresentedtothepope.TheywerecopiedandpublishedinEuropebyRegiomontanusin1474.

InhislettertoColumbus,Toscanellisaidhehadreceived“themostcopiousandgoodandtrue

informationfromdistinguishedmenofgreatlearningwhohavecomehereintheCourtofRome[Florence]fromthesaidparts[China].”InhislettertoCanonMartins,ToscanellidescribedhislongconversationwiththeambassadorfromChinawhohadvisitedthepope,andhecitedthe“manyscholars,philosophers,astronomersandothermenskilledinthe

naturalsciences”whothengovernedChina.

Inmysubmission,Toscanellimusthaveobtainedhiscopiousnewknowledgeofastronomyfromthe“distinguishedmenofgreatlearning”whohadarrivedinFlorencefromChina.

Resipsaloquitur!“Thethingspeaksforitself.”

13

THEFLORENTINEMATHEMATICIANS:

TOSCANELLI,ALBERTI,

NICHOLASOFCUSA,AND

REGIOMONTANUS

BeforeToscanellimettheChineseambassador,Europe’sknowledgeoftheuniversewasbasedonPtolomy.1Ptolomyheldthattheplanetswereborneinrevolvingcrystallinespheresthatrotatedinperfectcirclesaroundtheearth,whichwasatthecenteroftheuniverse.However,manyEuropeanastronomersrealizedthisdidnotsquarewiththeir

observationsthatplanetshaveirregularpaths.Toresolvethisconflict,medievalEuropeanastronomersintroducedthenotionsofequants,deferants,andepicycles.Applyingthesepeculiarexplanationsofplanetarymotionenabledastronomerstoaccountfortheirregularmotionoftheplanetswhileholdingfasttothebeliefthattheheavensrotatedaroundtheearth.

Tobelieve,ontheotherhand,thattheearthwasmerelyoneplanetamongmanyrevolvingroundthesunrequiredaradicalchangeinthought.ThisintellectualrevolutionwasledbyNicholasofCusa.2Nicholaswasbornin1401ontheRiverMoselle.HediedinUmbriain1464.Hisfather,JohannCryfts,wasaboatman.In1416Nicholas

matriculatedattheUniversityofHeidelberg,andayearlaterheleftforPadua,wherehegraduatedin1424withadoctorateincanonlaw.HealsostudiedLatin,Greek,Hebrew,and,inhislateryears,Arabic.

WhileatPadua,NicholasbecameaclosefriendofToscanelli,whowasalsoastudentthere.Throughouthislife,heremainedadevoted

followerofToscanelli,withwhomhefrequentlycollaboratedonnewideas.Attheheightofhisfame,NicholasdedicatedhistreatiseDeGeometricistransmutationibustoToscanelliandwroteintheflyleaf,“AdpavlummagistridominiciphysicumFlorentinum”(TotheMasterScientist,theFlorentineDoctorPaolo).3

Nicholashadahugeandindependentintellect.Hepublishedadozenmathematicalandscientifictreatises;hiscollectedworkswerecontainedintheIncunabula,publishedbefore1476andsadly,nowlost.Inhislaterlifehebelievedthattheearthwasnotthecenteroftheuniverseandwasnotatrest.Celestialbodieswerenotstrictlyspherical,norweretheirorbitscircular.To

Nicholas,thedifferencebetweentheoryandappearancewasexplainedbyrelativemotion.NicholaswasprimeministerinRomewithgreatinfluence.

By1444,NicholaspossessedoneofthetwoknowntorquetumsbasedupontheChineseequatorialsystem.4Ineffect,thiswasananalogcomputer.Bymeasuringtheangular

distancebetweenthemoonandaselectedstarthatcrossedthelocalmeridian,andbyknowingtheequationoftimeofthemoonandthedeclinationandrightascensionoftheselectedstar,onecouldcalculatelongitude.

DuringNicholas’sera,theAlfonsinetablesbasedonPtolomywerethestandardworkonthepositionsofthesun,moon,andplanets.

Nicholasrealizedthesetableswerehighlyinaccurate,afindinghepublishedin1436inhisReparatiocalendarii.5Thisrealizationledhimtohisrevolutionarytheorythattheearthwasnotatthecenteroftheuniverse,wasnotatrest,andhadunfixedpoles.HisworkhadahugeinfluenceonRegiomontanus—notleastinsaying,“theearthwhichcannotbeatthecentre,

cannotlackallmotion.”

Regiomontanus

JohannMüllerwasbornin1436inKönigsberg,whichmeans“king’smountain”—JohannadoptedtheLatinversionofthename,Regiomontanus.6Thesonofamiller,hewasrecognizedasamathematicalandastronomicalgeniuswhenyoung.Heenteredthe

UniversityofLeipzigatageeleven,studyingtherefrom1447until1450.InApril1450heenteredtheUniversityofVienna,wherehebecameapupilofthecelebratedastronomerandmathematicianPeurbach.7Hewasawardedhismaster’sdegreein1457.PeurbachandRegiomontanuscollaboratedtomakedetailedobservationsofMars,whichshowedthat

theAlfonsinetables(basedupontheearthbeingatthecenteroftheuniverse)wereseriouslyinerror.Thiswasconfirmedwhenthetwoobservedaneclipseofthemoonthatwaslaterthanthetablespredicted.Fromthattime,RegiomontanusrealizedasNicholasofCusahaddonethattheoldPtolemaicsystemsofpredictingthecoursesofthemoonandplanetsdidnotstandupto

seriousinvestigation.Fromhisearlylife,againlikeNicholasofCusa,hestartedcollectinginstrumentssuchasatorquetumforhisobservations.AlthoughRegiomontanuswassomefortyyearsyoungerthanToscanelli,NicholasofCusa,andAlberti,hebecamepartoftheirgroupinthelate1450sandearly1460s,whentheyusedtomeetatNicholas’shouseinRome.

TherearenumerousreferencesinRegiomontanus’swritingtotheinfluenceToscanelliandNicholasofCusahadonhiswork.8Someofthesewillbequotedaswegoalong.

In1457,atagetwenty-one,RegiomontanuswasappointedtotheartsfacilityoftheUniversityofVienna.Thefollowingyearhegaveatalkonperspective.Hewas

nowworkingonmath,astronomy,andconstructinginstruments.Between1461and1465hewasmostlyinRome;thefollowingtwoyearsheseemstohavedisappeared—nobodyknowswherehewent.In1467hepublishedpartofhisworkonsinetablesandsphericaltrigonometry,andin1471hehadconstructedinstrumentsandwrittenscripta.In1472hepublishedANewTheoryof

Planets(byPeurbach),andthenin1474hisownCalendarumandEphemeridesabAnnotables.9Thesetwowerehislegacy—ofmonumentalimportanceinenablingEuropeanmarinerstodeterminelatitudeandlongitudeandtheirpositionatsea.HediedinRomeonJuly6,1476,andanumberofhisworkswerepublishedafterhisdeath.

Regiomontanus’soutputafterhismasterPeurbachdiedin1461(whenRegiomontanuswastwenty-five)upuntilhisowndeathin1476,atforty,wasprodigiousandmind-blowing.Hewasanintellectualgiant,theequivalentofNewtonorGuoShoujing.Hadhelivedanotherthirtyyears,IbelievehewouldhaverivaledoreclipsedNewton.Ihavethegreatesttrepidationin

attemptingtodohimjustice,andhavespentmanysleeplessnightstryingtowritethischapter—notleastbecauseIamnotamathematician.

Wecanreasonablystartwithhisachievements,thengoontoconsiderthepossiblesourcesheusedandfinallyattempttosummarizehislegacy.Doubtlesscriticswillmakethepointthatitis

arrogantofmetoevenattempttoevaluatetheachievementsofsuchabrilliantfigure—thatsuchataskshouldbelefttoprofessionalmathematicians.Thisisafairpoint.Indefense,IofferthatIhavespentyearsinpracticalastronavigation,usingthemoon,planets,andstarstofindourpositionatsea,andshouldbequalifiedtorecognizethehugestrides

Regiomontanusmadeinthisscience.

Soheregoes.InthecourseoffifteenyearsfollowingPeurbach’sdeath,Regiomontanusprovidedfirstandforemostephemeristables—thatis,tablesofthepositionsofmoon,sun,planets,andstarsthatwereofsufficientaccuracytoenablecaptainsandnavigatorstopredictwheneclipseswould

occur,timesofsunrise,sunset,moonrise,andmoonset,thepositionsofplanetsrelativetooneanotherandtothemoon.Soaccuratewerethesetables—forthirtyyearsfrom1475—thatnavigatorscouldcalculatetheirlatitudeandlongitudeatseawithoutusingclocks.Theycould,therefore,forthefirsttime,findtheirwaytotheNewWorld,accuratelychartwhattheyhadfound,

andreturnhomeinsafety.WiththisandtheChineseworldmaps,Europeanexplorationcouldnowstartinearnest.Anditdid.Dias,forexample,calculatedthetruelatitudeoftheCapeofGoodHopeusingRegiomontanus’stables.10HereportedthistothekingofPortugal,whoknewforthefirsttimehowfarthecaptainshadtotravelsouthtogettotheIndian

Ocean.Regiomontanus’sephemeristableswere800pageslongandcontained300,000calculations.Regiomontanuscouldbesaidtohavebeenawalkingcomputeronthataccountalone.

Hehadtheenergyandskilltodeviseandmakeawholerangeofnauticalandmathematicalinstruments,thetwomostfundamentally

importantbeingtheclock(whichwassmashedonhisdeath)andtheequatorialtorquetum.11Regiomontanus’storquetumhasbeendescribedinchapter4—itenabledhimtotransferstarswhosecoordinateshadbeenfixedbytheArabeclipticmethodorbytheByzantineandGreekhorizonmethodintoChinesecoordinatesofdeclinationand

rightascension,thesystemuseddowntoourpresentday.

OfRegiomontanus’sdesigns,hisobservatory12andprintingpress13standoutfortheirpracticaluse.Ephemeristablescouldnothavebeenproducedtogiveaccurateresultshadtheynotbeenprinted.Similarly,Regiomontanusneededhisobservatorytocheckontheaccuracyofthepredictionsin

histables.Hemadetelescopestoseethestars;astrolabestomeasureanglesbetweenstars,planets,andmoon;portablesundialsforgatheringinformationonthesun’sheightatdifferenttimesofdayandfordifferenttimesoftheyear—eventablestoenablebellringerstoforecasttimesofsunsetandhenceannouncevespers.

Themostastonishing

discoverywasRegiomontanus’srevolutionaryidea(enlargingonNicholasofCusa’s)thattheearthwasnotatthecenteroftheuniverse,thesunwas.Andfurther,thattheearthandplanetscircledthesun.Thisstatementwillperhapscreateanuproar;soIpresentheremyevidence.

Firstofall,Regiomontanusknewthattheplanetary

systemthathadbeeninuseinEuropesincethetimeofPtolomy—inwhichtheearthwasinthecenterandsunandplanetsrotatedaroundit—didnotwork.TheresultsofthePtolemaicsystemwerecontainedintheAlfonsinetables,whichheandPeurbachhadstudiedforyears.Thepredictionscontainedinthesetableswereinaccurate.Addingequants,deferents,andotherweird

correctionsfailedtocorrecttheerrors.

Second,thereisnodoubtthatRegiomontanusknewofNicholasofCusa’swork.Nicholassuggestedthatthesunwasatthecenteroftheuniverseandtheearthandplanetsrotatedaroundit.Regiomontanusdescribesplanetaryorbits:“Whatwillyousayaboutthelongitudinalmotionof

Venus?ItischainedtotheSunwhichisnotthecaseforthethreesuperiorplanets(Mars,Jupiter,Saturn).Thereforeithasalongitudinalmotiondifferentfromthosethreeplanets.Furthermore,thesuperiorplanetsaretiedtotheSunviaepicyclicmotions,whichisnottrueforVenus.”14

Regiomontanus’sopinionthatthesunisatthecenterof

theuniverseisclearlyexpressedinfolio47v:“BecausetheSunisthesourceofheatandlight,itmustbeatthecentreoftheplanets,liketheKinginhisKingdom,liketheheartinthebody.”15

Regiomontanusalsohadviewsontheorbitalvelocityofplanetsaroundthesun:“MoreovertheassumptionthatVenusandMercury

wouldmovemorerapidlyiftheywerebelowtheSunisuntenable.Onthecontrary,attimestheymovefasterintheirorbits,attimesslower.”ThisforeshadowsKepler.

Regiomontanusrealizedthatthestarswereatanalmostinfinitedistancefromthesolarsystem:“Naturemaywellhaveassignedsomeunknownmotiontothestars;itisnowandwillhenceforth

beverydifficulttodeterminetheamountofthismotionduetoitssmallsize.”

Helaterrefinedthis:“ItisnecessarytoalterthemotionofthestarsalittlebecauseoftheEarth’smotion”(Zinner).

Theonlypossiblemotionoftheearthrelativetothestarsisthataroundthesun,itcannotbydefinitionrefertothecircularmotionofthe

eartharounditsownaxis.ThisinmyviewiscorroboratedbyRegiomontanus’swrittencommentalongsideArchimedes’accountofAristarchus’assumptionthattheearthcirclesaroundanimmobilesun,whichisatthecenterofafixedstellarsphere.Regiomontanuswrote:

“AristarchusSamius”

(HeroicAristarchus)16

Unfortunately,Regiomontanus’sworksafterthedateofthiscommentaremissing.

ItseemstomethatRegiomontanus’snearobsessionwithmeasuringthechangeinthedeclinationofthesuncanonlybeunderstoodifhehadappreciatedthattheearth

traveledinanellipsearoundthesunandthattheshapeofthisellipsewaschangingwithtime.Hewrote:“Itwillbebeautifultopreservethevariationsinplanetarymotionsbymeansofconcentriccircles.Wehavealreadymadeawayforthesunandthemoon;fortherestthecornerstonehasbeenlaid,fromwhichonecanobtaintheequationsforthese

planetsbythistable.”17

BeforediscussingRegiomontanus’smasterpiece,hisephemeristables,weshouldattempttoaddressthe$100,000question—fromwheredidhegethisknowledge?UndoubtedlyRegiomontanusstudiedGreekandRomanworksextensively—Ptolomyforyearsandyears,andhecopiedoutArchimedes’and

Eutocius’workoncylinders,measurementsofthecircle,onspheresandspheroids.RegiomontanuscouldreadandwriteGreekandLatinfluently.HecouldalsoreadArabic.HehadmasteredawiderangeofArabicwork,notleastofwhichwasal-Bitruji’splanetarytheory.However,RegiomontanusadoptedtheChineseequatorialsystemofplanetandstarcoordinates;he

rejectedtheArabic,Greek,andByzantinecoordinatesystems.HeborrowedheavilyfromToscanelli,includinghisandAlberti’scalculationsoftheearth’schangingellipsearoundthesun,andheadoptedToscanelliandtheChinesemeasurementofthedeclinationofthesun.HisworkonsphericaltriangleshadbeenforeshadowedbyGuoShoujing’s.IfUzielliis

correct,RegiomontanuscollaboratedwithToscanelliondrawingthemapoftheworldthatwassenttothekingofPortugal—amapcopiedfromtheChinese,somethingRegiomontanusmusthaveknown.

RegiomontanusrepeatedlyreferstoToscanelli’swork—onsphericaltrigonometry,declinationtables,instruments,andcomets.

Whendoingso,hemusthaveknownofToscanelli’smeetingswiththeChinese—andoftheenormoustransferofknowledgefromthem.

RegiomontanusalsohadintimateknowledgeofChinesemathematicalwork,whichheacquireddirectlyorthroughToscanelli.AmongthatknowledgewastheChineseremaindertheorem.

Regiomontanus’sKnowledgeofChineseMathematics

RegiomontanuscorrespondedonaregularbasiswithItalianastronomerFrancescoBianchini.18In1463hesetBianchinithisproblem:“Iaskforanumberthatwhendividedby17leavesaremainderof15;thesamenumberwhendividedby13leavesaremainderof11;the

samenumberdividedby10leavestheremainderof3.Iaskyouwhatisthatnumber”(GMtranslationofLatin).

Bianchinireplied:“Tothisproblemmanysolutionscanbegivenwithdifferentnumbers—suchas1,103,3313andmanyothers.HoweverIdonotwanttobeputtothetroubleoffindingtheothernumbers.”

Regiomontanusanswered:“YouhaverightlygiventhesmallestnumberIaskedforas1,103andthesecond3,313.Thisisenoughbecausesuchnumbersofwhichthesmallestis1,103areinfinite.Ifweshouldaddanumbermadeupbymultiplyingthethreedivisions,namely,17,13,10,weshouldarriveatthesecondnumber,3,313,byaddingthisnumberagain[viz2210]weshouldgetthethird

[whichwouldbe5,523].”

Regiomontanusthendrewinthemargin:

ItisobviousfromBianchini’sreplythathedidnotunderstandtheChinese

remaindertheorem(ifhehad,hewouldhaverealizedhoweasythesolutionwasandnotsaid,“Idonotwanttobeputtothetroubleoffindingtheothernumbers.”

Ontheotherhand,itisobviousthatRegiomontanushadthecompletesolutiontotheproblem—asthemathematicianCurtzesummarizes:19

“[Regiomontanus]knewthoroughlytheremainderproblem,thetayenruleoftheChinese.”

TheTa-YenruleiscontainedintheShu-shuChiu-changofCh’inChiu-shao,publishedin1247.20

ItfollowsthatRegiomontanusmusthavebeenawareofthisChinesebookof1247unlesshehad

quiteindependentlythoughtuptheTa-Yenrule,whichheneverclaimedtohavedone.

Regiomontanus’sknowledgeoftheShu-shuChiu-changwouldexplainalot.NeedhamtellsusthatthefirstsectionofthisbookisconcernedwithindeterminateanalysessuchastheTa-Yenrule.21Inthelaterstagesofthebookcomesanexplanationofhowto

calculatecomplexareasandvolumessuchasthediameterandcircumferenceofacircularwalledcity,problemsofallocationofirrigationwater,andtheflowrateofdykes.Thebookcontainsmethodsofresolvingthedepthofraininvarioustypesandshapesofraingauge—allproblemsrelevanttocartographicsurveying,inwhichweknowRegiomontanustookadeep

interest.

TheimplicationsofRegiomontanusknowingofthismassivebook,whichwasthefruitoftheworkofthirtyChineseschoolsofmathematics,couldbeofgreatimportance.Itisasubjectbeyondthecapacityofapersonofmyage.Ihopeyoungmathematicianswilltakeupthechallenge.Itmayleadtoamajorrevisionof

ErnstZinner’smajesticworkonRegiomontanus.

ItseemstomewemayobtainasnapshotofapartofwhatRegiomontanusinheritedfromtheChinesethroughToscanelli(ratherthanthroughGreekandArabastronomers)bycomparingZhengHe’sephemeristables22withRegiomontanus’sephemeristables.23

Regiomontanus’stablesaredoublepagesforeachmonthwithahorizontallineforeachday.ZhengHe’shaveonedoublepageforeachmonthwithaverticallineforeachday.Ontheleft-handsideofeachofRegiomontanus’spagesarethetruepositionsofthesun,moon,andtheplanetsSaturn,Jupiter,Mars,Venus,andMercury,andthelunarnodeswherethemoon

crossestheecliptic.Ontheright-handsidearepositionsofthesunrelativetothemoon,timesoffullandnewmoon,positionsofthemoonrelativetotheplanets,andpositionsofplanetsrelativetooneanother.Feastdaysaregiven,asareotherimportantdaysinthemedievalEuropeancalendar.

ZhengHe’s1408tableshaveanaverageoftwenty-

eightcolumnsofinformationforeachday(asopposedtoRegiomontanus’seightcolumns).ZhengHe’stableshavethesameplanetaryinformationasRegiomontanus’s—forSaturn,Jupiter,Mars,Venus,andMercury,andalso,likeRegiomontanus’s,positionsofthesunandmoon.ThedifferencebetweenthetwoisthatZhengHe’sgaveauspiciousdaysforplanting

seed,visitingGrandmother,andsoon,ratherthanreligiousfeastdays.ZhengHe’shavedoubletheamountofinformation.Theastonishingsimilaritybetweenthetwocouldbeacoincidence—butthe1408tablescamefirst,printedbeforeGutenberg.

ZinnerandothersclaimthatRegiomontanus’stableswith300,000numbersovera

thirty-one-yearperiodweretheresultofusingtheAlfonsine(Greek/Arabic)tablesamendedbyobservation.IfRegiomontanus’stableswerebasedontheAlfonsinetables,theywouldhavebeenuselessforpredictingpositionsofsun,moon,andplanetswithsufficientaccuracytopredicteclipsesandhencelongitude,astheAlfonsinetableswerebasedonawhollyfaulty

structureoftheuniverse,withtheearthasitscenterandplanetsrevolvingroundit.

Furthermore,RegiomontanuswellknewthatusingtheoldAlfonsinetableswouldbeuseless.Inhiscalendarfor1475–1531hepointedoutthatinthirtyofthefifty-sixyearsbetween1475and1531,thedateofEaster(themostimportantdayintheCatholicChurch)

waswrongintheAlfonsinetables.(BecauseofthesensitivityofthisinformationitwasomittedfromtheGermaneditionofRegiomontanus’scalendar.)Tobasehisephemerisontablesheknewtobeinaccuratewouldhavebeencompletelyillogical.Regiomontanushadtouseanewsource.

ZhengHe’sephemeris

tables,ontheotherhand,werebasedonGuoShoujing—whichreliedonatrueunderstandingoftheearth’sandplanets’rotationaroundthesunasthecenterofthesolarsystem.Inmysubmission,Zinner’sclaimthatRegiomontanus’stableswerebaseduponhispersonalobservationsalsobreaksdownbecausehedidnothavetimetomakethenecessaryobservations.Regiomontanus

diedin1475.Histablescontinuedforanotherfifty-sixyears;onecanseehisamendmentsinredinthetables,andthesecoveronlyfiveofthefifty-sixyears.

IhopetheaccuracyofZhengHe’sandRegiomontanus’sephemeristableswillbesubjectedtoatestbythe“StarryNight”computerprogramandcomparedwiththeAlmagest

ephemeriscalculator(basedontheAlfonsinetables),butthismaynotoccuruntilthetablesaretranslatedandbeforethisbookgoestopress.InthemeantimeweneedacheckintotheaccuracyofRegiomontanus’stablesincalculatingeclipses,planetarypositions,andlongitude.IfbaseduponZhengHe’s,theywouldwork;ifupontheAlfonsinetables,theywouldnot.

Fortunately,Columbus,Vespucci,andothersdiduseRegiomontanus’sephemeristablestopredicteclipses,latitude,andlongitudeforyearsafterRegiomontanusdied.

DiasusedthetablescorrectlytocarefullycalculatethelatitudeoftheCapeofGoodHopeat34°22'onhisvoyageof1487.24ChristopherColumbusand

hisbrotherBartholomewwerepresentwhenDiasreturnedandpresentedhiscalculationstothekingofPortugal.25

ColumbususedRegiomontanus’sephemeristables,asweknowfromtablesthattodayareinSevilleCathedralwithColumbus’swritingonthem.26ColumbusreferredtotheephemerisentryforJanuary17,1493,

whenJupiterwouldbeinoppositiontothesunandmoon;heknewofRegiomontanus’sexplanationofhowtocalculatelongitudefromalunareclipse.HisbrotherBartholomewwrote:“Almanachpasadoenephemeredes.JodemonteRegio[Regiomontanus]abanno1482usquead1506.”27

Columbus’sfirstknowncalculationoflongitudeusing

Regiomontanus’smethodofobservinglunareclipses(whosetimesColumbusobtainedfromtheephemeristables)wasonSeptember14,1494,twentyyearsafterRegiomontanushadenteredthefiguresinthetables.28ColumbuswasontheislandofSaya,tothewestofPuertoRico.(“Saya”onPizzigano’s1424chart.)Regiomontanusexplainshowtocalculate

longitudebylunareclipsesatthefrontofthetables.

Usingthisexplanation,throughnofaultofhisown,Columbususedthewrongprimemeridian(Cadiz)inhiscalculationsratherthanNuremberg,whichwasRegiomontanus’sprimemeridian.InhisintroductiontotheephemeristablesRegiomontanusdoesnotmentionthis—onehastogo

tonearthebackofeighthundredpagestofindthisout.ColumbushadanothergoonFebruary29,1504,usingthetablestopredictasolareclipseinJamaicaandtocalculatelongitude.29Hemadethesameunderstandablemistakeagain.Schroeter’stablesenableustoknowtheaccuracyofRegiomontanus’stableswhenpredictingtheseeclipseson

September14,1494,andFebruary29,1504—delaysofthirtyminutesandelevenminutesrespectively,andthattwentyandthirtyyearsafterRegiomontanushadenteredthefigures—fantasticaccuracy,whichinmyviewdemolishesthecasethatRegiomontanus’sephemeridescanhavebeenbasedupontheAlfonsinetables,whichgotthedateofEasterwrongthirtytimes

between1475and1531.RegiomontanusmusthavegottenhisinformationfromToscanelli.

VespucciusedRegiomontanus’sephemeristablestocalculatelongitudeonAugust23,1499,whenthetablesstatedthemoonwouldcrossMarsbetweenmidnightand1A.M.Vespucciobservedthatat“11/2hoursaftersundownthemoonwas

slightlyoveronedegreeeastofMarsandbymidnighthadmovedto51/2degreesfromMarsratherthaninlinewithMarsatmidnightatNuremberg.”30HeincorrectlycalculatedthelunarmotioncomparedtoMarsandalsousedthewrongmeridian—againRegiomontanushadnotmadethisclear.Indoingsoheplacedthewronglongitudeforwherehewas

(theRiverAmazon).Usingthecorrectfigures,inmyview,demolishestheargumentthatRegiomontanus’stableswerebasedupontheAlfonsinetables.LikewiseColumbus’slongitudeerrorsalmostdisappearifhehadusedthecorrectzeropoint.

FromthepublicationofRegiomontanus’sephemeristablesin1474,Europeans

couldforthefirsttimecalculatelatitudeandlongitude,knowtheirpositionatsea,gettotheNewWorld,accuratelychartit,andreturnhomeinsafety—arevolutioninexploration.

Regiomontanus’stableswereimproveduponbyNevilMaskelyne.Thesewerepublishedin1767andremainedinusebyRoyalNavycaptainsandnavigators

wellafterHarrison’schronometerwasintroduced.31

ThegreatCaptainCookobservedandcalculatedmorethansixhundredlunardistancestoobtainthelongitudeofStripCoveinNewZealand,andin1777hemadeonethousandlunarobservationstodeterminethelongitudeofTonga.32Maskelyne’stableswere

absorbedintotheNauticalAlmanacinwhichlunar-distancetableswereincorporateduntilbeingphasedoutin1907.(TheywerestillinthelibraryatDartmouthwhenIlearnednavigationtherein1954.)Withaccurateinstruments,thetablesproducedastonishinglygoodresults.WilliamLambertreports(observationsJanuary21,1793)thatwithoutusing

clocksthelongitudeoftheCapitolinWashington,D.C.,was76°46'byusingthemoonandAldebaran;76°54'onOctober20,1804,byusingthePleiadesandthemoon;77°01'onSeptember17,1811,byusinganeclipseofthesun;76°57'onJanuary12,1813byusingTaurusandthemoon.33Thetruefigureis77°00'W.34Hencefivedifferentmethods,which

couldhavebeenemployedusingRegiomontanus’sephemeristablesbydifferentpeople,gaveamaximumerrorof14'—aroundeightnauticalmileswithoutusingclocksorchronometers.Harrison’schronometerwasusefulbutnotessentialinmappingtheworld.

Maps

OnceRegiomontanuswas

abletocalculatelatitudeandlongitude,hecouldconstructmaps.HeproducedthefirstEuropeanmapwithaccuratelatitudesandlongitudesin1450.ItsaccuracyrivaledtheChinesemapof1137whichshowedChinamappedaccuratelywithlatitudeandlongitudeandisheldintheBritishMuseum(Needham).

Regiomontanuswasfullyawarethathewasremaking

Europeanastronomy.ZinnerciteshisdrivetobanishtheerrorsofPtolomyandcenturiesofmisunderstanding:

Hehadinmind,ashislife’sgoal,theimprovementoftheplanetarytheoryandplanetarytables;heknewoftheirdefectsonlytoowell.Hewantedtohavethebestandmosterror-freeeditionsofancientmanuscriptsatthe

disposalofhiscontemporaries,soheintendedtocomposealmanacswhichrepresentedcelestialeventsinanerrorlessmannerandwhichwouldbeimportantaidsforpredictionsanddeterminationofpositions….Hespokeofthesunasthekingamongtheplanets.Heconnectedthethreeouterplanetswiththesunbymeansofepicyclicmotion,whereasVenuswas

linkedtothesuninotherways.Hencethespecialpositionofthesunwascleartohim,inthosedays.

Inaddition,therecametherealisationthattheplanetarytableswereunsatisfactory.Lateron,inhisletterstoBianchiniin1463–64,hewasquiteclearaboutthefactthatmanyofPtolomy’sassumptionscouldnotbecorrect,notonlyaboutthe

obliquityoftheeclipticbutalsoaboutthepathsoftheplanetsthemselves.Iftheplanetsreallydidmovealongepicycles,thentheirapparentdiameterswouldhavetochangeinawaythatiscompletelycontrarytoobservations.35

JustastheAristotelian/Ptolomeicparadigmoftheuniversewasshelvedafter1434,sowere

Arabicmethodsofastronomyandastronavigation.TheArabsystem,withitsazimuthstarcoordinatesystemandrelianceontheecliptic,hadbeenbroughttoBeijingbyJamalad-Dinin1269.Itlastedonlynineyears.AfterGuoShoujingwascommissionedtoproducetheShoushicalendarin1276,hejettisonedtheArabeclipticcoordinatesandbuiltthesimplifiedequatorial

torquetumlaterusedbyNicholasofCusaandRegiomontanus.36

AfterthetorquetumwasintroducedtoEurope,astrolabes,onwhichArabicandEuropeanastronomershadlavishedalltheirmathematicalart,passedoutoffavor.GuoShoujing’storquetum—forerunnerofmodernEuropeaninstrumentssuchastheastrocompass—

livedon.

Fromthereon,EuropeanastronomersfollowedChinesemethods.

14

LEONBATTISTAALBERTIANDLEONARDODA

VINCI

LeonBattistaAlberti(February14,1404–April25,

1472)hasbeenheraldedasthe“universalman”oftheearlyRenaissanceanddescribedas“theprophetofthenewgrandstyleinart”inauguratedbyLeonardodaVinci.1Hisrangeofabilitieswasastounding.

AlbertiwasborninGenoa,thesonofawealthyFlorentinebanker,LorenzoAlberti.Hismother,BiancaFieschl,wasawidowfrom

Bologna.WhenhewasveryyoungthefamilymovedtoVenice,wherehisfatherranthefamilybank.Aban(acommonpoliticaloccurrenceinthosedays)onthefamilywasliftedin1428,leavingtheyoungAlbertifreetoreturntoFlorence.

Hebenefitedfromthefinesteducationavailable.From1414to1418hestudiedclassicsatthefamousschool

ofGasparinoBarzizzainPaduaandlaterattainedhismaster’sinlawattheUniversityofBologna.In1430hemovedtoRome,wherehepreparedlegalbriefsforPopeEugeniusIVandmetNicholasofCusawhowasprimeminister.InJune1434,EugeniusIVwasforcedtoleaveRomeforFlorencebecauseofadisagreementwiththeChurchCouncil.Albertijoinedhim

andwasappointedcanonofSantaMariadelFiorewhenthecathedralwasnearcompletion.InFlorence,hewasintroducedtobothFilippoBrunelleschi(1377–1446)andPaoloToscanelli,whohadassistedBrunelleschiwiththemathematicsforthecathedraldome.Albertibecamelifelongfriendswithbothandpartofthegroupoffriendsandadmirers

surroundingToscanelli.2

BeforemovingtoFlorence,Albertihadwrittentreatisesontheuseanddisadvantagesofthestudyofletters;twodialogues,DeiphiraandEcatonfilea(lovescenes);athesis,Intercenale;abookaboutthefamily,Dellafamiglia;andalifeofSaintPotitus,VitasPotiti.

After1434,however,he

beganproducingarangeofworksinmathematics,astronomy,architecture,andcryptography.3HisbiographerJoanGadoldescribesAlberti’sinfluence:

[Mostastronomersconsidered]“themaximumdeclinationofthesuninourdaysis24degreesand2minutes,butmyteachers[Peurbach]andIhaveascertainedwithinstruments

thatitis23degreesand28minutesandIhaveoftenheardMagisterPaolotheFlorentineandBattistaAlbertisaythatbydiligentobservationtheyfoundthatitdidnotexceed23degreesand30minutes,thefigureIhavedecidedtoregisterinourtable.”4

Thisdescriptionissignificantforseveralreasons.First,Regiomontanus,discipleof

Toscanelliandaveryaccomplishedastronomer,creditsAlbertiasone,aswell.Second,hedepictstheastronomersarguingabouttwominutesofdeclination,whichmeanstheymusthavehadveryaccurateinstrumentstodeterminethealtitudeofthesunatitsmeridianpassageatnoon.Third,itsuggeststheyhadsolvedthedeclinationproblemwithallthatimplies.Finally,and

mostimportantofall,ittellsusthattheyareworkingontheobliquityoftheecliptic.

GadolconsideredthatAlberti’sentirelynewknowledgeoftheuniverse,whichhehadgainedfromToscanelli,enabledhimtodevelopmanyofhisideasbyusinganastrolabe—inarchitecture,inperspective,evenincryptography.

AtleastadecadebeforeAlberti’sgreatworksonpaintingandsculpture,Depictura(1435),whichhetranslatedintoanItalianversion,Dellapittura,thefollowingyear,andDestatua(ca.1446),Florentineartistshadbeenexperimentingwithperspective.However,thecurrentconsensusseemstobethatBrunelleschi,Masaccio,andDonatellowereintuitivegeniuseswhodevelopedthe

costruzionelegittima,amethodofdeterminingperspectivewiththeuseofpinholecamerasandmirrors,butdidnotknowthemathematicsofthecostruzioneabbreviatadevelopedlaterbyAlberti.

BeforeconsideringAlberti’sgreatworks,perhapsoneshouldconsiderhowsomanybrilliantpeopleappearedontheEuropeanstageatthe

sametime.Toscanelli,Regiomontanus,Alberti,FrancescodiGiorgio,andLeonardodaVincirevolutionizedEuropeanthought—inknowledgeoftheuniverseandthesolarsystem,inastronomy,mathematics,physics,architecture,cartography,surveying,townplanning,sculpture,painting,evencryptography.HowdidtheyallappearinthesamesmallareaofnorthernItaly?

DidGodwaveamagicwandoverTuscany?

Undoubtedly,onereasonwasmoney.Inthe1430sVenicewasthewealthiestcityinEurope,followedbyParisandNuremburg.VenetianwealthspilledintoFlorence.TheMedicisweretherichestfamilyinEurope.Theymadetheirmoneyfrombanking,apartofwhichinvolvedlendingoutmoney

andcharginginterestfordoingso—usuryintheeyesoftheChurch.Toatonefortheirsins,theMedicissponsoredawholerangeofreligiousworks—buildingandembellishingfirstchapelsandlaterhospitalsandlibraries.Theyengagedthebestartiststopaintfrescoesofthestarsandplanets.Theyemployedpeopletosearchoutbooksandmapsandscholarstotranslatebooksof

theancients.

Thereweremanyscholarstoemploy.ItalyboastedsomeoftheoldestEuropeanuniversities—BolognawasnearlyasoldasParis—andthereweremanyofthem.Tuscanyprobablyhadahigherproportionofpostgraduates(touseamodernterm)thananywhereelseonearth.Tothosewhocouldnotaffordauniversity

education,theChurchofferedafreealternative.Thereligiousorders,firstBenedictines,thenCistercians,Franciscans,Dominicans,andJesuits,offerednotonlyafirst-classreligioustrainingbutapracticalonefordailylife.Benedictinesnotonlyprayedbutranhighlysuccessfulandprofitablefarmspioneeringresearchintoanimalhusbandry,crop

improvements,honeyproduction,fishandpoultrybreeding,evengeneticengineering.Benedictinesintimebecamebankerstosmallfarms,soimprovingagriculture.Asonereligiousorderfollowedanother,thequalityofeducationcontinuouslyimproved,culminatinginthesuperbeducationthattheJesuitsbroughttopeoplesoftheNewWorld.Benedictines,

Cistercians,Franciscans,andDominicansallhadtheirprincipalbasesinBurgundyandnorthernItaly.

ThiswastheloaminwhichtheseedsofChineseideasandinventionswerepropagated.Weshouldnotunderestimatethepollinationofideasthatresultedfromthecontinuousintellectualinterchangeamongthesegeniuses.Toscanelliand

Regiomontanuscollaboratedonworldmaps;determiningthedeclinationofthesun;changesintheobliquityoftheecliptic;comets;sphericaltrigonometry;torquetums;andastronomicalinstruments.Albertiexchangedideasonastronomy,mathematics,andtrigonometrywithRegiomontanusandToscanelli,onlocksandcanalswithFrancescodiGiorgio,andonraising

sunkenshipswithFrancescoandTaccola.NicholasofCusadiscussedastronomywithToscanelli,Alberti,andRegiomontanus.Membersofthegroupdedicatedtheirbookstooneanother.

Theyprayedatthesamecathedral,SantaMariadelFiore,ateatthemensainFlorence’sPalazzoVecchio,anddinedwiththeMedicis.NicholasofCusa’shomein

Romewasthegatheringplaceformenofinfluenceandscience—includingBruni,Alberti,Regiomontanus,andToscanelli.TherewereseveraloccasionsatwhichAlbertiandNicholasofCusametovertheyears;duringtheCouncilofFlorence—AlbertiwasatFerrarawithEugeniusIV,aswasNicholasofCusa.ThehistorianGiovanniSantinellodrawsanumberofparallelsbetweenAlberti’s

writingsonbeauty,art,andperspectiveandNicholasofCusa’s.5

DePictura

Alberti’smasterpiece,Depictura,isgenerallyacceptedbyarthistoriansoftheRenaissanceasthemostimportantbookonpaintingeverwritten.LeonardodaVincirepeatedlyreferstoit,sometimesquotingitword

forword.ItseemsappropriatetoanalyzehowAlberticametowritethebook,notleastbecauseofitsimpactonthedevelopmentofLeonardo’sgeniusandthebook’sinfluenceonthefuturecourseoftheRenaissance.Inmyopinion,AlbertiwouldhaverealizedfromhisandToscanelli’sstudyoftheShoushiastronomicalcalendarthattheearthtraveledinanellipsearound

thesunwhilerotatingonitsaxisandthattheplanetsalsorotatedroundthesuninellipses,andthiswouldhavebeenaseismicshock.ThatAlbertiknewhowthesolarsystemworkedisevidencedbyhispaintingintheSanLorenzoBaptistryoftheheavensofthesun,moon,andstarsonJuly6,1439,atnoon.NotonlydidthisnewknowledgeoverturntheauthorityofPtolomyand

Aristotle,butitknockedovertheentirehierarchicalorderoftheuniverseandreplaceditwithaconceptionofaharmoniousand,aboveall,mathematicalworldorder.Mathematicsbroughtsystematicorderintotheplanoftheheavensandrevealedaconnectionbetweenastronomicaldataandphysicalresearch—quiteliterallyashatteringrevelation.Iftheworkings

andmotionsoftheheavenscouldbeexplainedinamathematicalratherthanareligiouscontext,thensurelyarchitecture,engineering,painting,evencryptographycouldalsobeexplainedbymathematics—henceDepictura,whichgivesthefirstrationalandsystematicexpositionoftherulesforperspective.ToquoteJoanGadolagain:

[Alberti’s]majoraccomplishmentofthisFlorentineperiod(1434–1436)wastheoretical.Bybringinghishumanisticandmathematicallearningtobearuponthepracticeofpaintingandsculpture,Albertifatheredthenew,mathematicallyinspiredtechniquesoftheseartsanddevelopedtheaestheticimplicationsofthisrenascentartisticrelianceupon

geometry.

ThesculpturalcounterparttothetheoryofperspectiveappearedsomewhatlaterinDellaStatua.Treatingthestatueasanotherkindofgeometricimitationofnature,hedevisedanequallyingeniousmethodofmensurationforthesculptorandworkedoutthefirstRenaissancecanonofproportions.6

Alberti,asJoanGadolsosuccinctlywrites,wentbeyondtheboundsofastronomytodetermineitsrelationwithmathematicsandthenmathematicstodeveloppaintingandarchitecture,cartographyandsurveying—evenengineeringdesign.

LeonardodaVincimadegreatuseofDellapittura[theItaliantranslationofDepictura]inhisowntreatiseon

painting,usingthesameterms,andideas,evensomeofAlberti’sphrases.Forexample,Leonardosaystheperspectivepictureistolookasifitweredrawn“onaglassthroughwhichtheobjectsareseen”(Gadol),whichwasatermusedbyAlberti;andthenagainwhendefiningpainter’sperspectiveas“asortofvisualgeometry.”LeonardofollowsAlberti’stheoryandprinciplesinevery

detail:“Thescienceshavenocertaintyexceptwhenoneappliesoneofthemathematicalsciences”…andagain,toquoteLeonardo,“paintingmustbefoundedonsoundtheoryandtothisperspectiveistheguideandgateway.”JakobBurckhardtportrayedAlbertiinTheCivilizationoftheRenaissanceinItalyasatrulyuniversalgeniusandconsideredLeonardodaVinci

wastoAlbertiasfinishertothebeginner.

Leonardo’suseofperspectivetocreatesublimepaintingsandarchitecture,andtoillustratehismechanicaldrawings,ishislegacytomankind.

Alberti’sintellectualachievementsweretrulyawesome.AsGraysonarthistorianofmedievalItaly,so

clearlyexplains,heintroducedtheconceptofthepictureplaneasawindowonwhichtheobservercanseethescenelyingbeyonditandthuslaidthefoundationsoflinearperspective.Albertithencodifiedthebasicgeometrysothatlinearperspectivebecamemathematicallycoherent.

Hewroteaten-volumearchitecturaltreatisecovering

allaspectsofRenaissancearchitecture—townplanning,buildingdesigns,waterandsewagetreatment,publicspaces,methodsofconstruction.Dereaedificatoria(Ontheartofbuilding)becameastandardreferencebookthatspreadRenaissancebuildingtechniquesthroughoutItaly.

HedrewthestarsontheceilingoftheSanLorenzo

BaptistryastheywereseenonJuly6,1439,probablyassistedbyhisfriendToscanelli.HecollaboratedwithToscanelliandRegiomontanusinhelpingdetermineRegiomontanus’sdeclinationofthesun,theobliquityoftheecliptic,andthechangeinitsobliquity.HecomposedthefirstEuropeantreatiseoncryptography,“Decomponendiscifris.”

Couldonemanreallycoversuchavastarrayofsubjectmatterrangingfromtheinventionofpolyalphabeticsubstitutesandthecrypticcodetonewmathematicalmodelsfortreatingperspective?

Albertiwas,likeRegiomontanus,Toscanelli,DiGiorgio,andTaccola,remarkablyreticentincreditingothersforthesource

ofhisinspiration.OfobviousinteresttomewasanypossiblelinkbetweenAlbertiandZhengHe’sdelegation’svisittoFlorencein1434,notleastbecauseAlbertiasnotarytoPopeEugeniusIVwouldhaveattendedmeetingsbetweenthepopeandtheChinese.Moreover,Alberti’swritingsbefore1434wereondomesticthemes—hisexplosionofastronomical,mathematical,

andcartographicworksallcameafter1434.

IstartedmysearchbylookingintoAlberti’sworkoncryptography,inparticularChinesecryptographyoftheearlyfifteenthcentury.ZhengHewouldhavebeenlikelytohaveusedcryptographyfortransmittingintelligencereportstotheemperorandtohisadmiralsandcaptains.Icouldfindnotranslated

works.

Then,whenresearchingRegiomontanus’slifeandworks,asrecountedinthepreviouschapter,IcameuponthecuriousfactthatRegiomontanushadmasteredtheChineseremaindertheorem,uniquetoChinaatthetime.Hissourceforthis(asfarasIknow,theuniquesource)wastheShu-shuChiu-changofCh’inChiu-

shao,publishedin1247,whichcontainsadetailedexplanationoftheTa-Yenrule.

TheShu-shuChiu-changisamassivebook,theChineseequivalenttoAlberti’sDereaedificatoria,butpublishedtwocenturiesearlier.WithfeverishexcitementIhurriedofftotheBritishLibraryandreadNeedham’sdescriptionofthiswork—abombshell;as

farasIcouldsee,thegenesisofAlberti’sworkinrelationtoperspectivecontainedinLudimatematiciisintheChinesebook.ItiscleartomethatbothAlbertiandhisfriendRegiomontanusmayhavehadaccesstothisbook,whichcontainednotonlyrulesforperspectiveandtheChineseremaindertheorem(forcryptographicanalysis)butallaspectsoftownplanning.Onour1434

websitearepicturestakenfromAlberti’sLudimatematiciandCh’inChiu-shao’sbooksidebyside,describingwaysofmeasuringheight,depth,distance,andweightbymathematicalandgeometricmeans.

LetusstartwiththebasicstagesofAlberti’sworkonperspective,thebuildingblocksforhisworksDestatuaandDepictura.

Asafirststage:Albertidrawsalargerectanglelikeawindowframe,throughwhichhecanseethesubjecthewishestopaintorcreate.Forthesecondstage,heselectsthelargesthumanhewishestopaintseenthroughthepictureframe.Theheightofthispersonisdividedintothreeequalparts,whichformthebasicunitofmeasurement,calledabraccia.

TheChinese,andlatertheSieneseengineers,usedvery

similarmethodsforconstructingtowersandmeasuringtheirheights.

Inthethirdstage,hemakesthecenterpointofthepictureframe,whichshouldbenohigherthanthreebracciaabovetheground.

Inthefourthstage,hedividesthebaselineintobraccia.

Inthefifthstage:Hedrawsstraightlinesfromthiscenterpointtoeachofthebracciaonthebaseline.

Forillustrationsoftheabove,pleasevisitourwebsite.

NowtocomparewhereAlbertihasgottenwiththeChinesemethodillustratedintheShu-shuChiu-chang.

Thefirstcomparisonisillustratedbythemethodforfindingtheheightofatower(asexplainedinAlberti’sLudimatematici,ca.1450):

Stickanarroworarodintotheground(c-d)soastoformastraightperpendicularlinealongwhichtotakesightingstothetower(a-b).Marktherodwithwaxwherethelineofsighttothetopofthetowercrossesit(f).Thetriangleformedbythearrow,groundandeyeisthegeometriccounterpartofthetriangleformedbythetower,groundandeye(abc)henceitcanbeusedtofindtheheight

ofthetower(ab).abdividedbybcequalsfcdividedbyce.

ThisishowAlberti“discovered”therulesofprojection,whichsincethenhaveformedthebasisofperspectiveforsculptorsandpainters.

However,Albertihadnotmadeanoriginaldiscovery.ThesameexplanationfromLiuHuiinthethirdcenturyis

illustratedintheShu-shuChiu-chang.Inthisbookthecalculationsarecalled“themethodofdoubledifferences,”thatis,thepropertiesofright-angledtriangles.Thereareillustrationsdepictingmethodsforcalculatingtheheightsofislandsseenfromthesea;theheightofatreeonahill;thesizeofadistantwalledcity;thedepthofaravine;theheightofatower;

thebreadthofarivermouth;thedepthofatransparentpool.ThistrigonometrywasinventedbyEuclid,andAlberticouldhaveobtainedhisideasfromhimaswellasfromtheChinese—heneveracknowledgedhissources.

However,thelinksbetweenChinesesourcesandAlbertigomuchfurtherthantrigonometry.Albertiusedthesameinstrumentsas

Toscanelliandadoptedsimilarmathematics.Alberti’smethodofperspectivewasbrilliant.Herealizedthatperspectivewasdeterminednotonlybythesizeoftheobjectviewedanditsdistancefromthebeholderbutalsobytheheightoftheobserverrelativetotheviewedobjectandtheanglefromwhichtheviewerwaslookingattheobject.Inshort,eachfigureinacrowdwhen

thecrowdisviewedindepthwouldneedadifferentruleofperspective.

BynowIwasbeginningtofeeluncomfortableabouttheamountofknowledgethatitseemedFlorentinemathematicianshadcopiedfromtheChinese—Taccola,FrancescodiGiorgio,andAlbertifromtheShu-shuChiu-changformathematics,surveying,perspective

cartography,andcryptography;RegiomontanusfromGuoShoujing’sworkonsphericaltrigonometry,ToscanelliandNicholasofCusaforGuoShoujing’sworkonastronomy.IcouldexplainoneortwoChinesemanualscomingintothehandsofVenetiansandFlorentines—butthismany,insomanydifferentfields?Itseemedtoomuchofacoincidence—too

goodtobetrue!Ontheotherhand,therewasToscanelli’sevidenceaboutthetransferofknowledgethatwasunquestionablytrue—evidencedbymaps,whichdonotlie.

ItseemedsensibleatthisstagetoseetheoriginalbooksinChina,notonlyNeedham’saccounts.Couldthesehavebeentakenoutofcontextinsomeway?Perhapsthere

werealsomanyChineseinventionsthathadneverbeencopiedbyEuropeans.Perhapsthosethatwerewasjustahugecoincidence.IanHudson,whohasbeeninchargeofourresearchteamandwebsiteforfiveyears,volunteeredtogotoChinatoinspecttheoriginalbooksthatIbelievedEuropeanshadcopied—byvisitinglibrariesinmainlandChinaandHongKong.

Hefoundtherewere,asfaraswecansee,noanomalies—firstitseemedeverythingthatTaccola,diGiorgio,Regiomontanus,Alberti,andLeonardodaVincihad“invented”wasalreadythereinChinesebooks,notablyephemeristables,maps,mathematicaltreatises,andtheproductionofcivilandmilitarymachines.Sohowwasthetransfereffected?Ihadmanysleeplessnightsof

worrybeforethepennydropped—allofthesebookswerereproducedinpartsoftheYongleDadian,whichZhengHewouldhavecarried.ZhengHe’srepresentativeswouldhaveundoubtedlytoldthepopeandToscanelliabouttheYongleDadian—asevidencedbyToscanelli’scomment,Chinawasindeedruledby“astronomersandmathematiciansofgreat

learning.”

Albertialsoappliedhismathematicalabilitytosurveying,andiscitedbymanyasbeingthefatherofmodernsurveying.Hereagain,hemakesacompletebreakwiththepast.HismapofRomebearsalmostnorelationtoPtolemy’ssystemofmapping.HerejectsPtolemy’srectangularcoordinatesandusesthe

astrolabetofindtherelativepositionsofpointsontheground,justasanavigatorwould—hetakessightingsfrommorethanonevantagepoint.AsJoanGadolsays,“HefirstsetforththeseideasinDescriptiourbisRomae,thebriefLatintreatisewritteninthe1440s.”GadolbelievesAlberti’sDescriptiourbisRomaeandLudimatematiciwereamongtheearliestworksinsurveyinglandareas

bysightingsandmappingbyscalepictures.HebelievesRegiomontanus,Schöner,andWaldseemüllerfollowedAlberti’swork.

Leonardo’smapofPisaandthemouthoftheArnoisthoughttobethefirstmodernmaptoshowcontoursoflandbyusingdifferentshadesofcolor.LeonardofollowedAlbertiintheprinciplesusedinsurveying,ashedidin

rulesofperspective.

15

LEONARDODAVINCIANDCHINESE

INVENTIONS

Inmyyouth,LeonardodaVinciseemedthegreatest

geniusofalltime.Anextraordinaryinventorofeverysortofmachine,amagnificentsculptor,oneoftheworld’sgreatestpainters,andthefinestillustratoranddraftsmanwhoeverlived.Whenourdaughterswereyoung,MarcellaandImadeapointoftakingthemtoasmanyexhibitionsofLeonardo’sworkaswecould—inLondon,Paris,Rome,Milan,LeClosLucé,and

Amboise.

Then,asmyknowledgeofChineseinventionsslowlyexpanded,particularlywithinformationprovidedbyfriendsofourwebsite,Ibegantowonder.MoreandmoreofLeonardo’sinventionsappeartohavebeeninventedpreviouslybytheChinese.Ibegantoquestionwhethertheremightbeaconnection—did

LeonardolearnfromtheChinese?The1421teamandIexaminedthesubjectforyearsbutcametonoconclusions.

Leonardodrewalltheessentialcomponentsofmachineswithextraordinaryclarity—showinghowtoothedwheels,gearwheels,andpinionswereusedinmills,liftingmachines,andmachinetools.Hedescribed

howandwhyteethcouldtransferpower,theefficacyofantifrictionteeth,thetransmissionofpowerfromoneplanetoanother,andcontinuousrotarymotion.Hedrewanddescribedratchets,pins,axles,cams,andcamshafts.Pulleyswereanintegralpartofmanyofhismechanisms;heproduceddifferentsystemsandapplicationsforthem.

SomeoftheearliestknownexamplesofgearwheelsinChinahavebeendatedtoca.

50B.C.

Atoothedgearwheel,asdrawnbyLeonardointhe

MadridCodices.

AllthesedeviceshadbeenusedinChinaforaverylongtime.IntheTsoChuanareillustrationsofbronzeratchetsandgearwheelsfromasearlyas200B.C.thathavebeendiscoveredinChina.

AxlesfromthethirdandfourthcenturiesB.C.havebeenexcavatedfromtheroyaltombsatHuiHsien.BythesecondcenturyB.C.,intheHandynasty,complexforms

ofcam-shapedrockingleversforthetriggersofcrossbowswereinuse.TheHsunIHsiangFaYao,writteninaboutA.D.1090,illustratesachaindrive.BytheeleventhcenturyA.D.flywheelswereusedinChinaforgrinding.TheearliestarchaeologicalevidenceofapulleyisadrawwellrepresentingapulleysystemoftheHandynasty.

OneofLeonardo’sbest-

knowninventionswasthepaddle-wheelboat.Thepaddle-wheelmechanismwasfundamentaltoChina’searlynavalsupremacy.Thesightofaboattravelingforwardatgreatspeedseeminglywithoutoarsorsailswasterrifyingtothoseinitspath.Thefirstrecordoftheexistenceofpaddle-wheelboatsoccursinaChineseaccountofanavalactionunderthecommandofWang

Chen-o,anadmiraloftheLiuSungdynastyinA.D.418.1“Thesevesselslaterreachedenormousproportions:onemonsterfromtheSouthernSungdynastywassaidtohavebeen300feetlong.Itwascrewedby1000menandpoweredbythirty-twopaddlewheels.”2

Theoldestknownillustrationofanendlesspower-

transmittingchaindrivefrom

SuSung’sHsunIHsiangFaYaochdrawninA.D.1090.

LeonardodaVinci’sillustrationofachaindrive

(MadridCodices).

Leonardoisrenownedfor

hisdrawingsofdifferentformsofmannedflight,notablyhishelicopterandparachutesandhisattemptsatwings.ByLeonardo’sday,thekitehadbeeninuseforhundredsofyears.“Chinaisthehomelandofthekite…theoldestheavier-than-aircraftthatgainsliftfromthewind.Itisbelievedthatthekitewasinventedsome3000yearsagobyLuBan…c.507–444bcaChinesemastercarpenter

oftheLuStateintheSpringandAutumnperiod.ItwassaidthatLuBanmadeamagpieoutofbamboopieces,whichcouldfly.Themastercarpenterwasalsothefirsttousethekiteinmilitaryreconnaissance.”3

DrawingofaSungpaddle-wheelwarship.

AlongwiththeotherRenaissanceengineers

Leonardopennedhisown

versionofthepaddleboat.

ParachuteswereinuseinChinafifteenhundredyearsbeforeLeonardo.

AccordingtothehistoricalrecordsbySimaQianoftheWesternHandynasty,Shun,alegendarymonarchinancientChinawasdeeplyhatedbyhisfather,ablindoldman.WhenShunwasworkingontopofahigh

granary,hisfathersetfiretothegranaryfrombelow,intendingtokillShun.Holdingtwocone-shapedbamboohatsinhishands,Shunflewdownandlandedsafely.Thisbookalsodescribeshowmorerecently(in1214)athiefmanagedtostealthelegofastatuefromthetopofamosque.Whencaughtheadmittedtousingtwoumbrellasasaparachutetosavehimselffrominjury

onhisdescent.4

Theparachuteisasmall

detailonafolioofthelargestcollectionofdaVinci’snotebooks,theCodex

Atlanticus.

Hot-airballoonswereknowninthesecondcenturyA.D.inChina.Thecontentsofaneggwereremovedfromtheshell,thenalittlemug-worttinderwasignitedinsidetheholesoastocauseastrongaircurrent.Theeggroseupintheairandflew

away.”5

TheChinesehadmadeuseoftheessentialprincipleofthehelicopterrotorfromthefourthcenturyA.D.,afactnotedbythephilosopherandalchemistKoHung.Bythen,helicoptertoys,likewhirligigs,werepopularinChina,acommonnamebeing“bamboodragonfly.”Thetoywasabamboowithacordwoundarounditandwith

bladesstickingoutfromthebambooatanangle.Whenthecordwaspulled,thebambooandbladesrotatedandthetoyascendedastheairwaspusheddownwards.Needhamdescribesanumberofexamplesofrotatingbladesbeingusedforflight,oftenintheformofflyingcars.6

Leonardodevotedmuchtimetothepossibilitiesof

mannedflight.TheearliestChinesedescriptionoftheconceptoccurredintheaccountsoftheshort-livedandobscureNorthernChidynasty(ninthcenturyB.C.),whentheemperorKaoYang“causedmanyprisonerscondemnedtodeathtobebroughtforward,hadthemharnessedwithgreatbamboomatsaswings,andorderedthemtoflytothegroundfromthetopofthetower….

Alltheprisonersdiedbuttheemperorcontemplatedthespectaclewithenjoymentandmuchlaughter.”7

Apictorialversionoftheaerialcar,fromtheShanHaiChingKuangChu.“Theskill

oftheChi-Kungpeopleistrulymarvellous;bystudyingthewindstheycreatedandbuiltflyingwheels,with

whichtheycanridealongthepathsofthewhirlwinds….”“Theartistherehasdrawntheaerialcarwithtwowheels,butbothseemtobeintendedtorepresentscrew-bladedrotors….”(Textofthe-2ndcentury,orearlier,plus17th-

centurycommentary).

AlaterdescriptioncomesfromMarcoPolointheZmanuscript.

Andsowewilltellyouhowwhenanyshipmustgoonavoyage,theyprovewhetherherbusinesswillgowellorill.Themenoftheshipwillhaveabundleoragratingofwillowstemandateachcornerandsideofthisframeworkwillbetiedacordandtheywillallbetiedatthe

endofalongrope.Nexttheywillfindsomefoolordrunkardandwillbindhimonthehurdle,sinceno-oneinhisrightmindorwithhiswitsabouthimwouldexposehimselftothatperil.Andthisisdonewhenastrongwindprevails.Thentheframeworkbeingsetupoppositethewind,thewindliftsitandcarriesitupintothesky,whilethemenholdonbythelongrope.And,ifwhilethis

isintheair,thehurdleleanstowardsthewayofthewind,theypulltheropetothemalittlesothatitissetagainupright,afterwhichtheyletoutsomemoreropeanditriseshigher.Andifagainittips,oncemoretheypullontheropeuntiltheframeisuprightandclimbing,andthentheyyieldropeagain,sothatinthismanneritwouldrisesohighthatitcouldnotbeseen,ifonlytheropewere

longenough.Theaugurytheyinterpretthus:ifthehurdlegoingstraightupmakesfortheskytheysaytheshipforwhichthetesthasbeenmadewillhaveaquickandprosperousvoyage….Butifthehurdlehasnotbeenabletogoup,nomerchantwillbewillingtoentertheship.8

Theideaofamanusingwingsforflightexistedin

ChineselegendhundredsofyearsbeforethisfifteenthcenturySieneseflyingman.

OneofthemanyweaponsmasteredbyChinabeforeEuropewasthecannon.

ThedismountablecannonappearsindaVinci’s

notebookandinthoseof

manyotherRenaissanceengineers.

Leonardodrewanarrayofgunpowderweapons,includingthreevariationsofthemachinegun,whichcanbeseeninthefirelancesusedinChinasinceA.D.950.

TheGeniusofChinastates:

Firelanceswithseveralbarrelswerefrequentlyused

andtheywerebuiltsothatwhenonefire-tubehadexhausteditself,afuseignitedthenext,andsoon.Onetriplebarrelledfirelancewascalledthe“tripleresister”andanotherwascalled“thethreeeyedlanceofthebeginningofthedynasty…”Onecuriousweaponwasthe“thunderfirewhip”afirelanceintheshapeofasword,threefeettwoincheslongtaperingintoamuzzle.It

dischargedthreeleadballsthesizeofcoins….Therewerealsohugebatteriesoffirelanceswhichcouldbefiredsimultaneouslyfrommobileracks…agreatframewithseveralwheelswouldholdmanylayersofsixteenfirelancesoneaftertheother….Whentheenemyapproachesthegate,alltheweaponsarefiredinasinglemoment,givingthenoiselikeagreatpealofthunder,so

thathismenandhorsesareallblowntopieces.Youcanthenopenthecitygatesandrelaxing,talkandlaughasifnothinghadhappened;thisistheverybestdevicefortheguardingofcities.9

Leonardo’smultibarreledmachinegunwasessentially

areworkingofaconceptthathadbeenusedbytheChineseforcenturiesbeforehand.

Leonardoalsodrewdifferenttypesofcannons,mortars,andbombards.TheChineseuseofbombardsiswellcataloguedthroughouttheages.10

Leonardodesignedmanydifferenttypesofbridges,includingsuspensionbridges.

Thefirstmentionofasuspensionbridgewithcablesandplankingappearsin25B.C.“Travellersgostepbystephere,claspingeachotherforsafetyandropesuspensionbridgesarestretchedacrossthechasmsfromsidetoside.”11

BytheseventhcenturyChinahadsegmentalarchbridges.ThePonteVecchioinFlorenceisacopyofa

bridgeinQuanzhou.

Leonardowasextremelycuriousaboutprinting.Hewaseagertoreproducehisdrawingsfaithfullywhilesavingtimeandlaborthroughincreasedautomation.TheprintingpressbyhistimewasinusealloverChina.Moveabletype,however,wasarelativelyrecentdevelopment;weshallreturntothisinlaterchapters.

ComparisonsofthemachinesofLeonardowithearliermachinesfromChinarevealclosesimilaritiesintoothedwheelsandgearwheels,ratchets,pins,andaxles,camsandcam-shapedrockinglevers,flywheels,crankshaftsystems,ballsandchains,spokewheels,wellpulleys,chaindevices,suspensionbridges,segmentedarchbridges,contourmaps,parachutes,

hot-airballoons,“helicopters,”multibarreledmachineguns,dismountablecannons,armoredcars,catapults,barragecannonsandbombards,paddle-wheelboats,swingbridges,printingpresses,odometers,compassesanddividers,canalsandlocks.

EventhemostdevotedsupporterofLeonardo(likemyfamilyandI!)mustsurely

wonderwhetherhiswork’samazingsimilaritytoChineseengineeringcouldbetheproductofcoincidence.

Arevolving-typetable

printingpressfoundintheNungShu,1313.TheNungShuwasprintedusinga

similardevice.

WasthereanyconnectionbetweentheChinesevisitof1434andLeonardo’sdesignssixtyyearslater?FormanyyearsIsearchedforcluesinLeonardo’slifebutcouldfindnone.Hewasextraordinarilyobservantandinquisitiveandcertainlywasfascinatedby

GreekandRomanartandarchitecture,literature,andscience,includingtheworksofAristotleandPtolomy.HeissaidtohavesleptwithcopiesofVitruvius’sworksbeneathhispillow.ButillustratedexamplesoftheGreeksandRomansdidnotaccountforaquarterofLeonardo’sengineeringdevicesshownonthe1434website.

Moreover,whetherLeonardoappreciateditornot,hewassurroundedbyevidenceoftheChineseimpactontheRenaissance,suchasAlberti’sbooksonperspectiveinpaintingandarchitecture.ThebasisofAlberti’sworkwasthemathematicshehadacquiredfromtheChineseexplanationofthesolarsystem.ReplacingtheeclipticcoordinatesystemusedbytheArabs,Greeks,

andRomanswiththeChineseequatorialsystemwasafundamentalbreakwiththeoldworld,overturningtheauthorityofAristotleandPtolomy.

However,thatisafarcryfromclaimingthatLeonardocopiedexistingChineseinventions.Onethingwecanbesureof:LeonardodidnotmeetanyonefromZhengHe’sfleetswhentheyvisited

Florencein1434.Soitappearedthatthesimilaritiesnotedabovewereduetoanextraordinaryseriesofcoincidences.Yearsofresearchbythe1421teamhadapparentlybeenfruitless.

PhotographicInsert2

Venice,theheartofRenaissanceEurope’s

maritimeempire.

ThismapintheDoge’sPalaceclearlydepictsthe

northwestcoastlineofCanadaandNorthAmericaset

“upsidedown”—withnorthatthebottom,aswasthepracticeofChinese

cartographers.Theroundels

describethesourcesoftheinformationusedtodrawit:MarcoPoloandNiccolòda

Conti.

Detailedworkingshowstheconversionof

Waldseemüeller’smapintoaglobewithstrikingresults.

Schöener’sglobesof1515and1520clearlydepictNorthandSouthAmerica,andthedesolateStraitsofMagellansupposedly“firstdiscovered”afterthemapshadalready

beendrawn.

UniversalisCosmographiae,Waldseemüeller’smapof1507,andhisgreenglobeof1505/06clearlydepicttheAmericaswithremarkableaccuracyforthetime,and

corroborateToscanelli’sstoryofmeetingtheChinese

delegationinFlorence.

TheColumbusmap,CGA5A,talliesupwiththe

Waldseemüellermap,showingcurious“rhumb”

linesthatextendoutacrosstheAtlantic,allendingona

circle.

16

LEONARDO,DIGIORGIO,

TACCOLA,ANDALBERTI

ThenIhadastrokeofluck.WhileonholidayinToledoin

2005,MarcellaandIhappeneduponawonderfulexhibitionaboutLeonardodaVinci.ItwasherethatIwasfirstintroducedtothegreatworksofFrancescodiGiorgioMartiniandtheprofoundinfluencethatthesehadonLeonardo.

Inmyignorance,IhadneverheardofFrancescodiGiorgio.Yetitwasobviousthathewasimportant;hehad

taughtLeonardoaboutwaterways.IdecidedtofindoutmoreonourreturntoLondon.

InthewonderfulBritishLibraryIfoundfirstthatFrancescoseemedtohaveinventedtheparachutebeforeLeonardo.ForwhatfollowsIamindebtedtoLynnWhite,Jr.,authorof“TheInventionoftheParachute”inTechnologyandCulture.Dr.

Whitewrote:

ThefirstknownEuropeanparachutehasbeenthatsketchedbyLeonardointheCodexAtlanticusonFolio381v,thatCarloPedrettidatescirca1485….However,BritishMuseumAdditionalManuscript34113,folio200v.showsaparachutewhichmaybeinasomewhatindependenttraditionsinceitisconical.

Thisrichandmassivevolume[intheBritishLibrary]seemstohavebeenunnoticedbyhistoriansoftechnology.Canitbedatedandplaced?

TheManuscript[34113],aquartoof261foliosofpaper,waspurchasedbytheBritishMuseumin1891….Folios21r.to250v.[are]atreatiseonmechanics,hydraulics,etc.withamultitudeof

drawings….

Folios22r.to53v.arenearlyidenticalincontentandsequencewithFlorence,BibliotecaNazionaleManuscriptPalatinum766,anautographofthefamousSieneseengineerMarianodettoilTaccola(whodiedinthe1450’s),thatwasdatedbyhim(onfolio45v)to19Jan.1433.MostoftheremainingmaterialinBritishMuseum

AdditionalManuscript34113asfarasfolio250v.[theparachutedrawingsareinfolio200v.and189v.]isthesortofthingwehavecometoassociatewithmanuscriptslongcreditedtoFrancescodiGiorgioofSiena(1439–1501).Indeedfolio129r.[beforeparachutedrawings]isentitled“DellaprovidentiadellachuerrasicondoMaestroFrancescodaSiena,”andonfolio194v.[afterparachute

drawing],nexttothepictureofalargefile,iswritten“LimasordasichondoildettoMaestroFrancescodiGiorgiodaSiena.”1

Dr.Whiteanalyzedthewatermarksofthepaperonwhichtheparachutedrawingsappear.Heconcluded:

ProbablydrawnbydiGiorgio,thisparachutediffers

inshapefromthatofLeonardo’s.

Consequentlythedrawingonfolio200v.[parachute]maybeplacedreasonablyinthe1470’sornotmuchlater,ifwearetobelievethewatermarks….

Ournewparachuteis,therefore,atthelatest,contemporarywithandprobablyslightlyearlierthan

thatofLeonardo….ItisindicativeofLeonardo’sperceptivenessthathepickedupthisideasoquicklyandthathebegantomakeitmoresophisticated.

SoitseemsLeonardolearnednotonlyaboutcanalsandaqueductsfromFrancescodiGiorgiobutalsoaboutparachutes.Whatelse?BacktotheBritishLibrary!

Dr.LadislaoReti,anexpertonLeonardo,hasthistosayaboutFrancescodiGiorgioMartini’s“TreatiseonEngineeringandItsPlagiarists”:

FrancescodiGiorgioMartini(1439–1501)thegreatSienesepainter,sculptorandarchitect,wasalsointerestedaswereseveralofhiscontemporaryfellowcraftsmen,inthestudyand

developmentofmechanicaldevices.ThiswasinaccordancewiththestillflourishingVitruviantradition.Hisengineeringtreatise,stilllittleknown,ismainlydedicatedtocivilandmilitaryarchitectureandcontainshundredofsmallbutperfectlydrawnillustrationsshowingwarmachinesofeverykind,aswellascranes,mills,pumpsetc….Althoughanumberofstudieshave

beenpublishedabouttheartisticandarchitecturalworkofFrancescodiGiorgio,hisworkintechnologyhasonlyoccasionallybeennoticed.2

Dr.RetithenliststhelibrariesandmuseumsinwhichFrancesco’sTrattatodiarchitetturacivileemilitareisheldandcontinued:3

Thereisalsoanincompletemanuscript3thatonce

belongedtoLeonardodaVinci.ThislatterisofparticularinterestbecauseLeonardoaddedmarginalnotesandsketches;themanuscriptisnowintheLaurenzianaLibraryinFlorence(CodexMediceoLaurenziano361formerlyAshb.361[293]).InadditionseveraloldcopiesofthetreatiseoritsdrawingsaretobefoundinotherItalianlibraries,reflectingtheearly

interestarousedbyFrancesco’swork.

TheseTrattatomanuscripts,especiallythosepartsdealingwithmechanicalengineeringandtechnology,haveneverbeenadequatelystudiedorfullypublished.AfairlyaccuratepictureofFrancescodiGiorgioMartini’sworkwasfirstmadeavailabletoscholarsin1841whenCarloPromis,usingtheCodex

ownedbySaluzzo,publishedtheTrattatoforthefirsttime(TrattatodiArchitetturaCivileeMilitareeditedbyCarloPromis(2vol.,Turin,1841)….

FurtherconfusionwascausedbythefactthattheCodexSaluzziano[quotedabove]andtheCodexLaurenziano[theoneownedbyLeonardodaVinci]inspiteofbeingwrittenbythe

samehand,andcontainingalmostidenticaldrawings,were,foralongtime,notattributedtothesameauthor[FrancescodiGiorgio].EarlyinterestwasarousedbytheLaurenzianaCodexbecauseofthemarginaliaaddedbyLeonardo.

Dr.RetithenliststhecontentsoftheTrattato:

Inthesefolioswecanidentify

nolessthan50differenttypesofflourandrollermillsincludinghorizontalwindmills…sawmills,piledrivers,weighttransportingmachines,aswellasallkindsofwinchesandcranes;roller-bearingsandantifrictiondevices;mechanicalcars…agreatnumberofpumpsandwaterliftingdevices….andanextremelyinterestingwaterormud-liftingmachinethatmustbecharacterizedas

theprototypeofthecentrifugalpump….[Francesco]describedoriginalwarmachinesoffensiveanddefensive,includingthehydraulicrecoilsystemforguns.TherearealsodevicesfordivingandswimmingalmostidenticalwiththosedrawnbyLeonardodaVinciinhisManuscriptB.

ComparisonsofFrancesco

diGiorgio’sandLeonardo’smachinesareavailableonour1434website.

Leonardo’sHelicopterandParachutes

ApartfromcopyingdiGiorgio’sparachute,Leonardo’shelicopterwasnotoriginal.Hisproposedhelicopterisshownonthecoverofthisbook.In“HelicoptersandWhirligigs,”

Dr.Retiarguesthatamodelhelicopterintheformofachildren’swhirligigtoyappearedinItalycirca1440fromChinaandprovidedthetheoreticalbasisforLeonardo’sfamoushelicopterproject.4

Dr.Reticontendsthatitwasfirstdrawnin1438intheMunichmanuscriptofMarianoTaccola(see1434website).

Clearly,FrancescodiGiorgiowasanastonishinglyinnovativedesignerandengineer.HisTrattatodiarchitetturastillexistsinseveralversions.MarcellaandIhaveexaminedthecopyinFlorenceonceownedandannotatedbyLeonardo.Wewereastoundedbytherangeofhisdrawings;itseemedtousthatLeonardowasaconsummatethree-dimensionaldraftsmanwho

hadtakenFrancesco’sdrawingsofhismachinesandmadeevenbetterdrawingsofthem.Leonardo’srole,inoureyes,waschanged;hewasasuperbillustratorratherthantheinventor.Forasfaraswecouldsee,almostallofhismachineshadbeenpreviouslyinventedbyFrancescodiGiorgio.

Thiswasquiteashock.Wedecidedtounwindinanearby

mountainvillage,Collevald’Elsa,5thebirthplaceofArnolfodiCambio,thegeniuswhodesignedRenaissanceFlorence.Hishomewasoncethepalaceofsilkmerchants,theSalvestrinis.Todayitisahotelwherewehadthegoodfortunetostayinaroomwithwallsthreefeetthick,whichhadoncebeenArnolfo’sbedroom.Wehadaviewofa

classicTuscanvalley—thehillsrollingawaylikelonggreenoceanswells;thecrestsofthewaves;thestonefarmhousessurroundedbyvineyardsandolivegroves.Thecrowingofcockerels,thebrayofadonkey,andthelaughterofdistantunseenchildrenfloatedacrossthesunlitland.Wehadapanoramicviewofthevalleyfarbelow.AroundushuddledthetowninwhichArnolfo

grewup—amassoffortifiedtowerswithintheprotectionofsturdystonewalls,averitablefortress.

Wehaddinneralfrescointhesquare,thewallsandflagstonefloorstillpulsatingwithheat.AfterasplendidbottleofDolcetto,adarkred,dry,sparklingwine,weaskedlocalpeoplewhattheyknewofFrancescodiGiorgio.Heappearedtobeasfamousas

LeonardoorMarianoTaccola.Thiswasanothersurprise—whowasMarianoTaccola,knownas“theCrow”or“theJackdaw”?WashecalledJackdawbecauseofhisbeakorbecausehe“jackdawed”theworkofothers?

Atdawn,weleftforSienaandFlorencetoviewTaccola’sdrawings.Thetripyieldedanotherbombshell:

TaccolaseemedtohaveinventedeverythingthatFrancescodiGiorgiolaterdrew;diGiorgiohadobviouslycopiedTaccola.

MarianodiJacopodittoTaccolawaschristenedinSiena,nearFlorence,onFebruary4,1382.6Hisfatherwasawinedealer.HissisterFrancescahadmarriedintothecomfortablefamilyofasilktrader.

Siena7hadbeenbuiltonahillforprotection.Thelandbeneathwasswamp.Obtainingcleanfreshwateranddrainingtheswampswereconstantnecessities.Henceitwasnaturalforawell-educatedyoungmantobeacquaintedwithaqueducts,fountains,watermains,andpumps,aswellasthemedievalweaponsdeployedtoprotectthetown—

trebuchetsandthelike.

AprosperoustownthreatenedbyRomefromthesouthandFlorencefromthenorth,Sienawasa“freecity”oftheHolyRomanEmpire,butSigismund,theemperor,8wastooweaktoprotecther.(InTaccola’stimetheemperorwaspreoccupiedwiththeHussitewars.)

In1408,Taccolamarried

MadonnaNanna,thedaughterofaleathermerchant,whichenabledhimtomoveupthesocialscale.In1410,hewasnominatedforentryintotheSieneseGuildofJudgesandNotaries,wherehisapprenticeshiplastedsixorsevenyears.Heseemedtohavehadapenchantforfailinghisexams.In1424,Taccolabecamesecretaryofaprestigiouscharitable

institution,theCasadiMisericordia,anappointmentheheldfortenyears.Assuch,hewouldhavebecomeacquaintedwithinfluentialvisitorstoSiena—suchasPopeEugeniusIV,GiovanniBattisaAlberti(in1443),andtheFlorentinesBrunellschiandToscanelli.

In1427,Taccolabegantokeeptechnicalnotebooks,containingknowledgehehad

acquired“withlonglabour.”AsPragerandScagliaexplain,Taccola’searlyentriesinhisnotebookareaboutthedefenseofSienaandtheoperationofharbors.9

Between1430andhisdeathin1454,Taccolaproducedaseriesofamazingdrawingsthatwerepublishedintwovolumes,Deingeneis10(Offourbooks)andDe

machinis,11andanaddendum.Therangeofhissubjectsisquiteextraordinary.Book1ofDeingeneiscontainsharbors,bucketpumps,mountedgunners,bellowsforfurnaces,underwaterdivers,fullingmills,andsiphons.Book2featurescisterns,pistonpumps,dragons,amphibiousmachineswithsoldiers,andox-poweredginmills.Book3

includeschainpumps,tidemills,variable-speedhoists,winches,quarryingmachines,flotationmachinestorecoversunkencolumns,builders’cranes,mechanicalladders,sailingcarts,andamphibiousvehicles.InBook4hetacklestrigonometricalsurveying,tunneling,machinesforextractingposts,treasure-huntingtools,windmillsandwatermills,picturesofmonkeys,camels,and

elephants,trebuchets,armoredships,paddleboats,roof-beamjoists,andreflectivemirrors.Deingeneiswasfollowed(ca.1438)byDemachinis,avolumeofdrawingsofmostlymilitarymachines(describedinchapter19).

Anarticulatedsiegeladderasfeaturedinthegeneral

collectionofChineseClassicsofScienceandTechnology.

Taccola’sarticulatedsiegeladderisoneofmanymilitaryinventionsthatbearastriking

resemblancetoChinese

versions.

PragerandScagliadescribeTaccolaasapivotalfigureinthedevelopmentofEuropeantechnology.Intheirview,TaccolaensuredthatthelongstagnationofmanytechnicalpracticesoftheMiddleAgescametoanend.HisDeingeneisbecamethestartingpointforalonglineofcopybooks.

Sohowdidaclerkofworksofasmallmountaintownsuddenlyproducebooksofdrawingsofsuchahugerangeofinventions,includingahelicopterandmilitarymachinesthatwereatthattimeunknowninSiena?

WecouldprofitablystartwiththedatesofTaccola’sbooks.PragerandScaglia,inmyopiniontheleadingauthoritiesonTaccola,put

publicationofbooks1and2ofhisDeingeneisataround1429–1433.Taccolabeganbooks3and4around1434or1438andcontinuedworkingonthemuntilhisdeathin1454;Demachiniswasbegunafter1438andtheaddendadrawingsaround1435.

AccordingtoPragerandScaglia,theaddendadrawings,whichwereinsertedinallfourbooksafter

about1435,representasignificantchangeforTaccola.Thenewtechniqueisverycharacteristicofsoldiersandenginesinsmallscale,thesketchesinsertedandannotatedwithsmallhandwritinginthelasttwobooksandinthesequel.Sketchesofengines,mainlymilitaryinfunction,maybeseenonalmostallpagesofbooks1and2;theyalwayssurroundprimarydrawings,

oftenincopiousarray.Thisparagraphseemstometomeanthatanotherauthor(FrancescodiGiorgio)hadbeguntoannotateTaccola’sdrawingsinbooks1and2.

Taccola’sdrawingswerecertainlyaddedtobyFrancescoafter1435.InhismarvelousbookTheArtofInvention:LeonardoandtheRenaissanceEngineers,PaoloGalluzziwrites:

ThefinalpagesofTaccola’sautographmanuscriptsDeIngeneisI-IIcarriesaseriesofnotesanddrawingsinthehandofFrancescodiGiorgio(fig.26).NodocumentbetterexpressesthecontinuityoftheSienesetraditionofengineeringstudies.Theyofferusasnapshot,sotospeak,oftheactualmomentwhentheheritagewaspassedonfromTaccolatoFrancesco

di-Giorgio.11

AreproductionofthissnapshotofhistoryisshownbykindpermissionoftheIstitutoeMuseodiStoriadellaScienza,Florence,onour1434website.SowecansayatthisstageLeonardohaddiGiorgio’sbookofMachines,whichwereadaptationsofTaccola’sdrawings.

FrancescodiGiorgioPillagesTaccola’sWork

DiGiorgiowasawholesaleplagiarizer.HereareeightexamplesofhispillagingofTaccola’swork,whichheneveracknowledged.

Francesco’spictureofacollapsingtowerisalmostidenticaltoTaccola’s;FrancescosimilarlycopiesTaccola’sunderwater

swimmersandfloatingridersonhorseback(seethe1434website).

Chinesewater-poweredverticalandhorizontalrice

grindingmills.

DiGiorgio’sdesignshowsasimilarmethodofconvertingverticalenergytohorizontal.

Francesco,whosedrawingsweremadeafterTaccola’s,employsthesamedistinctivetrebuchetasTaccola.Hishoistsandmills,whichtransformverticalpowertohorizontal,andpaddle-wheelboatscopyTaccola’s,asdohisdevicesformeasuringdistances,hisweight-drivenwheels,andhisox-drawnpumps.Severalexamplesareshownonour1434website.

FrancescodiGiorgioImprovesonTaccola

Francescowasaverygooddraftsman.HeimprovedonTaccola—ascanbeseeninalmosteverydrawingshown.Furthermore,headdsdetailstoimprovethequalityoftheillustration.Galluzziwrites:12

Manyofthe1,200odddrawingsandpracticallyallthenotes[ofdiGiorgio’s

Codicetto]areinfactderivedfromTaccola’smanuscripts.Buthardlyanyofthedrawingsornotesareslavishcopies….ThedrawingsareobviouslymodeledonTaccolabutFrancescooftenaddsoromitsdetailsandinsomecasesintroducessignificantchanges….Otherpeople’sideasandprocedureswereshamelesslyplunderedevenbyartistslikeFrancesco….[He]never

mentionedthenameofhissourceintheworkshelaterauthored.(p36)

Fromthe…smallmanuscript[Codicetto]onward,intheseriesofdrawingsandnotesbasedonTaccola’smanuscripts,wefindanincreasinglyfrequentrecurrenceofdevicesnotdealtwithbyTaccola.Thedrawingsarecarefullydraftedwithoutannotationsand

clearlyfocusonfourtopics:machinesforshiftingandliftingweights,devicesforraisingwater,millsandwagonswithcomplextransmissionsystems….ThereissomethingillogicalandincomprehensibleabouttheabruptswitchesbetweentheseriesoffaithfulreproductionsfromTaccolaandthepresentationofamultitudeofinnovativeprojects.Forthesearenot

only“new”machinesbutdevicesoffarmoreadvancedmechanicaldesignthanTaccola’s….hisdevicesfeaturecomplexgearmechanismswhosecarefulandhighlyvariedarrangementsarecalculatedtotransmittoanylevelandatanydesiredvelocitythemotionproducedbyanysource.AsweknowofnoprecedentsthatcouldhaveinspiredFrancesco,weare

ledtoassumethattheyarehisoriginalcontribution.13

Galluzzithenaddsthisnote:“Scaglia,whodescribestheseprojectsasa‘machinecomplex’or‘gearpumpandmillcomplexes’doubtstheycanbeattributedtoFrancesco.InherviewFrancescoprobablycompiledmanyofthesedesigns,alreadydevelopedbythelate1460’s‘inworkshopbooklets

preparedbycarpentersandmillwrights.’”14

GalluzziisclearlypuzzledbyFrancesco’simprovementsonTaccola,which,knowingofnoprecedents,heattributestoFrancesco’sgenius.Butweretherenoprecedents?Scagliabelieveshecompiledhisdesignsfromworkshopbooklets.Whatworkshopbookletswereavailable?

MyfirstthoughtwasRomanorGreekbooklets.TheRenaissance,afterall,issaidtohavebeenarebirthofRomanandGreekideas.LeonardowassaidtohavesleptwithallninevolumesofVitruvius’sDearchitetturaunderhispillow.TaccoladescribedhimselfastheArchimedesofSiena.

OurresearchteamspentweeksintheBritishLibrary

investigatingwhetherTaccolaandFrancescocouldhavecopiedtheirarrayofmachinesandinventionsfromGreeksandRomans.Vitruviuswasquicklyruledout—heshowednodrawingsofmachines.OurteamnextsearchedArchimedes,Vegetius,Dinocrates,Ctesibus,Hero,Athanaeus,andApollodorusofDamascusbutdrewablank.Scaglia,too,foundfew

classicalsourcesforTaccola’swork.“HedoesnotseemtohavehaddirectaccesstothewritingsofArchimedes,Hero,Euclid,VitruviusandTheMechanicalProblems,”sheconcludes.

AnumberofTaccola’sdrawingsanddiGiorgio’scopieswereofgunpowderweapons,which,ofcourse,wereunknowntoGreeceand

Rome.ThissuggestedaChinesesource.Iftherewassuchasource,couldwefinditinordertocompareitwithTaccolaanddiGiorgio?Thiswasournextlineofinquiry.Ittookmonths.

IfsuchaChinesebookhadexistedinFlorenceinTaccola’stime,itmusthavebeenaprintedcopy—itwouldhavebeeninconceivableforZhengHe’s

fleetstohavecartedtheoriginalbookofdrawingsaroundtheoceans.LiketheastronomicalcalendarandephemeristablesgiventoToscanelliandthepope,itseemedlikelythatthedrawingsofmachineswouldalsobeprinted.

WelookedforprintedbooksofmachineswidelyavailableinChinaatthetimeofZhengHe’svoyages.TheBritish

Library’selectronicdatabasehasanumberofarticlesonMingprinting.TheHarvardJournalofAsiaticStudiesprovidesagoodsummary:15

Comingdownthecenturieswehavedefinitiveproofofthemanufactureandapplicationofwoodentypeearlyinthefourteenthcentury,asrecordedbyWangChen,amagistrateofChing-teinAnhwei,from1285to

1301.Atthisplace,Wangwaswritingwhatwastobehisgreatwork,theNung-shuorWritingsonAgriculture,anearlyandverythoroughmanualontheartsofhusbandry.Becauseofthelargenumberofcharacterstobeemployed,Wangconceivedtheideaofusingmovabletypeinsteadoftheordinaryblocks,therebyreducinglaborandexpense.InhisexperimentsWang

mademorethan60,000separatetypes,thecuttingofwhichentailednolessthantwoyears….

Inordertorecordforposterityhisexperimentsinthemanufactureofwoodenmovabletype,heincludedadetailedaccountoftheminhisblock-printedition,theprefaceofwhichwasdated1313.

AlthoughperhapsnotindaVinci’shand,thisdrawingofaprintingpressappearsinhis

notebooks.

TheSourceofTaccolaandFrancesco’sInventions:theNungShu16

Soin1313,theworldsawitsfirstmass-producedbook:theNungShu.(Needhamimpliesitbecameabestseller.)

AlthoughMao’sRedGuardsmadebonfiresoftheseNungShubooks,

GrahamHuttoftheBritishLibrarykindlyhelpedusfindcopies.WithmountinganticipationIputaweekendasidetostudyacopyoftheNungShuandanydrawingsitmightcontain.

Openingthebookwasoneofthemostthrillingmomentsinmyseventeenyearsofresearch.Thefirstdrawingwasoftwohorsespullingamilltogrindcorn,justas

Taccola17anddiGiorgio18haddepicted.WithfeverishexcitementIturnedthepages—itwasobviousthatwehadfoundthesourcefortheirmachines.

NeedhamorganizesthemachinesillustratedintheNungShuundervariousrubrics:

TheNungShu,ontheotherhand,showsusnolessthan

265diagramsandillustrationsofagriculturalimplementsandmachines….HisNungShuisthegreatest,thoughnotthelargest,ofallworksonagricultureandagriculturalengineeringinChina,holdingauniquepositiononaccountofitsdate[1313].

Andhenceitsfreedomfromoccidentalinfluences.”19

AsfarasIcansee,every

variationofshafts,wheels,andcranks“invented”anddrawnbyTaccolaandFrancescoisillustratedintheNungShu.Thisisepitomizedinthehorizontalwater-poweredturbineusedintheblastfurnace.20Thiscomplexandsophisticatedmachinehasahorizontalwater-drivewheeltowhichisattachedadrivebelt.Thedrivebeltpowersasubsidiaryshaft

attachedbyapulleytoaneccentriccranklinkedbyacrankjointandpushes(throughrockingrollersandapistonrod)afanbellows,whichpumpsairintothefurnace.AsNeedhamsays:“Wehavehereaconversionofrotarytolongitudinalreciprocatingmotioninaheavydutymachinebytheclassicalmethodlatercharacteristicofthesteamengine,transmissionofpower

takingplace,howeverinthereversedirection.Thusthegreathistoricalsignificanceofthismechanismliesinitsmorphologicalpaternityofsteampower.”

AsfarasIcandetermine,everytypeofpoweredtransmissiondescribedbyTaccolaanddiGiorgioisshownintheNungShu.Thereareseveralexamplesshownonthe1434website.

IndiGiorgio’scolumnhoist21theenmeshinggearwheels,right-anglegearing,pinwheel,andpindrumareemployed.

Inhisillustrationofcartswithsteeringgear22(Codicetto)heshowsacrankarmfittedwithconnectingrods,andenmeshinggearwheelstransformhorizontaltoverticalpower.

AChinesebucketpump.

SomanyofTaccola’sideas,includingthebucketpump

andwaterwheel,areuncannilysimilartotheNung

Shuillustrations.

Taccola’sdrawingsofreversiblehoists23(Deingeneis)showflatteethwithenmeshinggearwheelstransferringhorizontaltoverticalpower,togetherwithadifferentialwindlassandcounterweight.Taccolashowsthesame.

The“verticalwaterwheelwithvanes”24illustrates

verticalpowerbeingtransferredtohorizontalbyenmeshinggearwheels,cranksandconnectingrods,camandcamfollowers,andright-anglegears.

DiGiorgio’schainpumpactivatedbyanimal-poweredhorizontalwheel25hasscoopwheelsonspokes,eccentriclugs,bucketpumps,andcontinuousdrivebelts.

ThatdiGiorgioplagiarizedbothTaccolaandtheNungShuis,inmyopinion,supportedbythefollowingpassagefromGalluzzi:

AChineseanimal-poweredchainpump.

Taccola’sillustrationofananimal-poweredchainpumpisstrikinglysimilartothe

Chineseversion.

Beastsofburdenmademuchbetterworkersthanhumans

forsomejobs!

Santini’sdesignmimicsandthendevelopstheprocess

somewhat.

Theverticalwaterwheelisshowntohavemany

applicationsintheNungShu.

AsimilarverticalwaterwheelisfoundinTaccola’streatise

onmachines.

ThefourbasiccategoriesofFrancesco’smachinesexhibitsomeinterestingnewfeatures.Firsttheinclusionofwrittencommentariesenhancesthegraphicrepresentationsofthedeviceswithlexicalinformationofmajorinterest,dataonmaterialsanddimensions,specialconstructionhints,andspecificapplications[theNungShucontainswrittencommentaries]….Insome

drawingsofmillsheintroducesquantitativeanalysisontherelationshipsbetweenteeth,wheel,andpiniondiameters.

Theauthorwasclearlyintent,however,ondefiningcriteriatoorganisehismaterial—aconcernvirtuallyabsentnotonlyfromTaccola’sworkandFrancesco’searlywritingsbutalsofromallpriorbooks

aboutmachines[theNungShuisorganizedbycriteria]….

Thesectiononmillswasmostheavilyexpandedreaching58separateitems….ThechapteronpumpswassimilarlyexpandedintheTrattatoI,whichdiscussesavastrangeofthiskindofdevice.Converselythesectiononcartsand“pullingandliftingdevices”was

reduced….Inparticularthenumberofmachinesforliftingandmovingcolumnsandobeliskswasdrasticallycut.Thetendencytonarrowthediscussiontobasicexamplesofeachmachinetypegatheredconsiderablemomentuminthesocalledseconddraftofthework(TrattatoII)….Onlytenillustrationsofmillssurvived,butnowtheywerestrictlyarrangedbyenergysource:

overshotbucketwaterwheel,horizontalpaddle(aritrecine)wheel,horizontalaxiswindmill,crankshaft(afrucatoio)millwithaflywheelbearingmetalspheres,human-poweredandanimalpoweredmills(threedesignswithdifferenttransmissionsystems)andlastlythehorse-poweredtreadwheel(twodesigns;oneinwhichtheanimalmovesthewheelfromtheinside,the

otherinwhichtheanimalappliespressureontheouterrim).[AllthesemillsillustratedbyFrancescoappearintheNungShu.]26

Galluzzicontinues:

ThesuccessivedraftsoftheTrattatothereforecharttheevolutionofFrancesco’stechnologicalmethodfromapotentiallyinfiniteseriesofexamplatothedefinitionofa

limitednumberof“types.”Eachoftheseembodiedthebasicprinciplesofaspecifictechnicalsystemwhichcouldthenvaryadinfinitumtosuitthecraftsman’sneeds.[AsdiGiorgiohimselfconfirmsinTrattatoII:]“andwiththeseweconcludethesectiononinstrumentsforpullingweightsinconstructionwork,sincefromtheseonecaneasilyderivetheothers.”27

AChinesechainpumpfromtheNungShu.

DiGiorgio’schainpumpisacopyofTaccola’sandalmost

identicaltotheChinese

illustration.

InmyopiniondiGiorgiostartedwiththeanimal-poweredmachinesshownintheNungShu,whichhecopied.HethencopiedfromNungShuthebasicChinesewater-poweredmachinesusinghorizontalandverticalwaterwheels.NextheadaptedthehorizontalandverticalwaterwheelsoftheNungShutopowerawholerangeof

millsandpumps—justasGalluzzidescribes.

HedidthisbyusingthebasicprinciplesshownintheNungShu,thatis,convertingwaterpowerfromhorizontaltoverticalthroughenmeshinggearwheels.Francescochangedpowerratiosthroughdifferentsizesofgearwheelsandalsochangeddirectionthroughcamshaftsandrockerbearingssoasto

deviseanarrayofwater-andanimal-poweredsawmillsandallmannerofpumpingsystems.28

GalluzzisuccessfullysummarizesFrancesco’sadaptations;Francescohimselfsays,“Fromthesewecaneasilyderivetheothers.”

LeonardodaVinciDevelopsFrancescodiGiorgio’sMachines

InTheArtofInventionGalluzzireevaluatesLeonardo’splaceinlightoftheearlierworkofTaccolaanddiGiorgio:

“Leonardoceasestobeavisionaryprophetinthedesert.Ratherheappearsasthemanwhomosteloquentlyexpressed—bothwithwordsandaboveallimages—theutopianvisionaboutthepracticalpotentialof

technologythatwereenthusiasticallysharedbymany‘artistengineers’ofthefifteenthcentury.”29

Leonardonolongerappearsastheiconic,singulargenius.Instead,asGalluzziwrites,he“emergesastheculmination,asthemostmatureandoriginalproductofacollectivedevelopmentlastingseveraldecadestowhichmanyhighlytalented

figuresmadesizablecontributions.”30

IbelieveLeonardo’smachinesweresuperblyillustratedcopiesandimprovementsofdiGiorgio’s.Hebroughthisbrilliantandincisivemindtopenetratetheessentialsofthesemachines,whichheregardednotasmagiccreationsdepositedfromheavenbutasassemblagesof

parts.AccordingtoGalluzzi,hewasabletoperceivethataninfinitevarietyofmachinescouldbederivedfromafinitenumberofmechanisms,whichhedefinesas“elementsofmachines.”AsGalluzziwrites,hisvisionoftheanatomyofmachinesandmanwasenshrinedinaseriesofmasterlydrawingsthatmarkthebirthofmodernscientificillustration.

BycomparingLeonardo’sdrawingswiththeNungShu,wehaveverifiedthateachelementofamachinesuperblyillustratedbyLeonardohadpreviouslybeenillustratedbytheChineseinamuchsimplermanual.

Insummary,Leonardo’sbodyofworkrestedonavastfoundationofworkpreviouslydonebyothers.

Hismechanicaldrawingsofflourandrollermills,watermillsandsawmills,piledrivers,weight-transportingmachines,allkindsofwindersandcranes,mechanizedcars,pumps,water-liftingdevices,anddredgersweredevelopmentsandimprovementsuponFrancescodiGiorgio’sTrattatodiarchitetturacivileemilitare.Leonardo’srulesforperspectiveforpainting

andsculpturewerederivedfromAlberti’sDepicturaandDestatua.HisparachutewasbasedondiGiorgio’s.HishelicopterwasmodeledonaChinesetoyimportedtoItalycirca1440anddrawnbyTaccola.31Hisworkoncanals,locks,aqueducts,andfountainsoriginatedfromhismeetinginPaviawithdiGiorgioin1490(discussedinmoredetailinchapter18).

HiscartographyevolvedfromAlberti’sDescriptiourbisRomae.HismilitarymachineswerecopiesofTaccola’sanddiGiorgio’s—butbrilliantlydrawn.

Leonardo’sthree-dimensionalillustrationsofthecomponentsofmanandmachinesareauniqueandbrilliantcontributiontocivilization—asarehissublimesculpturesand

paintings.Inmyeyes,heremainsthegreatestgeniuswhoeverlived.However,itistimetorecognizetheChinesecontributionstohiswork.Withoutthesecontributions,thehistoryoftheRenaissancewouldhavebeenverydifferent,andLeonardoalmostcertainlywouldnothavedevelopedthefullrangeofhistalents.

17

SILKANDRICE

BythetimetheNungShuwaspublishedin1313,theChinesehadbeenspinningyarnsforathousandyears,usingallsortsofmaterials.Silkwasthefinestandmost

valuable;scrapingsofhidesweretheheaviestandcheapest.Needhamproducesdiagramsofanarrayofhand-poweredandwater-poweredspinningmachineswithsingleandmultiplelooms.1

ChinahadbeenexportingsilktoItalyforamillenniumbythetimeTaccolaandFrancesodiGiorgioappeared.In115B.C.,MithridatesIIofPersiamade

acommercialtreatywiththeHanemperorWuTi.Inthenextcentury,JuliusCaesarpossessedsilkcurtains.2BythereignofAugustus,wealthypeoplewereburiedinChinesesilk.3

Inreturnforfinesilk,Chinesemerchantssoughtgold,silver,coral,andglass.Chineseregardedhigh-qualityglasswareasagreatluxuryandwerepreparedto

payaccordingly.DuringtheTangdynasty,monkssmuggledsilkwormsfromChinatotheWest.Picturesofquillingmachines,whichwindsilkthreadontobobbins,canbeseeninthestained-glasswindowsoftheChartrescathedral,datingbetween1240and1245.AclearillustrationoftheChinesemodelisshowninTheGeniusofChina.4

BythetimeZhengHe’sfleetvisitedin1434,Europeanshadsilkwormsandknewhowtowindsilkthreadandtomakesilkcloth,butinsmallquantities.TheillustrationsanddescriptionsintheNungShushowedhowthewholeChineseprocess—productionofsilkthread,thedyeingandweavingoffinesilkcloth,windingthesilkthreadsontobobbins—couldbecoupledwithwaterpower

toexpandproductionenormously.

InventionssuchasChinesewater-poweredthreshersandmillsfacilitatedthemass

productionofsilkandrice.

Figurestellthestory:In1418,Venetianmerchantspaidtaxonamerethreehundredpoundsofsilk.In1441,theFlorentinegovernmentpassedalawrequiringfarmerstoplantbetween5and50mulberrytreesperhectare,dependingontheyieldfromtheirfarms.5Tensofthousandsofmulberrytreeswereplanted

innorthernItalybetween1465and1474.Thisperiodcoincidedwith(orwasoneofthereasonsfor)areversalofVenetianforeignpolicy.AfterthedeathofDogeMocenigoin1424,VeniceunderFrancescoFoscaridecidedtobecomealandpowerinnorthernItaly.Verona,Vicenza,andthePowetlandscameintothePaxVeneticaandthenorthernPoareawasplantedwith

thousandsuponthousandsofmulberrytreesaswellasrice(describedinchapter18).

ThedailychoresofaChinesehousewife.

ThefirstItalianhydraulicsilkmill,inVerona,isdescribedin1456.ItisaChinesemachine.JohnHobsoninTheEasternOriginsofWesternCivilisationsummarizesthespreadofItaliansilk-weavingmachinestonorthernEurope:“Theinventionofthesilkfilatures(reelingmachines)hadbeenmadeinChinain1090.TheChinesemachinescomprisedatreadleoperated

silk-reelingframewitharampingboardandarollersystem.TheItalianmodelresembledtheChineserightdowntothesmallestdetailsuchastheleverjoinedtothecrank.AndsignificantlytheItalianmachinesmoreorlessreplicatedtheChineserightdowntotheeighteenthcentury.”6AsHobsonpointsout,thegreatBritishmillssetupbyJohnLombewere

copiesof“Chinese”-designedsilkmillsinItaly.Lombe’smachinesbecametheblueprintfortheBritishcottonindustry,whoseproductslaterswampedtheworld.

ThecombinationofabundantmulberryleavesandmechanicalreelingandweavingmachinesledtosoaringsilkproductioninFlorenceandVenice.The

ItalianmulberrywasmuchmoreprolificthantheChinese.Florencemanufacturingswitchedfromwooltosilk.SericulturespreadfromTuscanyfirsttothePoValleyandthentothe“terrafirma”northofVenice.Albertiwrotetherewere“somanymulberrytreestofeedthewormsfromwhichthesilkisobtainedthatitisamarvellousthing.”Estimatedproductionofrawsilkinthe

Veronadistrictrosefrom20,000lightpoundsin1530to150,000in1608.Vicenzaproduced60,000lightpoundsin1504anddoublethatamountby1608.AsprintinggotunderwayinVenice,publicationsinclearandsimplelanguageexplainedhowbesttotendmulberrytreesandfeedandcareforsilkworms.TitlessuchasIlvermicelladallaseta(Thelittlesilkworm)were

remarkablysimilartofourteenth-centuryChinesebooksonsericulture.

Thedevelopmentofsericultureledtomoreandbetterspinningmachines.Inthe1450s,Vicenzahadeightshopsofspinners.Thenumberrosetotenin1507,thirty-threein1543,andoveronehundredby1596.SilkproductioninVeronaunderwentasimilar

expansion,risingfromeightsilkspinnersinthe1420stotwelvein1456,whenVerona’sfirsthydraulicmill,ontheAdige,wascommissioned(Mola,237).Afterthat,theindustryexploded;therewerefiftyspinners’shopsin1543,seventyin1549,andeighty-eightin1559.

Therawsilkandsilkthreadproducedintheterrafirma

encouragedanewbreedofentrepreneurstobuysilk.ManywerefinancedbytheMedicis.TheVenetiangovernmenttookacloseinterestinregulatingthesilkindustryinitsterritory,issuingpatents,whichincreasedafterthe1440s.In1474,Venicepublishedagenerallawofpatents:

Thedecisionhasbeenmadethat,bytheauthorityofthis

council,anypersoninthiscitywhomakesanynewandingeniouscontrivance,notmadeherebeforeinourdomains,shall,assoonasitisperfectedsothatitcanbeusedandexercised,givenoticeofthesametotheofficeofourProvveditoridiCommune,itbeingforbiddenuptotenyearsforanyotherpersoninanyterritoryandplaceorourstomakeacontrivancewithoutthe

contentandlicenseoftheauthor….Butourgovernmentwillbefree,atitscompletediscretion,totakeanduseforitsneedsanyofthesaidcontrivancesandinstruments,withthiscondition,however,thatnooneotherthantheinventorsshalloperatethem.7

Bythesemeans,firstVeniceandFlorence,thenthewholeofItalycametodominatethe

raw-silkmarketofEurope—muchaseasternAsiadominatestheglobalmarkettoday.

Rice

Florence’ssilk-basedeconomicboomrequiredmoreworkers,andmoreworkersrequiredmorefood.AsBraudelhaspointedout,theyieldfromricefieldsissomeseveraltimesthatof

wheat.8

RicehadbeenknownintheMediterraneanworldsincetheRomanera,butitwasusedonlyformedicinalpurposes.ThefirstknownreferencetoricebeinggrowninnorthernItalyisaletterofSeptember27,1475,fromtherulerofMilan,GaleazzoSforza,tothedukeofFerraraconcerningtwelvesacksofAsian(OryzaSativa)rice

growninthePoValley.

RiceisthebasicfoodofsouthernChina.TheNungShuincludedmuchadvicefromWangChenaboutwetricecultivation,includinghowtohusbandandcontrolwatersuppliesfromthegreatriversthatcarrymeltedsnowfromtheMongolianplateaueastwardtothesea.

Cultivatorsofricebuild

surfacetanksandreservoirstostorewater,anddykesandsluicestostopitsflow(whennecessary)….Thelandisdividedintosmallpatches,andafterploughingandharrowing,waterisletintothefieldsandtheseedssown.Whentheplantsgrowfiveorsixinchestall,theyareplantedout.Allfarmerssouthoftheriver[Yangtze]nowusethismethod.Whentheplantsattainaheightofseven

oreightinches,thegroundishoed,andafterhoeingthewaterisletgofromthefields,soastodrythem.Thenwhentheplantsbegintoflowerandseed,waterisagainletin.

Chineseirrigationdesign.

TheNungShuillustratesallmanneroftechniquesforthevitaltaskofregulatingwater

supplytothericefields—manytypesofbucketandchainpumps,locksandsluices,damsandconduitchannels.Buckets,pallets,andchainpumpsareatheme,9asarebamboo“waterpalisades,”whichactedasweirs.

Asdescribedinthepreviouschapter,TaccolaandFrancescodiGiorgiodrewanarrayofpumpsaswellas

damsandsluicegates.10ThechainpumpsfirstshowninthedrawingsofTaccolaarestillinusetodayinnortheasternItaly,wherethelocalpeoplecallthem“Tartar”pumps.SinceTaccolaandFrancesco’sdrawingsofchainandbucketpumpswereshowninchapter16,inthischapteronlypistonpumpswillbedescribed.

SheldonShapiroinhis

article“TheOriginoftheSuctionPump”notes:

Notuntiltheearlyfifteenthcenturydoesthefirstevidenceofthevalvedpistonappear.Itturnsupinadrawing(Fig.4)bytheSienneseengineer,MarianoJacopoTaccola[inMunichMs.1435]whosestillunpublishednotebooksareofthegreatestimportanceforthehistoryoftechnology.In

thisdrawingdatingfromabout1433,thevalveinthepistonisclear.Therefore,althoughatextandotherdetailsarelackingthisdrawingrepresentsthefirstsuctionpumponrecord;itisunintelligibleinanyotherterms.

Thefirstdetaileddrawingsofsuctionpumpsdatefromtheperiod1475–1480;FrancescodiGiorgioMartini

inthelastbookofhisTrattatodiArchitetturawrittenabout1475showsseveralsuctionpumps.Inthemostmechanicallyperfectpumpthedistancefromthesumptothechamberseemsonlyafootortwo,insteadofthe32feetpossible,thusshowinganimperfectunderstandingofthenatureofthisnewtypeofpump.11

AChinesechainpumpusedforirrigationpurposes.

ClearlyFrancesodidnotknowhowitworked;hemusthavecopiedadrawing.

AsNeedhampointsout,suctionpumpsinChinaarefirstdescribedintheWuChingTsungYao(Collectionofthemostimportantmilitarytechniques,publishedin1044).HereNeedham

describestheprocess:

Forsyringes(chithung)oneuseslongpiecesof(hollow)bamboo;openingaholeinthebottom(septum)andwrappingsilkflossroundapiston-rod(shuikan)inside(toformthepiston).Thenfromtheholewatermaybeshotforth….Inthe11thcentury…themilitaryencyclopaediajustmentionedgivesuselsewhereavery

remarkableaccountofaflamethrowerfornaphthawhichconstitutedaliquidpistonpumpofingeniousdesign.12

DiGiorgio’spistonpumpisshowninthecopyofhisTrattatodiarchitetturaownedbyLeonardodaVinci,whichisnowintheLaurenzianLibraryinFlorence.LeonardoimprovedupondiGiorgio’sdrawings.

Inmanyways,thePoresemblesasmallerversionoftheYangtze.Bothriverscarrymeltingsnowsfromthemountainseastwardtothesea.Bothsufferfromflashfloodsandarecontrolledbyanetworkofcanals,locks,sluices,anddams.Thewatersofbothareusedtoformextensivericefields.TheexactdatewhenthePowasfirstutilizedforriceisnotknown.Clearlyitpredated

the1475letter,butbyhowmuch?Isuggestitwasafter1435,whenTaccola’sfirstdrawingsofpumpsappear,andprobablyafter1438,whenhisdrawingsoflockandsluicegatesfirstappear.

ThecombinationofboomingsilkproductioninFlorenceandVeniceandadequatefoodforthesilkworkersenabled“anextraordinaryincreaseinsilk

production”between1441and1461.13Bythe1480ssilkhadbecome“themainsourceofemployment”forFlorentineworkers.TheriseinsilkproductionwasmirroredbytheriseintheMedicifamily’swealth,whichwaslargelyaproductoffinancingtheexportoffinesilkcloth.FlorencehadacquiredtheportofPisain1405andLeghornin1421

andcouldthereafterexportherclothstonorthernEurope.

TheFlorentineRenaissancewasfueledbywealth,especiallythatoftheMedicis.ThefamilywasinexilewhenPopeEugeniusIVmovedthepontificatefromRometoFlorencein1434,intercededwiththeopponentsoftheMedicis,andenabledthefamilytoreturntoFlorence.TheMedicisonceagain

becamepapalbankersandsooncontrolledFlorence.AsthefuturePopePiusIIsaid,“Politicalquestionsaresettledathis[Cosimo’s]house.Themanhechoosesholdsoffice….Heitiswhodecidespeaceandwarandcontrolsthelaws….heiskingineverythingbutname.”14

ChristopherHibbert,inTheHouseofMedici;ItsRiseand

Fall,writesofCosimode’Medici:“ForeignrulerswereadvisedtocommunicatewithhimpersonallyandnottowastetheirtimebyapproachinganyoneelseinFlorencewhenanyimportantdecisionwasrequired.AstheFlorentinehistorian,FrancescoGuicciardini,observed,‘Hehadareputationsuchasprobablynoprivatecitizenhaseverenjoyedfromthefallof

Rometoourownday.’”15

CosimowasattheheartofwesternChristendom.WhenpopesvisitedFlorence,theystayedinMedicipalaces,enjoyedMedicihospitality,acceptedMediciloans,and,inreturn,grantedhighlyvaluableconcessions.Forexample,in1460hugedepositsofalum,anessentialingredientinfullingcloth,werefoundnear

CivitavecchiainthePapalStates.In1466theMedicissignedanagreementwiththepapacygivingthemandtheirpartnersthesolerighttominealumandsellitabroad.

Hibbertwrote,“theFrenchhistorian,PhilippedeCommines,describedthebank…asthegreatestcommercialhousethathadeverbeenanywhere.‘TheMedicinamegavetheir

servantsandagentssomuchcredit,’Commineswrote,‘thatwhatIhaveseeninFlandersandEnglandalmostpassesbelief.’”16

Bythe1450s,Florencehadsilkandfood.TheMedicishadderivedunprecedentedrichesfromthesilktradeandhadusedtheirwealthtofundastronomers,mathematicians,engineers,sculptors,artists,explorers,cartographers,

historians,librarians,archaeologists,andgeographers.TheRenaissancewasinfullflood—thanksinparttoChineseinventionsandplants—useofmachinespoweredbywindandwater,Chineserice,mulberrytrees,andsilkworms.

18

GRANDCANALS:CHINAANDLOMBARDY

OnNewYear’sDay1991,itwassavagelycoldinBeijing.MarcellaandIhadspentthe

nightwatchingsensuousTangdynastydancersintheirshimmeringpeacock-bluedresses—amemorabledisplay.Ihadabadheadache,forobviousreasons,andfoundthecoldthatfrozemynostrilsapleasantsensation.Inthosedaystherewerefewcars;Beijingstreetswereatangledmassofbicycles,theirridersswathedinbaggybluejacketsandheadscarvesangledagainstthebiting

wind.Thetrees—stubbypinesforthemostpart—stoopedbeforethewindandglintedwithicecrystals.WedrovetothesouthwestofBeijingtoboardahugemilitaryaircraftthatwouldtakeusdowntoXian.

Bythetimewetookoff,thesunwasrisingintheeast,sparklingonthefrozenGrandCanal.Weflewsouthoverthesilverpencilofthecanal

onourwaydowntotheYellowRiver,thenturnedtothesouthwestabovetherivertoXian.

WhataprodigiousundertakingthisGrandCanalwas—dug,accordingtopopularfable,“byamillionpeoplewithteaspoons.”Thatisprobablyaseriousunderestimate:theworkforceislikelytohavebeennearerfivemillion.LiketheGreat

Wall,theGrandCanalistheresultoftheobsessionofmanyemperorsoverthousandsofyears.Theyduginsections,graduallyextending,deepening,andwideningthecanalsothatitnowlinksthericelandsofthesouthwithBeijingviatheYangtze,HuangHe,andYellowRivers.

Thecanalwasstartednearly2,500yearsagoandgreatly

extendedduringtheSuidynasty(A.D.581–618),1whenEmperorYangenslavedhispeopletolinkhisnewcapitalofLuoyangtoXian(inthosedayscalledChangan).2Overtwodecades,heextendedthecanaldowntoHangzhou,enablingYangtzejunkstotravelupthecanaltoportsalongtheYellowRiver.Thecanalcrossedmajorrivers,

travelingfromtheTibetanhighlandstothesea.

BytheTangdynasty(A.D.618–907),100,000tonsofgrainweretransportednorthwardeachyear.KublaiKhanextendedthecanaltoBeijinginthenorthandbuiltanumberoflocks—therearemorethanthirtytoday—risingto130feetabovesealevel.3MarcoPolowasmuchimpressedbytheflatcanal

bargesbeingtowedbyhorses:“Thismagnificentworkisdeservingofadmirationandnotsomuchfromthemannerinwhichitisconductedthroughthecountry,oritsvastextent,asfromitsutilityandthebenefititproducestothosecitieswhichlieonitscourse.”4

Crossingsomanyrivers,particularlytheYellow,entailedmajorengineering

challenges.ThewaterlevelvariedenormouslydependingonthetimeofyearandtheamountofsnowthathadmeltedinthemountainsofTibetandwascarrieddowntheriverstothesea.OtherdifficultiesarosewiththeneedtocarryshipsuphillastheynearedBeijing.InTheGeniusofChina,RobertTempleoutlinestheproblemandtheresponse:5

ThecanalpoundlockwasinventedinChinain984A.D.TheinventorwasCh’iaoWei-Yo,whoin983wasappointedAssistantCommissionerofTransportforHuainan.Theimpetusforhisinventionwasconcernovertheenormousamountsofgrainwhichwerebeingstolenduringcanaltransportatthattime.GrainwasthenormaltaxpaymentthroughoutChina’shistory.

MovementofthegraintocentralrepositoriesandwarehouseswasthelifebloodoftheEmpire,andanysubstantialinterruptionofthisprocesswasaveryserioussocialandpoliticalproblem.

Until984,boatscouldonlymovebetweenlowerandhigherwaterlevelsincanalsoverdoubleslipways.Chineseboatshadnokeelsandwerenearlyflat-

bottomed.AformofportagehadbeendevelopedinChina,therefore,wherebyspillwaysoriginallydesignedtoregulatewaterflowwereelongatedingentlerampsbothfrontandback,leadingintothewater.Aboatwouldcomealongandbeattachedtoropesturnedbyox-poweredcapstans.Withintwoorthreeminutes,theboatwouldbehauleduparamptothehigherlevelandfora

momentwouldbalanceprecariouslyintheair.Thenitwouldshootforwardlikeanarrowoutofabowandscudalongthecanaltoalevelseveralfeethigherthanithadstarted.Passengersandcrewhadtolashthemselvestightlytotheboattoavoidbeinghurledintotheairandinjured.Thegreatdisadvantageofthisingenioustechniquewasthatboatsoftensplitapartorwere

seriouslydamagedbythewearandtearofbeingdraggedupthestoneramps.Wheneveraboatbrokeuponaramp,thecontentswouldpromptlybestolenbyorganisedgangs—includingcorruptofficials—whowaitedforjustsuchanoccurrence.Sometimesapparentlytheshipswereroughlyhandledonpurpose,orwereartificiallyweakenedorhadevenbeenchosenfortheir

weaknessessothatan“accident”ofthiskindcouldbebroughtaboutintentionally.

Ch’iaoWei-Yodeterminedtowipeoutthispractice.Hethereforeinventedthepoundlocksothatdoubleslipwayswouldnotbeneeded.Hereishowtheofficialhistoryofthetimerelatesthestory:“Ch’iaoWei-Yothereforefirstorderedtheconstructionof

twogatesatthethirddamalongthewestriver(nearHuai-Yin).Thedistancebetweenthetwogateswasrathermorethanfiftypaces[250feet],andthewholespacewascoveredoverwithagreatrooflikeashed.Thegateswerehanginggates:whentheywereclosedthewateraccumulatedlikeatideuntiltherequiredlevelwasreached,andthenwhenthetimecameitwasallowedto

flowout.Healsobuiltahorizontalbridgebetweenthebanksandaddeddykesofearthwithstonerevetmentstoprotecttheirfoundations.Afterthiswasdonetoallthedoubleslipwaysthepreviouscorruptionwascompletelyeliminated,andthepassageoftheboatswentonwithouttheslightestimpediment.”

Poundlocksmadetruesummitcanalspossible.

Waterlevelscoulddifferbyfouroffivefeetateachlockwithoutanyproblemsatall.Overastretchofterritory,therefore,acanalcouldrisemorethanonehundredfeetabovesealevel,aswasthecasewiththeGrandCanal,forinstance(rising138feetabovesealevel).Thismadepossibleavastextensionofthecanalnetworkandfreedhydraulicengineersfrommanyawkwardtopographical

restrictions.

Thepoundlocksalsoconservedwater,asShenKuarelatesinDreamPoolEssaysof1086:6

Itwasfoundthattheworkoffivehundredlabourerswassavedeachyear,andmiscellaneousexpenditureamountingtoonemilliontwohundredandfiftythousandcashaswell.Withtheold

methodofhaulingtheboatsover,burdensofnotmorethantwenty-onetonsofricepervesselcouldbetransported,butafterthedoublegateswerecompleted,boatscarryingtwenty-eighttonswerebroughtintouse,andlateronthecargoweightsincreasedmoreandmore.Nowadays[circa1086]governmentboatscarryuptoforty-ninetonsandprivateboatsasmuchaseight

hundredbagsweighingonehundredandthirteentons.

Notsurprisingly,theNungShu,theChineseagriculturaltreatisepublishedin1313,illustratedChineselockandsluicegates,whichwereessentialtoirrigatingricefieldsandcontrollingthewaterlevelsincanals.Needhamstates:

Thereisnodoubtthat

throughoutChinesehistorythemosttypicalformofsluiceandlockgatewaswhatiscalledthestop-loggate…twoverticalgroovesfashionedinwoodorstonefaceeachotheracrossthewaterway,andinthemslideaseriesoflogsorbaulksletdownorwithdrawnasdesiredbyropesattachedtoeachend.Windlassesorpulleysinwoodorstonemountingslikecranesoneachbankhelpedto

fitorremovethegateplanks.Thissystemwassometimesimprovedbyfasteningallbaulkstogethertoformacontinuoussurfaceandthenraisingorloweringitinthegroovesbymeansofbolts….

TheoldestillustrationofthiskindwehavefoundisintheNungShuCh.18,p4b,thedateofwhich(+1313)deprivesJacopoMarianoTaccolaofthehonourof

havingbeenthefirsttoillustrateadamwithasluicegate.7

SobythetimeZhengHe’sjunksvisitedVenicein1434theChinesehadhundredsofyears’experienceinbuildingcanalsandlocksandoperatingtheminallkindsofconditions—dried-upriversinsummerandtorrentsinspring.

Lombardy

ThegeographyandclimateofLombardy,theregionbetweenthefoothillsoftheAlpsandtheRiverPo,resemblesthatofeasternChina.ThePocarriesmeltedsnowfromthegreatlakes,especiallyLakeMaggiore,firstsouthward,theneastacrosstheflatplaintothePodeltasouthofVenice.Forcenturies,theriverhas

providedameansoftransportinggoods,includingwoodandmarble,fromthemountainstothecitiesoftheplains,andherwatershaveproducedfertileland.

Canalshaveplayedanimportantroleinthedevelopmentofcommerce,agriculture,andindustryinLombardy.TheimpetusforLombardy’sfirstmajorcanalappearstohavebeenthe

captureofMilanbytheHolyRomanEmperorBarbarossain1161.8Milanbuiltsubstantialdefenses,collectingwaterfromlocalstreamstoformwidemoatsaroundthecity.Milanalsoneededasecuresupplyofdrinkingwater,andthebestavailablewastheRiverTicino,whichflowedfromLakeMaggioreintothePosixteenmilesfromMilan.

ThisledtothefirstcanallinkingtheTicinowithMilan—ahugeundertakingforEuropeans.Theworkwascompletedinabout1180,longbeforetheChinesearrivedin1434.

ThelargestcanalofthissystemwascalledtheNaviglioGrande(GrandCanal).Itwassmall,ofvaryingdepth,dependingontheamountofwatercoming

fromthemountains.Ithadnolocksandthereforenavigationwashazardousandseasonal.Allofthiswasrevolutionizedaroundtheyear1450.

Thistime,theimpetuscamefromFrancescoSforza,adeterminedandcleverleaderwhoseizedthethronefromFilippoViscontionhisdeathin1447.SforzacuttheNaviglioGrande,which

promptlydeprivedMilanofitsdrinkingwater.Moreover,themillsalongsidethecanallosttheirpowersupplysotheycouldnolongergrindgrain.MilancapitulatedandFrancescoenteredthecityasconquerorin1450.HewasproclaimedDukeandcreatedthehouseofSforza.

SforzasetaboutprovidingMilanwithcontinuoussuppliesofdrinkingwater,

hydropower,andtheabilitytotransfergoodsandfoodthroughouttheyear.SforzahadinheritedacanalinthewestthatconnectedMilantoLakeMaggiore,butithadnolocksanddependedonthevariableheightofwaterfromthemountains.Itwasuselessfornavigation.Hedecidedtoequipitwithlocksandtransformitintoanall-season,all-weathercanal.

HeplannedtobuildtheBereguardoCanalinthesouth,inordertolinkMilanwithPavia,andinthenorthalinkbetweenMilanandtheRiverAdda,whichflowedoutofLakeComo.ThisgrandschemewouldcreateawaterwayfromLakeMaggioreinthewestallthewaytoLakeComointheeast,whichcouldprovidewaterforMilanandserveasanavigationsystemlinking

theAdriaticwithLombardy.Theproblem,ofcourse,wasthatin1452whentheplanwasconceived,Italianshadnomethodofbuildinglocks.Withoutlocks,canalscouldnotfunction—especiallynottheBereguardoCanal,whichhadafallofeighty-twofeetandspringweatherthatbroughtmeltedsnowinabundancedownfromthemountains.

Therearenoprizesforguessingwhoprovidedthedesignforthelocks:itwasouroldfriends,Taccola,9FrancescodiGiorgio,andLeonBattistaAlberti.Francesco,asdescribedinchapter16,copiedandimproveduponTaccola’swork.Wepresumehe,likeTaccola,hadaccesstoandcopiedfromtheNungShu.Inchapter16wedescribeddi

Giorgio’sTrattatodiArchitettura,notablythecopymarkedCodexLaurenziano,whichwasownedbyLeonardodaVinciandisnowfoundintheLaurenzianLibraryinFlorence.AlsodepositedwiththatdocumentisdiGiorgio’sTrattatodeiPondiLeveeTirari.10OneofthelastdescriptionsintheLaurenzianaCodex,no.361,concernsaseriesoflock

gates:

Ifalongariver….wewishtoconductboats,whenduetolittlewaterandaninclineitmightbeimpossibletonavigate,itisnecessarytodeterminethefall….Letussupposethatthefirstpartoftheriverhasadropofthirtypiede:constructatthatpointahighdoorinthemannerofaportcullis….withwindlassestoraiseit,andinthismanner

layofftheentirelengthoftheriverandallitsfallswithsuchdoors.Aftertheboatenters,andthedoorisclosed,theboatwillsoonrise…andwillbeabletoenterthesecondchamber…andsostepbystepyouwillbeabletotaketheboattowhereveryouwish.Shouldyoudesiretoreturndown,byopeningeachdoor,theboatwiththewaterwillbeledtothenextdoor,andsofromonetotheotherit

willbepossibletoreturntothesea.Allboatsshouldbemadewithflatbottoms,sothattheywillfloatonlittlewater.11

Thisdescriptionisaccompaniedbyapictureshowingalocksystemwithnofewerthanfourlocks.Thedateofthepicture,fromtheHansLeeLaurenzianaCodex,12isabout1450—adatefixedbythedescription

ofthedestructionofcentralRagusa(Dubrovnik).

Sforzaandhisarchitect,BertoladeNovale,nowhadillustrationsofhowtobuildlocks.Atfirsttheyfoundthempuzzling.HereisWilliamParsons’s13description:“Butthedetailsofthelockswerenotunderstoodandthecontractorsrefusedtomove.SoBerenzodePassarowrote

furtherurgentrequeststotheDuketosendBertolawiththenecessaryexplanations.”14

Parsonscontinues:

By1461thecanalwascompletedasisshownbyanotherletterbyLorenzo,inwhichhecomplainsofdefectsinthelocksandasksagainthatBertolabesenttoremedythetroubles.Inthisletterhewritesofthelocks

beingtwobracciadeeperthanthebottomofthecanal[whichmustrefertotheheightoffall].Thedefectsweresaidtobeinthegates:theirhingeswereweakandthegatesthemselvescouldnotwithstandthewaterpressure.15

After1461,lockswerebuiltonthecanalbetweenMilanandtheAddaRiver,whichwaslatercalledthe

Martesana.Bertolawasengagedintheconstructionofatleastfivecanalsofmajornavigableimportance,allrequiringlocks.HeconstructednofewerthaneighteenlocksontheBereguardoCanalandfivemorenearParma.Chinesecanal-andlock-buildingtechniqueshadbeenimportedintoLombardythroughTaccolaFrancescodiGiorgioandtheNungShu.

AnexaminationofthehistoryofcanalsinLombardyalsoillustratesthecloseconnectionbetweenTaccola,FrancescodiGiorgio,LeonBattistaAlberti,andLeonardodaVinci.Alberti,whowasthenotarytoPopeEugeniusIVandwouldhavelikelyattendedthemeetingbetweenEugeniusandtheChineseambassador,alsodesignedlocks.WilliamParsonssaidofAlberti:

Theyear1446sawhimre-establishedinRome,afriendofNicholasV,andstartedonhisengineeringwork—anattempttorecoverthesunkengalleyinLakeNemi[AlbertiusedadrawingvirtuallyidenticaltothatofTaccolaandFrancesco],whichonlylatelyhasbeenaccomplished….Thiswasfollowedbytheworkonwhichhisfamedepends,Dereaedificatoria(written

about1452).Fromseveralreferencestoitbyotherwriters,itiscertainthatthecontentsweremadeavailabletoscholarsthenorsoonafter.Thisfactisimportantbecauseitfixesthedatewhenthecanallockwasfirstdescribed….LeonBatistacontinuedthus:“Also,ifyouwishyoucanmaketwogatescuttingtheriverintwoplaces…thataboatcanlieforitsfulllengthbetweenthe

two:andifthesaidboatdesirestoascendwhenitarrivesattheplace,closethelowerbarrierandopentheupperone,andconversely,whenitisdescending,closetheupperandopenthelowerone.Thusthesaidboatshallhaveenoughwatertofloatiteasilytothemaincanal,becausetheclosingoftheuppergaterestrainsthewaterfrompushingittooviolently,withfearofgrounding.”…

WearesurethatBastista’sAedificatoriawaswrittenabout1452,andthatitscontentswereknowntomanyengineers.16

Inotherwords,bothFrancescoandAlbertihavedescribedthesamelocksystemsthataredescribedintheNungShu.

ItisthereforeincorrecttocreditLeonardodaVinciwith

theinventionoflocks.Asweknow,hishandwritingappearsontheLaurenzianoCodexofFrancesco(asdescribedinchapter16).WealsoknowthatLeonardolearnedmuchaboutwaterwaysfromhismeetinginPaviawithdiGiorgio.ItisfairtosaythatLeonardo’sdrawingsofcanalsarethemostelegantbyfar,butLeonardodidnotinventlocks,despitecenturiesof

creditforthebreakthrough.

Nevertheless,theintroductionoflocks,whichenabledanall-weather,all-seasonsystemofnavigablecanalstobeconstructedinnorthernItaly,wasofimmenseimportancetotheeconomicdevelopmentofLombardy.TheintroductionofChineserice,mulberrytrees,andsilkwasallthemorevaluableoncetherice

couldbecarrieddownriveronthePo.Marble,too,couldbetransportedfromthemountainstothenewcitiesofnorthernItaly.ItalynowpossessedanarrayofChineseinventions—water-poweredmachinessuchasmillsandpumpstogrindcornandspinsilk.After1434,ItalywasonherwaytobecomingEurope’sfirstindustrialnation.

Europe’sFirstIndustrialNation

Thewonderfulrichlegacybasedonriceandsilk,canalsandsteel,isvisibletoday.Duringmostsummersofthepastforty-twoyearsMarcellaandIhavedriventhroughBurgundyacrosstheColdeLarchetoherhomeinthePiedmonttostaywithherfamilyinthefoothillsoftheAlps.Wewoulddrive

eastwardtoVeniceacrossthePoValleythroughmilesuponmilesofgoldenricefieldsirrigatedbythefamouscanalsfedbyalpinesnowmelt.

Wewouldstartourjourneyatdawn,thelanesfullofputteringtractors.Afterfourhours,Mantuawouldappear,aghostlysilhouettesuspendedfromthesky,alightfogsittingonthelakesthatsurroundthetown.

MedievaltownbuildersexploitedtheloopsofthePoandhertributarytheMinciotocreateaseriesoflakesthatformMantua’sdefenses.Cremona,Pavia,Verona,andMilanwerealsobuiltonloopsofthePotributariesthatwoundtheirwayacrossthefieldsofLombardy.Mantua’shistorictowncenteristypicalofthesemedievalcities.ThePiazzaErbeisanensembleofenchantingpastelbuildings.It

leadstotheequallybeautifulMantegnaandSordelloSquares,eachmoreimposingthanthelast,eachsurroundedbysuperbmedievalandRenaissancebuildings.AttheeastsideofSordelloSquarestandstheducalpalaceoftheGonzagas,17theprincelyfamilywhoruledthistownintheMiddleAges.Onegreathallleadstoanother,eachcoveredfromfloortoceiling

withfrescoes,fantasticRenaissancemasterpieces—fablesbyPisanelloandMantegna,portraitsoftheGonzagafamily,tapestriesdepictingthelivesoftheapostles.Themostastonishingimpactcomesfromdifferingstylesbeinglinkedtoformaharmonioussingleensemble.TheGonzagaswereclearlyafamilyofenormouswealthandgreatdiscernment.

InVeronatheScaglieri18rulingfamily,liketheGonzagas,patronizedbrilliantartists.Thiscomesasasurprise,forVerona,Mantua,Milan,Urbino,andFerrarahadadifferentlifestylethanthatofrepublicanFlorenceandVenice.Insteadofawealthymercantileclassengagedininternationaltrade,rulersandaristocracyinthesenortherncitieslived

ontheirwits,oftenactingasmercenariestoVenice.However,theseministateslayontraderoutes.MilanandVeronacontrolledtheapproachtotheprincipalalpinepassesandwereinapositiontogathertaxesandtollsfromoverlandtrafficbetweenVeniceandnorthernEurope.Eachhadalittlearmy.ThemoneytherulerslavishedonRenaissanceartistswasundoubtedlypart

oftheirforeignpolicy—toappearwealthierandmoreimportantthantheyreallyweresoastoimpresstheirpowerfulneighbors,VeniceandFlorence.Todaywearethebeneficiariesofthislargesse.ThesesumptuousItaliancitiesarestuffedwithRenaissancemasterpieces;onecouldspendalifetimeineach.19

ThewealthofmodernItaly

remainsvisibleinthehousesoffarmersandmiddle-classpeople—hugebythestandardsofnorthernEurope,andsuperblyfinished.Peoplewearexpensiveclothes,andthewomenexquisitelyturnedout,presentingtherenownedbellafigura.

Tome,thewealthofnorthernItaly,particularlythatofPiedmont,isepitomizedinthefood.One

enterswhatappearstobeafarmhouse;oftennonamedisclosestherestaurantwithin.Theplaceispacked;therearenomenusandnopricelists—onejustchoosesatableandsitsdown.OurfavoriteistheNonna,inthefoothillsoftheAlpsnearPianFei.AbottleofslightlysparklingdrydeepredwinemadefromNebbiolograpesisbrought,togetherwithaplateofParmahamand

salami.Thencomecruditéswithbagnacauda,asauceofgarlic,anchovies,tuna,andoliveoil,followedbypasta.Severalcourses—roastkid,guineafowl,wildboar,sucklingpig,andwildrabbitwithchestnutsfollow.Dessertisfrequentlythelocalraspberriesandthefamouschestnutsboiledwithwhitevinoandmixedwithcream.Oneishandedthebill,usuallyabouttwentyeurosa

headfortwelvecourses.

TomethereisnoplaceonearthwithahigherstandardoflivingthanthePiedmontwithherhugehouses,wonderfulfood,historiccities,good-naturedandcharmingpeople—alifebaseduponnaturalwealthinaregionwhoseadvancedmethodsoffarmingandindustrializationcamesixhundredyearsago.

19

FIREARMSANDSTEEL

ThereissubstantialevidencethatanillustrationofablastfurnaceintheNungShuwascopiedbyTaccolaandAlbertiandbuiltinnorthern

Italy.Asaresult,forthefirsttimeEuropeanshadthecapacitytoproducesufficientquantitiesofhigh-qualityironandsteeltomakereliablemodernfirearms.1

OneofthefirstdescriptionsofanItaliansteel-makingfurnacecomesfromtheFlorentinearchitectAntoniodiPieroAverlino,whowascalled“Filarete.”2FilaretewasborninFlorencearound

1400.HismajorworkwasOspedaleMaggiore,atreatiseonthereorganizationofhospitalsandsanitaryengineering.Fearingthathisreadersmightfindthistomealittletooheavy,heprovidedaseriesofdiversionsforrelief.OnesuchdiversionishisaccountofavisittoahammermillandsmelterinFerriere.3Dr.JohnSpencer4,chairmanoftheAllen

MemorialArtMuseum,assertsthat

thetechniqueofsmeltingironinthefifteenthcenturyasdescribedbyFilaretedoesnotdiffermarkedlyfromthestandardmethodofextractionthatobtainsfromhisowndayuntiltheeighteenthcentury.Inbarestoutlineheinformsusthattheorewasfirstimprovedbyroastingitwithlime,perhapsinanattemptto

reducethehighsulphurcontent,whichhenotesatvariouspointsintheprocess.Theresultingproductwasground,siftedandpreparedforthecharge…clearlayersofcharcoalwerealternatedinthe[smelter]stackwithlayersofore-limemixture.Theairblastnecessaryforefficientreductionwasprovidedbyaningeniousarrangementofbellowsblowingalternativelythroughacommontuyère….

Whenthemoltenpigironhadcooleditwasmeltedagainandcarriedtoafinerywhereitwasshaped.

Filarete’sdescriptionofthesmelterraisesseveralsignificantpointsandposesseveralproblems.HisdescriptionofthehammermillatGrottaFerratarecordsoneoftheearliestinstancesoffiningwhichwasalready,apparently,welldeveloped.

Thebellowsseemtobequiteuniqueandagainaveryearlyexampleofasophisticatedinnovation….5

Theharnessingofwater

powercouldraiseanddropthesetriangulatedtilt

hammerswithgreatforce.

Anillustrationofawater-poweredsmithybellows,forgeandhammermillatGrottaferratanearRome.

ThissmelterwasnottheonlyChinesecontributiontomakingironandsteelinnorthernItalyinthe1450s.TheodoreA.Wertime,authorofTheComingoftheAgeofSteel,exploredthis“orientalinfluence”inhispaper“AsianInfluencesonEuropeanMetallurgy”:

Theingeniouswater-poweredbellowsenabledhigher

temperaturestofacilitateironsmelting.

Taccola’ssimilarwater-poweredbellowsarefoundin

hisCodexLatinus

Monacensis,Munich.

ThereisnoquestionthatFilarete,atrainedobserver,foundhere[atFerriere]anunusualfurnaceassemblage.Butwhatitwasweshallneverpreciselyknow,althoughonesuspectsorientalinfluencefromthetechnologicalcontextofFilarete’simpressions….

Needhamisquiterightin

speakingofthe“clustering”oftechnology,particularlyatsuchmomentsoftechnicalinventionandinterchangeasthetenthtofifteenthcenturiesA.D.AsnotedinTheComingoftheAgeofSteel—withquiteconservativeinterpretations—fifteenthcenturyItalyexhibitedanunusualnumberofmetallurgicaltraitsassociatedwithnon-Europeantechniquesofmakingcast

iron:

1.Theemploymentofthemoltenbathofcastironforcarburisingwroughtirontosteel,identifiedbyNeedhamasanearlyChineseprocess,whichinEuropecametobeknownasthe“Brescian”or“Bergamasque”process62.Theearlyandcontinuedcastingofcookingwareandcannonsofiron;3.TheCannechio,a

distinctiveinvertedconicalshapeinEuropeanblastfurnaces,withantecedentsmoreprobablyChinesethanPersian;4.Thegranulationofnewcastironforshotorformakingironsuitableforfining,notunlikenorthPersiantraditions;5.Ironfilingsasaningredientinfireworks,reflectingtheheritageof“Chinesefire.”…

InItalytheevidencesofclusteringareimpressiveandforceonetopondermostdeeplyonthecoursebywhichsocietiescametoreshapeboththeirmechanismsandtheirtechniquestonewpurposes….

…FilaretemayindeedhaveseenthelastvestigesofalargeandvariedclusterofpracticesintheAsian

manner,associatedwiththenewproduct“castiron.”7

TheMedicisfinancedtechnicalimprovementsinhardeningsteel.SuzanneButters,in“TheTriumphofVulcan:Sculptors’Tools,Porphyry,andthePrinceinDucalFlorence,”describesaMedicistoneworker,Tadda,experimentingwithproceduresfortemperingsteelinordertomakechisels

hardenoughtocutporphyry—thehardestmaterialthenusedinart.8Havingdevisedcastironandsteelofsufficienthardnessandstrengthtoenablethemtomakefirearms,theFlorentinesnextneededbettergunpowder.

Gunpowder,muskets,andcannonswereallChineseinventions.GunpowderwasfirstmadeintheTang

dynastyandimprovedintheSong.9Itsmainingredientsweresulphur,saltpeter,andcharcoal.TheChinesetermhuoyaomeans“thedrugthatfires.”(Chinesealchemistshadoriginallythoughtthatsulphurandsaltpeterweredrugsandthatgunpowdercouldtreatskininfections.)Intheirsearchforanelixir,thealchemistshadfoundthatsulphurwasflammable.They

mixeditwithsaltpetertocontrolitsvolatilitybycausingpartialcombustion,aprocesscalled“controllingsulphur.”10Theyfoundthatbyaddingcharcoaltothesaltpeter-sulphurmix,theycouldcauseanexplosion.Armorersthenworkedontheproportionstoobtainthemostexplosivemixture.

TheWeiYuanCannonandasimilarmountablemobile

cannon.

Drawingsofcannonballsandpetardsfeaturedinthe

Sieneseengineers’treatisesonwarfare.

ThedevelopmentofgunpowderinChinawenthandinhandwiththedevelopmentoffirearms.DuringtheNorthernSong(A.D.960–1127),EmperorZhanzon(alsoknownasChaoHeng)setupChina’sfirstarmsfactory,employingsomefortythousandworkers.Threedifferenttypesofgunpowderwereperfected:oneforcannon,anotherforfireballs,andanotherfor

poisonedsmokebombs.11Theratioofsaltpetertosulfurandcharcoalvariedforeachtype.PerhapsthemostfamousweapondevelopedduringtheNorthernSongwasthefiregun,theprecursorofmodernfirearms.TheYuanemperorsdeployedtheseweaponsinthethirteenthcenturyincentralAsia.

ChinahadinventedflamethrowersbyA.D.975.

HereisadescriptionofabattleontheYangtzepresentedbyShihHsuPaiinhisbookTalksatFisherman’sRock:

ChuLung-PinasAdmiralwasattackedbytheSungemperor’sforcesinstrength.Chuwasincommandofalargewarshipmorethantendeckshigh,withflagsflyinganddrumsbeating.Theimperialshipsweresmaller

buttheycamedowntheriverattackingfiercely,andthearrowsflewsofastthattheshipsunderAdmiralChuwerelikeporcupines.Chuhardlyknewwhattodo.Sohequicklyprojectedpetrolfromflame-throwerstodestroytheenemy.TheSungforcescouldnothavewithstoodthis,butallofasuddenanorthwindsprangupandsweptthesmokeandflamesovertheskytowards

hisownshipsandmen.Asmanyas150,000soldiersandsailorscaughtinthisareoverwhelmed,whereuponChu,beingovercomewithgrief,flunghimselfintotheflamesanddied.12

ExcavationsofKublaiKhan’sfleet,whichwaswreckedin1281byakamikazewindoffTakashima,Japan,haverevealedthatthefleetwas

armedwithexplodingmortarbombs.TheChineseusedthisweaponagainsttheMongolsin1232inthesiegeofthenortherncapital,Kaifeng.Chinesehistorytellsus:

Amongtheweaponsofthedefenderstherewastheheaven-shakingthundercrashbomb.Itconsistedofgunpowderputintoanironcontainer;thenwhenthefusewaslitandtheprojectileshot

offtherewasagreatexplosionthenoisewhereofwaslikethunder,audibleformorethanahundredli[aboutfortymiles]andthevegetationwasscorchedandblastedbytheheatoveranareaofmorethanhalfamou[manyacres].Whenhit,evenironarmourwasquitepiercedthrough.13

Rocketsandgunpowdermissileshadbeenknown

since1264.Inhisthirteenth-centurybookCustomsandInstitutionsoftheOldCapital,Choudescribesgunpowderweapons.“Someofthesewerelikewheelsandrevolvingthings,otherslikecometsandothersagainshootingalongthesurfaceofthewater.”14

Gunpowderwasusedincelebrations,aswell,thoughnotalwayswiththeintended

results.HereisRobertTemple’saccountoftheempress’sretirementpartyattheImperialPalacein1264.“Adisplayoffireworkswasgiveninthecourtyard.Oneofthese,ofthe‘groundrat’typewentstraighttothestepsofthethroneoftheEmperor’sMother,andgaveherquiteafright.Shestoodupinanger,gatheredherskirtsaroundher,andstoppedthefeast.”15

ByZhengHe’sera,Chinahadacquiredcenturiesofexperienceinproducingallmannerofgunpowderweapons.ZhengHe’sfleetswerearmedwithrocketsthatsentspraysofburningpaperandgunpowdertosetfiretotheenemies’sails;grenadessoakedinpoison;mortarspackedwithchemicalsandhumanexcrement;shellsfilledwithironboltstoscythementopieces;archerswith

flamingarrows;seaminestoprotecthisships;flamethrowerstoincineratetheopposition;androcketbatteriestoterrifythem.Heavenhelptheirenemies!16

EuropeanscouldhardlyhavefailedtonoticethisterrifyingarmorywhentheymetZhengHe’sfleets,whetherinCalicut,Cairo,Alexandria,Venice,orTheHague.

ThefirstEuropeanbooksongunpowderweaponswerepublishedinabout1440,onebyananonymousHussiteengineer,thesecondbytheVenetianGiovanniFontana,andthethirdbyouroldfriendMarianodiJacopodittoTaccola.

Fontanadescribedandillustratedmanymachines,whichhecalled“innovationsofimpietynolessthan

genius.”Hemarveledthatsomuchexplosiveforcecouldbegeneratedbysuchaweakpowder.17Exquibusestorridamachinaquambombardamappellamusaddirvendamomnemfortemdvrittiemetiammarmoreamturremnonminusimpietatisquamingeniifuisseexistimoquiprimoadinvenerittantamvimhabeatapusillopulvere.”18

BythetimeFontana’sbookwaspublished,somegunpowderweaponshadalreadybeenusedinItaly,includingrocketsatthebattleofChioggiain1380.ItcouldhavebeenmerecoincidencethathisbookappearedshortlyafterZhengHe’svisittoVenice.However,Fontana’sLiberdeomnibusrebusnaturalibusthrowsoutanumberofotherclues.

First,heexhibitedknowledgeofAmericafortyyearsbeforeColumbus“discovered”it.DescribingtheAtlantic,hewrote,“Etabeiusoccasufiniturproparteetiamterraincognita”(InthewesttheAtlanticisborderedbyanunknownland).19

Second,heknewofAustraliatwocenturiesbeforeTasman.Fontanawrotethat“recentcosmographsand

especiallythosewhoowetheirinformationtotrueexperienceanddistanttravelanddiligentnavigationhavefoundbeyondtheequinoctialcircletothesouth(southof23o20'S)anotablehabitableregionnotcoveredbywaterandmanyfamousislands.”20

Third,heexhibitedasolidknowledgeoftheIndianOceanfortyyearsbeforeVascodaGama’sexploration

ofthearea.Takingtheevidenceasawhole—thatZhengHe’sgunnerswouldhaveusedallthemachinesdescribedinFontana’sbookandwouldhavecarriedmanyofthemaboard,thatFontana’sbookwaspublishedinVeniceshortlyafterZhengHe’ssquadronreachedVenice,andthatFontanaknewofAmerica,theIndianOcean,andAustralia,allatthattime

unknowntoEuropeans,itseemstomereasonabletoassumethatFontanagainedhisknowledgeofmanygunpowderweaponsfromZhengHe’sgunners.

Taccolaprovidescorroborativeevidence.HeintroducedEuropetoaChineseinnovationfromtheearly1400s—aderivationofarsenictoimprovethepowerofgunpowder.AsNeedham

writes:

MünchenCodex197isacompositework,thenotebookofamilitaryengineerwritinginGerman,theAnonymousHussite,andthatofanItalian,probablyMarianusJacobusTaccola,writinginLatin;itcontainsdatessuchas+1427,+1438and+1441.Itgivesgunpowderformulaeanddescribesgunswith

accompanyingillustrations.Acuriousfeature,veryChinese(cf.pp.114,361),istheadditionofarsenicsulphidestothepowder;thisdatesfromfire-lancedaysbutprobablyhadtheeffectofmakingitmorebrisant,henceitcouldhavebeenusefulinbombsandgrenades.The+15thcenturyParisMS,supposedlybefore+1453,DeReMilitari,perhapsbyPaoloSantini,showsagunona

carriagewithashieldatthefront,mortarsshootingincendiary“bombs”almostverticallytonearbytargets,abombardwithatail(cebotaneortiller),andwithamountedmanholdingasmallgunwithaburningmatch.21

Florentinesnowhadsteelandgunpowdertoenablethemtomakebombardsandcannons,whichFrancescodiGiorgioquicklyputtogood

use.

FrancescodiGiorgio

Inthe1430sand1440s,thegunpowderweaponsdrawnbyFontanaandTaccolahadnotyetbeen“invented.”However,thatchangedoverthenextfortyyears,asweknowfromtherecordsofFrancescodiGiorgioregardingthesiegeofCastellinainAugust1478.

ThePazzis,backedbyPopeSixtusV,hadinitiatedanarmeduprisingagainsttheMedicisinFlorence.ThenorthofItalywassoonablaze.SouthernersseizedtheirchanceandmarchedonTuscany.FrancescowasappointedtodefendtheTuscancities.22

HereisWeller’sdescriptionoftheNeapolitansiegeofCollevald’Elsa,ahilltown

nearFlorence:

Thisterrifyingprototype“dragontorpedo”wouldhave

smashedandsunkenemyboatswithoutmercy.

ThisEuropeandragonkitedoesnotseemsofrightening!

DukeFederigohadwithhimforsiegepurposesfivebombardswithmostterrifyingnames,suchas“Cruel,”“Desperate,”“Victory,”“Ruin”and“NononsenseHere”andwhich,withoutdoubt,werebeautifullydecorated,aswasthefashionwiththeItaliancannonatthistime:theydischargedgreatballsofstoneweighing370–380pounds,andtheirownweight

wasconsiderable,thetubes,whenninefeetlongweighedsome14,000poundsandthetail11,000,sothatitrequiredmorethanonehundredpairsofbuffaloestodragthemintoposition

Theartofcastingtheseearlycannonsintwoportions,thetubeandthetail,waspursuedinSiena;andthoughtheymightnothavehadmucheffectontheresultofa

modernbattle,atthistimetheywereaformidablenovelty.FrancescodiGiorgiointhesiegeofCastellina(Aug14–18,1478)plantedabatteryoftheseSieneseandPapalbombards.23

TheChinesemaynothaveinventedtrebuchets,buttheywerecertainlyinwidespread

usebythefourteenthcentury.

DiGiorgio’sdetailedtreatiseonmachinesofwarincluded

manytrebuchets.

Francesco’scannonsareillustratedintheInstituteandMuseumoftheHistoryofScience,Florence.24Belowthemisaprintofthe“thousandballthundercannon,”1300–1350.25Taccola’sanddiGiorgio’sdrawingsareaccompaniedbytheweaponsthatwerefired—explodingmissilesandpowderkegs.

TheChinesehaddozensof

illustrationsofexplodingmissilesandpowderkegsintheHuoLungChungpublishedcirca1421;andintheWuChingTsungYao,aSungdynastymanualoriginallyof1044updatedin1412.The“bamboofirekite”and“ironbeakedfirebird,”incendiaryprojectorsand“thunderclapbomb”fromtheWuChingTsungYao,andthebone-burningandbruisingfire-oilmagicbombfromthe

HuoLungChungareshownbesidediGiorgio’sprojectiles.

Chinesemasteryofgunpowderledtothe

developmentofmanyeffectiveanddeadly

weapons.

Taccola’sfirelancesdonot

seemsofierce!

AnotherinterestingsimilaritybetweendiGiorgio’sdesignsandtheChinesegunpowdercannonmaybeseeninthecuriousbulbousshapesofboth.DiGiorgioillustratedfivedifferenttypesofbombardinMSPalatino767(BNCF).ThiscuriousvaseshapeisshownintheHuoLungChung.26Atthatstage,the

Chinesehadnotyetmasteredmakingsteelstrongenoughtocopewiththeexpansionofgasintheexplosionchamberoncethegunpowderwasignited.Thebulbousshapeallowedforthickermetalthaninthebarrel.

By1400,theearlyMingera,thisproblemhadbeensolved,enablingtheChinesetoproduce“thousandballthundercannon,”27which

Francescocopiedinhislaterdrawings.28Francesco’scannonshavebeautifulembellishments.However,removetheembellishments,andwhatremainsistheshapeofChinesecannons.

ChinesenavaltechnologyhadbeenfarsuperiortothatofEurope’sforcenturies.

Anarmoredboatasfeaturedinamilitarytreatisepenned

in15th-centuryItaly.

Gunpowder,steel,cannons,

andexplosiveshellswerenottheonlyweaponsthatTaccola,Francesco,andFontanacopiedfromtheChinese.WithinagenerationaftertheChinesevisitof1434,FlorentineswereusingavarietyofChinesemethodstosmeltironandwereusingChinese-designedgunpowdertoproduceexplodingshellsfromcannonsidenticalindesigntotheirChinesecounterparts.

Chinesemobilesiegeladdersandoffensiveweaponry.

DiGiorgio’sillustrationofmobilesiegeladders.

Chinesemobileshieldscouldbeeffectivewhenbothattackinganddefending

positions.

DiGiorgio’sshieldswerenotasvisuallyarresting.

IllustrationsofcrossbowsfromtheNungShu.

OneofLeonardo’sthreeillustrationsofcrossbows.

Chinesehorsesandoxencouldbecomedangerous

weapons!

CompareTaccola’sdrawings—theyarestrikinglysimilar.

BoththeChineseandtheEuropeansusedfire-bearinganimalstodevastatingeffect.

Animpregnableborderfortress.

AsimilarfortressbydiGiorgio,fromhistreatiseonarchitectureandmachines.

20

PRINTING

Therearemanydefinitionsofprinting.TheoneIhaveadoptedis“aprocessinwhichinkissetonpaperbyphysicalorchemicalmeans.”Therearefourprincipal

methodsbywhichthismaybeachieved:copperplate,inwhichthewordsareengravedonthemetalandfilledwithink;lithography,achemicalmethodusingtherepulsionbetweengreaseandwater;xylography,orblockprinting,inwhichthesubjectisfirstcarvedonawoodenblock,whichisthencoatedwithink;andtypography,ormoveabletypeprinting,inwhichaseparatewoodenblockis

carvedforeachcharacterorletter.1

ThereisnodisputethatblockandmoveabletypeprintingwereinventedinChina.TheCulturalChinaSeries,AncientChineseInventions,explainsitsevolution:

BlockprintingwasprobablyinventedbetweentheSuiandTangdynasties,basedonthe

techniqueoftransferringtextsandpicturescutinreliefonsealsandstonepillarstoothersurfacesthatwasdevelopedintheSpringandAutumnandWarringStatesperiods.Theinventionofpaperandimprovementofinkledtotheadvanceofblockprinting….

Movabletypeprintingwastheninvented[by]BiSheng(c.1051)…InhisMengxiBitan(DreamPoolEssays),

ShenKuowritesaboutBi’smoveabletypeprinting…madeofamixtureofclayandgluehardenedbybaking.Hecomposedtextsbyplacingthetypessidebysideonanironplatecoatedwithamixtureofresin,wax,andpaperash.Gentlyheatingthisplateandpressingthetypeswithasmoothplatetoensuretheyareonthesamelevel,andthenlettingtheplatecool,andthetypewas

solidified.Oncetheimpressionhadbeenmade,thetypecouldbedetachedbyreheatingtheplate.Bipreparedtwoironplatestobeusedinturntospeedupthewholeprintingprocess.Healsoprepareddifferentnumbersoftypesforcharactersaccordingtotheirfrequencyofuseintexts,andarrangedtheminanorderlywaytofacilitatecomposing.Shennotedthatthistechnique

wasmostefficientinprintingseveralhundredorseveralthousandcopies.

AfterBiSheng,otherpeopleinventedtypescutoutofwood.Inabout1313WangZhen,anagronomistoftheYuanDynasty,printedhisworkNungShu(TreatiseonAgriculture)withmovablewoodtypes,andwroteabouthisinnovationinanappendixtothetreatise.Healso

inventedhorizontalcompartmentedcasesthatrevolvedaboutaverticalaxistopermiteasierhandlingofthetype.Wangtestedhistechnique,andprintedinamonthonehundredcopiesofthe60,000-characterJingdoeXianzhi(JingdeCountyAnnals),whichwasquitearemarkableachievementatthattime.2

TheDevelopmentof

PrintingintheEarlyMingDynasty

AccordingtoJosephNeedham:

Mingprintingwasdistinguishedbytheextendedscopeofitssubjectmatterandbyitstechnicalinnovationsandartisticrefinement.Incontrasttothatofpreviousperiods,theprintingundertheMing

includednotonlythetraditionalworksinclassics,history,religionandliterarycollectionsbutalsosuchnewsubjectsorfieldsaspopularnovels,music,industrialarts,accountsofoceanvoyages,shipbuildingandscientifictreatisesfromtheWest,whichhadneverbeforebeenseeninprintinChina….

Mingprintersintroducedmetaltypography,improved

themulticolourprocessofblockprinting,refinedthewoodcutforbookillustrationsandusedxylographyforfacsimilereproductionsofoldeditions.3

NeedhamalsoregisteredthemonumentalcontributionsofZhuDi.Between1405and1431,ZhuDiassembledateamofthreethousandscholarstocompiletheYongleDadian,an

encyclopediaofascaleandscopeunparalleledinhistory.ThisgiganticworkincludedahugeamountofinformationgarneredfromZhengHe’svoyagesandincludedatotalof22,937passagesextractedfrommorethan7,000titlesfromclassics,history,philosophy,literature,religion,drama,industrialarts,andagriculture.Itwasaworkof50millioncharactersboundin11,095volumes,

eachsixteenincheshighandtenincheswide.ThismassiveendeavorwasdepositedintheImperialLibraryintheForbiddenCitywhenitwasinauguratedin1421.

ItisgenerallyacceptedthatmoveableblockprintingreachedEuropefromChinaataboutthesametimethatZhengHe’sambassadorreachedFlorencein1434.Thereseemtobethree

principalcontendersforthedistinctionofbeingthefirstEuropeantousemoveableblockprinting,theclaimantsbeingLaurensJanszoonCoster,JohannesGutenberg,andanunknownprinterinVeniceorFlorence.

LaurensJonszoonCoster’sClaim

InthecenterofoldHaarlemontheNorthSeacoastof

HollandstandsasubstantialhousejustacrossthesquarefromtheGreatChurch.Onitswallsthecuriousmayviewthisinscription:

MEMORIAESACRUM

TYPOGRAPHIA

ARSARTIUMOMNIUM

CONSERVATIX

HICPRIMUMINVENTA

CIRCAANNUMMCCCCXL

(Insacredmemoryoftypography,thepreserverofallotherarts,firstinventedhereabouttheyear1440).4

TheadherentsofCoster,thesubjectofthisinscription,saythathewaswalkinginthewoodsbetween1420and1440whenhecutbarkfromatreeandformeditintomirrorimagesofletters,whichhe

pinnedtogethertoprintwordsonpaper.Hisson-in-lawhelpedhimtoexperimentwithdifferentinkstoimprovethequalityoftheprint.Nexthecarvedoutpicturesandexplainedtheminwords.HisfirstprintedbookwassaidtobeSpieghelonzerBehoudenisse(Mirrorofoursalvation).Thepaperswereprintedononeside,andtheblanksideswerepastedtogethertoformthepage.

Junius,centurieslater,recountswhathappenednext:“Thenewinventionthrivedbecauseofthereadinesswithwhichthepeopleboughtthenovelproduct.Apprenticesweretakenon—thebeginningofmisfortune,foramongstthemwasacertainJohann….ThisJohann,afterhehadlearnedtheartofcastingtypesandcombiningthem—infactthewholetrade—tookthefirstavailableopportunity

ofChristmasEve,wheneveryonewasinChurch,tostealthewholetypesupplywiththetoolsandalltheequipmentofhismaster.”5

ThestorycontinuesthatJohannwentfirsttoAmsterdam,thentoCologne,andfinallytoMainz,whereheopenedaprintingestablishment.GutenbergfinancedJohannandeventuallyacquiredhis

business.

Gutenberg’sClaim

GutenbergwassomethirtyyearsyoungerthanCoster.Hewasbornin1398,ofFrieloGensfleisch(gooseflesh)andElsaGutenberg(goodhill).Inthosedays,sonscouldtaketheirmother’smaidennameiftherewasapossibilityofthenamedyingout.6

Gutenberg’sclaimtoprimacywascarefullyexaminedbyBlaiseAgüerayArcasandPaulNeedhamofPrincetonUniversity.TheyhavefoundbycomputeranalysisthattheGutenbergBiblewasnotsetfrommoveabletype,norwereadozenofGutenberg’sotherearlybooks.Ifthesescholarsarecorrect,Gutenberg’sclaimisdemolished.7

TheVenetianClaim

HereisatranslationoftheVenetianSenatedecreeofOctober11,1441(priortoGutenberg):

Whereas,theartandmysteryofmakingcardsandprintedfigures,whichisinuseatVenicehasfallentodecay,andthisisinconsequenceofthegreatquantityofprintedplayingcardsandcoloured

figures,whicharemadeoutsideVenice,towhichevilitisnecessarytoapplysomeremedyinorderthatthesaidartistswhoareagreatmanyinfamily,mayfindencouragementratherthanforeigners:letitbeordainedandestablishedaccordingtothepetitionthatthesaidMastershavesought,thatfromthistimeon,noworkofthesaidartthatisprintedorpaintedonclothorpaper—

thatistosay,altarpieces,orimages,orplayingcardsoranyotherthingthatmaybemadebythesaidart,eitherbypaintingorbyprinting—shallbeallowedtobebroughtorimported…and[ifsoafineof]thirtylivresandtwelvesoldi,ofwhichfineonethirdshallgototheState,onethirdtoGiustizieriVecci,towhomthisaffairiscommitedandonethirdtotheaccuser.8

ThereferencesabovesuggestthatVenetianshad,priorto1441,beenapplyingtheartofprintingandcoloredstencilingformanypurposes.After1441VenicerapidlybecameEurope’scenterofprinting.By1469,theGermanprinterJohannvonSpeyerhadprintedaneditionof100copiesofCicero’sEpistolaeadFamiliares.By1478,thereweretwenty-twoprintingfirmsoperatingin

Venice,whichhadprinted72editions.By1518,morethan600editionshadbeenproduced.Bytheturnofthecentury,thishadexpandedto150pressesand4,000editions.Atthistime,bookswerebeingpublishedinLatin,Italian,Greek,Hebrew,Arabic,Serbo-Croatian,andArmenian.Venice’slowtaxratesforforeignfirmsandtheopportunitiesforprofitofferedbythisgreattrading

citycontributedtoVenice’sriseasprintingcapitalofEurope.9

ItstandstoreasonthatZhengHe’sambassadorswouldhavemadeconsiderableeffortstoimpartknowledgeofprintingtoVenice.Withoutprinting,theXuanDeastronomicalcalendarwouldhavehadtobecopiedbyhand.Thestupidbarbarianswouldinevitably

havemademistakes,andthosemistakeswouldhavemultipliedascopysucceededcopy.Notonlywouldtheymessupthecalculationsoflatitudeandlongitude,buttheircopiesofChinesemapsoftheworldwouldgrowprogressivelymoreinaccurate.Toavoidsuchconfusion,itmadesensetogivethebarbarianstheknowledgeofmoveabletypeprinting,alongwiththe

astronomicaltablesandmaps.TheChinesecouldthenbeconfidentthatEuropeanscouldreachtheMiddleKingdomtopaytribute—nofurtherexcuses!

Thegiftofmoveabletypeprovedtobeofinestimablevalueapartfromitsuseincartographyandoceannavigation.PrintinghelpedEuropeanscontrolthespreadofplaguebydisseminating

instructionsforcombatingit.Veniceprintededictsin1456and1457,Genoain1467,Milanin1468.OthersfollowedinSiena,Parma,Udine,andCremona.10Plaguelegislationforthepoorcamenext.ProstituteswereoutlawedinPerugiaandSienain1485,andplaguehospitalsweresetup.Printingwascriticaltopublichealth.

TheRenaissancewasnot

onlyarevolutioninart.ItalteredEuropeanman’sideaofhisplaceintheuniverse,inastronomy,logic,geometry,architecture,engineering,mechanics,anatomy,philosophy,politics,warfare,andmusic.Theprintingofbooksdidnotproducenewideas.ButtheintroductionofmoveabletypeenabledrevolutionaryideastobespreadthelengthandbreadthofEurope.

Printingrevolutionizedthedevelopmentofmusic,too.Musicianscouldnowplaytogetherreadingfromthesamescore—preciselywhatthecomposerhadwritten.ThecomplexmusicpioneeredbytheEnglishmanDunstablewasmadepossiblebythescorehewroteformultiplevoices.Copyingsuchascorebyhandwouldhavebeenanightmare.JohannSebastianBachcompletedDunstable’s

revolution.

Printingalsoadvancedthevoyagesofdiscovery.Knowledge,includingChineseknowledge,couldnowbemadeavailabletonumerousexplorers.Subsequentexplorers’discoveriesandexploitscouldinturnbepublicizedfarandwide.Andtheromanceofexplorationfiredtheimaginationsofthepeople.

TheAmadisofGaul,relatingtheimaginedadventuresoftheconquistadoresoftheNewWorld,grippedpublicimaginationwithitstalesofflaxen-haired,white-skinnedvirgins,rubiesthesizeofpigeon’seggs,andmensheathedfromheadtotoeingold.

Thankstoprinting,shipwrightscouldbuildtoastandard,provendesign.

Beforeprinting,eachshiphadbeenconstructedasacopy—aone-offexperimentalvesseldependentinpartontheskillofthecopier,ascribe.Thefirearmsandcannonsthatarmedthevesselscouldnowalsobemadefromprinteddesignsthathadbeentriedandtested—ashipmasternolongerneededtoworrywhetherthebarrelsofhiscannonweresufficientlythickandofsuitableironto

avoidanexplosionthatwouldkillhisowncrew.Gunmakerscouldnowselltheirdesigns.Ships’captainscouldsailwithprintedephemeristablesenablingthemtodeterminelatitudeandlongitudeandtheirprogresstotheNewWorldusingup-to-date,standardizedcharts.

TheskillsofmedievalArabandChinesedoctorscouldnowbedisseminated

worldwide.Forexample,bytheeleventhcentury,Chinesedoctorsunderstoodhowtoinoculatepatientsagainstsmallpox.ThefirstChinesebookonforensicmedicine,includingplaguecontrol,waspublishedin1247.

TheextraordinarymagnitudeandgenerosityofChinesegiftstotheWestmadesensefromtheChineseemperor’sviewpoint.If

Chinawastoremainacolossusontheworldstage,thebarbariansmustbebribedandeducatedtocontinuallyrendertribute.Thisvoyage,however,provedtobethelast.Afterthat,Chinawithdrewintoself-imposedisolation.Europe,lefttoexploitChina’slavishgifts,soonbecamemistressoftheworld.

21

CHINA’SCONTRIBUTION

TOTHERENAISSANCE

MapsoftheWorld

After1434,Europeanworld

mapschanged.TherewasashiftawayfromthecircularmapscenteredonJerusalem,emphasizingreligioussubjects,todepictionsoftheworldasitreallyis.

ToscanellisentColumbusamapoftheAmericas;Regiomontanusadvertisedaworldmapforsale.1Magellanpossessedaworldmap.AndreaBiancoshowedFloridaonhisAtlanticchart

of1436(NewberryLibrary,Chicago);onhis1448map,hedescribedBrazil.Then,in1507,WaldseemüllerpublishedhisamazingworldmapaccuratelyrenderingNorthandSouthAmerica.

Allofthesemapshadsomethingincommon:theyaccuratelydepictedpartsoftheNewWorldbeforeEuropeanseverreachedthoseparts.TheWaldseemüller

showedthePacificbeforeMagellansetsail,AndreaBiancoshowedFloridaandAntiliafifty-sixyearsbeforeColumbus;theCantinoplanisphereof1502depictedtheFloridacoastbeforePoncedeLeón“discovered”theplace.

Thereissomethingelsethesemapshadincommon.AllarecopiesinwholeorinpartofZhengHe’s1418map.

ItwasalogicalanddeliberatepolicyofZhengHe’smissiontodistributeChinesemapsoftheworld.Forifthebarbariansdidnothaveaccuratemaps,howcouldtheyreachtheMiddleKingdomtopaytribute?

AttheNanjingconferenceonZhengHeheldinDecember2002,ProfessorLiuManchumdescribedhisresearchintojudicialrecords

oftheearlyMingdynasty,notablythoseofFujianProvince.2HecameacrossanaccountofaBraziliandelegationthathadreachedFujianin1507,afterafive-yearvoyage.Thedelegationboreexpensivetribute,notablyemeralds,andhadtheirplenipotentiarypowersengravedonagoldenplate.TheyhadfoundtheirwaytoChinabymeansofamap.

ProfessorLiuManchumrealizedthat,atthetimetheBraziliandelegationleftBrazilforChinain1502,EuropeanshadnotreachedbothBrazilandChinabysea.3Consequently,themapthatguidedthemfromBraziltoChinacouldnothavebeenEuropean.HethensearchedZhengHe’srecordsandfoundaccountsofhisfleetsreachingtheAmericas.He

concludedthatZhengHe’sfleetshadreachedBrazilbefore1434,afterwhichChineseoverseasvoyageswereprohibitedbytheemperor.ProfessorManchumintendedtowriteabookclaimingthatZhengHe,notColumbus,discoveredtheAmericas.Hethenlearnedofmybook1421anddecidedtopostponehisown.

Brazilalsoappearsona

JavanesemappublishedbeforeEuropeansreachedJava.InanApril,1512–lettertoKingManuelofPortugal,AlfonsodeAlbuquerque,thefirstEuropeantoreachMalacca,referstoaworldmaphehasacquiredfromaJavanesepilotandkeptaboardhisflagship,theFioredelaMar.(TheFioredelaMarsankbeforereachingPortugal.):

IamalsosendingyouanauthenticportionofagreatmapbelongingtoaJavanesepilot,whichshowstheCapeofGoodHope,PortugalandtheterritoryofBrasil,theRedSeaandthePersianGulfandtheSpiceIslands.ItalsoshowswheretheChineseandtheGoressail,withtheRhumbsandtheroutestakenbytheirshipsandtheinteriorsofthevariouskingdomsandwhich

kingdomsborderonwhich.ItstrikesmeasthefinestpieceofworkIeversawandIamsureYourHighnesswouldbedelightedtoseeit.ThenameswerewritteninJavanesescriptandIfoundaJavanesewhocouldreadandwritethescript.IsendyourHighnessthisfragmentthatFranciscoRodriguescopiedfromtheoriginal,inwhichYourHighnesswillseewheretheChineseandtheGoresreally

comefromandtherouteyourshipsshouldfollowtoreachthespiceislands,wherethegoldminesarelocatedandtheislandsofJavaandBanda,wherenutmegandmacecomefromandtheterritoryoftheKingofSiam.YouwillseetheextentofChinesenavigationandwheretheyreturntoandthepointbeyondwhichtheywillnotsail.ThemainpartofthemapislostintheFioridelaMar.

IworkedoutthemeaningofthismapwiththepilotPerodeAlfoimsothattheywouldbeabletoexplainittoYourHighness.Youmaytakethisportionofitasveryauthenticandaccuratebecauseitshowstheroutestheytakeinbothdirections.ItdoesnotshowthearchipelagocalledCelatewhichliesbetweenJavaandMalacca.

YourHighness’screature

andservant,AlfonsodeAlbuquerque,CaesaroftheEast.4

AlbuquerquedoesnotfinditnecessarytopointoutthatwhenEuropeansfirstreachedtheEast,theJavanese(andtheChinese)alreadyknewthelocationsofPortugalandBrazilonaworldchart.Hisletterrevealsdetailsoftheinteriorsofkingdoms,implyingauthentic

knowledge.ManuelStock,towhomIamindebtedforthisinformation,hasalsofoundareferencetoBrazilonamapdated1447.5TheDuchessofMedinaSidonia’sLibraryatSanlucardeBarramedahasmapsofBrazilbeforeDiasorCabral.

InadditiontotheirknowledgeofBrazilandaroutetotheSpiceIslands—beforeEuropeanexplorersset

offforsuchplaces—boththeVenetiansandthePortugueseknewofAustraliaby1516atthelatest.GiovannidiFontana,theVenetiandoctor,in1450alreadyknewofAustralia,theIndianOcean,andAmerica.6

TheNationalLibraryofAustraliaholdsaletter,dated1516,writtenbyaVenetian,AndreaCorsali,whohadtraveledaboardaPortuguese

ship.Theletter,writtenfromCochin,isaddressedtothedogeofVenice.CorsalidescribeshisvoyagearoundtheCapeofGoodHopeasfarasNewGuineaandTimor.HeillustratestheSouthernCrosswithsufficientaccuracytoprovehemusthaveseenit.TheletterassertsthatthePortugueseknewoflargelandstothesouthcalledIndiaAustralis(Southern),laterreferredtoasJavala

Grande.

ProfessorJaimeCortesão,in“ThePre-ColumbianDiscoveryofAmerica,”describesthefirstPortuguesevoyagetoBrazilandincludesareporttoKingJohnofPortugal.TheKingisadvisedto“pleasecommandthattheybringyoutheworldmapofPedroVazBisagudo.AndYourHighnesswillbeabletoseeonitthepositionofthis

land.Notwithstandingthismapdoesnotdeclarewhetherthisland[Brazil]isinhabitedornot.Itisanoldworld-map,buttheMinaisregisteredthere.”7

SoherewehaveadeclarationthatBrazilwasonaworldmapbeforethefirstEuropeanexpeditionthere.ThissquareswithBrazil’sappearanceonAndreaBianco’smapof1448andis

furtherproofthattheSouthernandWesternHemispheresweredocumentedonmapslongbeforeEuropeanvoyagesofexplorationstarted.

If,asIclaim,ZhengHe’s1434visitprovidedmapsoftheworldtothebarbariansinordertoenablethemtopaytribute,thentheVenetiansandthePortuguesewouldhavehadknowledgeofthe

NewWorldby1434.8AndiftheVenetiansknewoftheNewWorldby1434,wewouldexpectthemtohavesetsailforitshortlythereafter.

ThevoyagethatisgenerallyacceptedasthefirsttoCanadawastheill-fatedexpeditionofMiguelCôrte-Realin1502.Côrte-RealreachedtheGulfofSaintLawrence.Whenhearrived

there,however,hissailorsfoundagildedswordhiltandsilvertrinketsofVenetianmanufactureatanativevillageinLabrador.9

CroatianVoyagesWest

In1434,theVenetianEmpirewasatitspeak.VenicecontrolledtheCroatiancoast.DalmatiansailorscrewedVenetianships,andVenetianpilotsweretrainedatPerast

(seechapters7and13).AccordingtoCroatianarchives,whichLouisAdamicdescribesina1972publicationofSvetuMagazine,10severalCroatianmerchantvesselsfounderedofftheCarolinacoastin1449.TheyweresaidtobesailingtoChinaviaAmerica.

Adamic’ssearchofCroatianarchivescommencedfollowingconversationswith

seniorcitizenswhotoldhimofancestraltraditionsthatCroatianshadsailedacrosstheAtlanticinancienttimes.ThebriefaccountmentionedthatthreeofthefivevesselsintheexpeditionwereleftstrandednearChesapeakeBay;theothertwoshipssailedbacktoDubrovnik.Unfortunately,warwithTurkeypreventedareliefexpedition.CharlesPrazakbelievesthesurvivorsjoined

thePowhatantribeandgavetheirnametoCroatanIsland.

ThecrewofaCroatiancaravel,Atlante,sailedacrosstheAtlanticOceanandfoundlandin1484(Sinovic,1991).AccordingtohistorianCharlesPrazak,archivesreportedinZajecnicar(Dec.2,1979)tellofseveralCroatianvesselscarryingrefugeesfromTurkishinvasionswhoreachedthe

CarolinasnearRoanokeIslandin1470.Prazak(1993)andSinovic(1991)believethesesurvivorsmergedwithnativeAlgokiantribesandmadesignificantcontributionstotheircultureandlanguage.TheyhaveidentifiedthenameofonenativetribetheCroatoansandanIsleinCapeHatteras,CroatoanIsle,asderivativesoftheCroatianlanguage….

In1880,historianHamiltonMcMillannotedthat“CroatoanIndianshavetraditionswhicharetiedtotheindividuals,theownersofthedestroyedshipsfromthepast.”

ThisstoryisrepeatedintheEastwhenDalmatianshipsaccompaniedtheChinesebacktotheEastand“discovered”anumberofPacificislandstowhichthey

gaveDalmatiannames—namesthatwerechangedtoSpanishandPortugueseonesaftertheFirstWorldWar.

Asnotedinmybook1421,Columbus,Magellan,AlbuquerqueandCabralallacknowledgedthattheyhadpossessedchartsoftheCaribbeanislands,SouthAmerica,thePacific,andBrazil,respectively.ToscanellihadsentColumbus

achartfollowinghismeetingwiththeChinesedelegation.Columbus’srecords,whichwereacquiredbythefamilyoftheduchessofMedina-Sidonia,provideampleevidencethatColumbushadvoyagedtotheAmericasbefore1492.11Dr.MarinoRuggiero’sbook,citesevidencethatthepopefinancedaColumbusvoyagetotheAmericasbefore

1485.12

AlloftheaboveconfirmsthattheVenetiansandthePortugueseunderstoodworldgeographyafter1434andbeforeEuropeanvoyagesofexplorationstarted.SurelytheyreceivedthisinformationfromtheChinese.

ZhengHe’sdelegationalsoprovidedastronomicalknowledgetoAlberti,

Regiomontanus,andToscanelli,whichRegiomontanusincorporatedintohisephemeristablesandAlbertiusedformultiplepurposes.Regiomontanus’stableswereissuedtoPortuguesenavigatorsin1474andlatertoColumbusandVespucci,whousedthemtocalculatelongitude.Thesetablesalsoenabledsailorstocalculatelatitudeatthemeridianpassageofthesun

byusingdeclinationtables.ThismethodwassuccessfullyappliedbyDias,whoaccuratelydeterminedthelatitudeoftheCapeofGoodHopeat35°20'S.13

SonotonlydidZhengHe’sdelegationshowthewaytotheNewWorldbuttheyprovidedEuropeanswiththeknowledgetoenablethemtocalculatetheirlatitudeandlongitudetoreachtheNew

Worldandreturnhomesafely.

Thetransferofknowledgewentfurtherthanmaps.NicholasofCusawasthefirstEuropeantoblowapartAristoteleanandPtolomaictheoriesoftheuniverse.Herevolutionizedknowledgebypostulatingthatthesun,nottheearth,wasatthecenterofthesolarsystem,thattheearthandplanetstraveledin

anellipticalorbitaroundit.Toreachthisconclusion,IsubmitthatbothNicholasofCusaandToscanelliusedtheChineseastronomicalcalendarthatZhengHe’sdelegationpresentedtoPopeEugeniusIV.

Regiomontanus’sephemeristables,withthepositionsofsun,moon,thefiveplanets,andthestars,containednoinformationthatwasnot

alreadyintheChineseastronomicalcalendar,theShoushi.InthefortyyearsaftertheChinesevisitof1434,knowledgeoftheuniversewaschangedasfundamentallyasknowledgeoftheearth.

AsProfessorZinnerexplains,CopernicuscouldhavelearnedaboutandbeeninfluencedbyRegiomontanus.Copernicus

studiedattheJagiellonianUniversityinCracow(1491–1494)andtheninItaly,mostlyinBologna(1496–1503).14Atthattime,CracowwastheEuropeanuniversitywheretheteachingsofRegiomontanushadgainedthesurestfoothold.15Copernicus’sinterestinsinetablesmayhavebeeninspiredbyRegiomontanus’sTabulaediretorium,whichwas

printedin1490andlaterfoundinCracow.

Zinnerdescribestheconnection:

CopernicusalsocameundertheinfluenceofRegiomontanusinBologna.HereheobtainedRegiomontanusEphemeridesandtheEpitomeandwaspresumeablymotivatedbythemtotestthePtolemaic

systembyobservations.AndsothesamethinghappenedwithCopernicusin1497ashadhappened40yearsearlierwithRegiomontanus.Byobservations,theydeterminederrorsandfeltcompelledtogettotherootoftheseerrors.

Thesimilaritygoesevenfurther.Bothmenwerebusywithextensivesinetablesnecessaryforprecisecalculationswith

observationalinstruments,and—mostimportantly—bothcreatedtheirownnewtrigonometry,astheprevailingmathematicswasinsufficientfortheirneeds.16

TheuseofsinetablesandsphericaltrigonometrytomeettheneedforprecisecalculationswithobservationalinstrumentshadallbeendevelopedbyGuoShoujingtwocenturies

earlier.YetGuoShoujingisnotmentionedinEuropeanbiographiesoffamousmathematicians.17

Zinnercontinues:(p184)

IfCopernicushadsomanyinspirationsfromRegiomontanus,thenitisverylikelythathelearnedthroughNovaraofRegiomontanus’plansfortransformingtheprevailing

planetarytheory,andsoencouragedhiminhisownundertaking….

WehavetobecontentwiththefactthatitisimpossibletodeterminethefullscopeofRegiomontanus’achievements.Hiswasagiganticundertaking,intendedtobecrownedwithaplanetarytheory.Inthecourseofhisworkheabandonedtheprevailing

cosmologyandwaspreparingtoformulateanewoneforthenewtimes.Hehadtheastronomicalandmathematicaltoolstomakesuchanewcosmology;buthiseffortsweredestroyedbyanimplacablefate[death].18

Copernicus’stheory“attributedtotheearthadailymotionarounditsownaxisandayearlymotionaroundthestationarysun.”He

followedNicholasofCusainadvancinganideathathadfar-reachingimplicationsformodernscience.Henceforth,theearthcouldnolongerbeconsideredthecenterofthecosmos;ratheritwasonecelestialbodyamongmany,itsorbitsubjecttomathematicalprediction.

ProfessorZinnerdidnotknowofGuoShoujing’swork.Inmysubmission,we

cangofurther.DidCopernicusdirectlycopyRegiomontanusinproposinghisrevolutionarytheorythattheearthandtheplanetscircledthesunandthatthesun,nottheearth,wasatthecenterofthesolarsystem?

Isayhedid,andIbasemyargumentontheresearchofNoelM.Swerdlow,assistantprofessorofhistoryattheUniversityofChicago,

presentedin“TheDerivationandFirstDraftofCopernicus’PlanetaryTheory”19

Inhistightlyreasonedarticle,ProfessorSwerdlowstartswithaninterestingcommentCopernicusmadetothepopeatthetimehepublishedhisrevolutionarywork,Derevolutionibusorbiumcoelestieum,in1543.CopernicustoldPopePaulIII

ofhisgreatreluctancetopublishthistheory—thattheearthwasnotthecenterofthecosmosbutonecelestialbodyamongmany—forfearofridiculebythepublic.Heexplainedthathehadbeenreluctant“notforjustnineyearsbutalreadyinthefourthnineyearperiod—thatis,”sinceabout1504,atimeafterCopernicushadobtainedRegiomontanus’sEphemerisandEpitomeinBologna.

Between1510and1514CopernicussummarizedhisnewideasinDehypothesibusmotuumcoelestiumeseconstitutiscommentariolus(Acommentaryonthetheoriesofthemotionsofheavenlyobjectsfromtheirarrangements).Itsmainparts,toquotetheNewEncyclopaediaBritannica,were“theapparentdailymotionofthestars,theannualmotionofthesun,and

theretrogressivebehaviouroftheplanetsresultsfromtheearth’sdailyrotationonitsaxisandyearlyrevolutionaroundthesun,whichisstationaryatthecentreoftheplanetarysystem.Theearththereforeisnotthecentreoftheuniversebutonlyofthemoon’sorbit.”

ToquoteProfessorSwerdlow,Copernicus,inhisDecommentariolus,saysnext

tonothingabouthowhearrivedathisnewtheories.Hebeginswithasingleprinciplegoverningplanetarytheory,andthenraisesobjectionstothetheoriesofhispredecessors.Nextheexplainsthathehasevolvedaplanetarytheoryinconformitywithhisfirstprinciples,andthisisfollowedbyasetofsevenpostulates.Thesehavealmostnothingtodowitheitherthe

principleortheobjections,butinsteadassertthesurprisingtheorythattheearthandplanetsrevolvearoundthesunandgivesomefurtherconsequencesofthistheory.20

ProfessorSwerdlowcontinues:

ThesourcesofCopernicus’earlyplanetarytheoryarerelativelyfew.Thederivation

forthemodelsforbothfirstandsecondanomaliesandalmosttheentirecontentsofthecommentariolusseemtodependonthreecertainandtwopossiblesources.Theyarethefollowing:

1.Peurbach….

2.PeurbachandRegiomontanus,TheEpitomeoftheAlmagest.ThiswasbegunbyPeurbach,whohad

writtenthefirstsixbooksatthetimeofhisdeathin1461,andcompletedbyRegiomontanusin1462or1463….IsuspectthatRegiomontanusnotonlywrotebooksVII–XIIIoftheEpitomebutalsorevisedPeurbach’sversionofBooksItoVI….Thiswasthebook(theEpitome)thatCopernicusfollowedeveninpreferencetotheAlmagestinthewritingofDerevolutionibuswhichis

filledwithnotonlyinformationandprocedures,butevenwithcloseparaphrasesfromtheEpitome.IntheCommentariolustheuseoftheEpitomecanbeseenmostclearlyinthesectiononthelengthofthetropicalandsiderealyearandtherateofprecession,but,aswilloftenbepointedoutinthecommentary,theEpitomeispertinenttomanypartsofthe

Commentariolus.OfgreaterimportanceforourpurposehoweverarePropositions1and2ofBookXII[byRegiomontanus]whichcontaintheanalysisleadingtotheheliocentrictheory….TheimportanceoftheEpitome…cannotbeoveremphasised,norcanitsvirtuesbesufficientlypraised…theEpitomemakesonerealisewhatalossRegiomontanus’searlydeath

wastoastronomy—alossnotmadeupforwelloveracentury.21

Sotherewehaveit—inProfessorSwerdlow’sopinionCopernicusfollowedbook11ofRegiomontanus’sEpitome,whichcontainedtheanalysisleadingtoCopernicus’srevolutionarytheory.

Toquoteagainfromthe

NewEncyclopediaBritannica:

TheCopernicansystemappealedtoalargenumberofindependent-mindedastronomersandmathematicians.Itsattractionwasnotonlybecauseofitselegancebutalsoinpartbecauseofitsbreakwithtraditionaldoctrines.Inparticular,itopposedAristotle,whohadargued

cogentlyforthefixityoftheEarth;furthermoreitprovidedanalternativetoPtolemy’sgeocentricuniverse.InWesternChristendomboththeseviewshadbeenelevatedalmosttothelevelofreligiousdogma;tomanythoughtfulobservers,however,theystifleddevelopmentandwereoverdueforrejection.

Scientificallythe

Copernicantheorydemandedtwoimportantchangesinoutlook.Thefirstchangehadtodowiththeapparentsizeoftheuniverse.Thestarsalwaysappearedinpreciselythesamefixedpositions,butiftheearthwereinorbitaroundthesun,theyshoulddisplayasmallperiodicchange.Copernicusexplainedthestarryspherewastoofardistantforthechangetobedetected.Histheorythusled

tothebeliefinamuchlargeruniversethanpreviouslyconceived…

Thesecondchangeconcernedthereasonswhybodiesfalltotheground.Aristotlehadtaughttheyfalltotheir“naturalplace”whichwasthecentreoftheuniverse.Butbecause,accordingtotheheliocentrictheory,theEarthnolongercoincidedwiththecentreof

theuniverse,anewexplanationwasneeded.Thisre-examinationofthelawsgoverningfallingbodiesledeventuallytotheNewtonianconceptofuniversalgravitation.

ThedethronementoftheEarthfromthecentreoftheuniversecausedprofoundshock.Nolongercouldtheearthbeconsideredtheepitomeofcreation,foritwas

onlyaplanetliketheotherplanets.Nolongerwastheearththecentreofallchangeanddecaywiththechangelessuniverseaccompanyingit.Andthebeliefinacorrespondencebetweenman,themicrocosm,asamirrorofthesurroundinguniverse,themacrocosm,wasnolongervalid.Thesuccessfulchallengetotheentiresystemofancientauthorityrequiredacomplete

changeinman’sphilosophicalconceptionoftheuniverse.Thisiswhatisrightlycalled“theCopernicanRevolution.”

Isitrightlycalled?OrshoulditbetheRegiomontanusorGuoShoujingrevolution?

JohannesKepler(1571–1630)

JohannesKepleristodaybestknownforhisthreelawsofplanetarymotion.Hisfirstlawstatedthattheplanetstraveledaroundthesuninellipticalorbitswiththesunpositionedatoneoftheellipse’sfocalpoints(NicholasofCusa’sargument,saveforfocalpoint).Hissecondlaw(whichhediscussedfirst)statedthattheplanetssweptoutequalareasoftheirorbitsinequal

times.Herejectedtheancientbeliefthattheplanetstraveledacircularorbitatconstantspeed,replacingitwiththetheorythatplanets’speedsvariedwiththeirdistancefromthesun—fastestwhenclosesttothesunandslowestwhenfartheraway—nothingdifferentfromwhatGuoShoujinghaddiscoveredthreecenturiesearlieraboutplanetEarth.22

KeplerhadlearnedCopernicanastronomyfromMichaelMästlin(1550–1631)whenheenteredtheSTIFT,thetheologicalseminaryoftheUniversityofTübingen,wherehewasawardedhismaster’sdegreein1591.HepublishedatextbookofCopernicanastronomywritteninaquestion-and-answerform,theEpitomeastronomiaeCopernicanae.Inmysubmission,although

Keplermaynothaveappreciatedthis,hebuiltonCopernicanastronomy,whichitselfderivedfromRegiomontanusandNicholasofCusa,whoobtainedtheirfundamentalnewideasfromToscanelliandtheChineseastronomicalcalendar.

GalileoGalilei

GalileowasborninPisain1564.Hisfatherwasa

musician.HewaseducatedattheUniversityofVallombrosanearFlorence;thenin1581heenrolledattheUniversityofPisatostudymedicine.Henevertrainedasamathematicianorastronomer.

Galileo’slifewasdominatedbytheCopernicanrevolution.HewasthefirstEuropeantodevelopapowerfultelescopewith

thirty-twotimesmagnification—ahugeadvanceinastronomicalobservation.HediscoveredJupiter’smoons,Saturn,sunspots,andthephasesofVenus,publishinghisresultsinSideriusnuncius(Starrymessenger).23ThisledhimtobelieveCopernicantheorywascorrect;nowthetroublestarted.

Theoldguard,whohad

spenttheirlivesteachingPtolemy’stheorythattheearthwasatthecenteroftheuniverse,felttheirlivelihoodandreputationsthreatened.TheygangeduponGalileo,gatheringsupportfromtheDominicansforhisblasphemyinstatingthatman,God’screation,wasnotatthecenteroftheuniverse.Theintellectualsandreligiousfanaticswontheday—Copernicus’stheorywas

denouncedas“falseanderroneous,”andbyadecreeofMarch5,1616,Copernicus’sbookwassuspended.ThechieftheologianoftheCatholicChurch,CardinalBellarmine,informedGalileothathemustnolongerdefendCopernicus.Eightyearslater,Galileomadeanattempttohavethe1616decreelifted.Hedidgetasmallwaiver—hewasentitledtodiscussPtolemy’s

andCopernicus’stheoriesprovidedhisconclusionwasasdictatedbytheCatholicChurch—whichwasthatmancannotpresumetoknowhowtheworldismadebecausetodosowouldrestrictGod’somniscience.

Galileoacceptedthisrestrictionandspentthenexteightyearswritingadialoguecomparingthetwoprincipalsystems—ofPtolomyand

Copernicus.Thebookwashugelypopular—abestseller.TheJesuitsseemeddefeatedbuttheyfoughtback.Galileo’sbookwassopowerfullywrittenitwouldcausemoreharmtotheestablishmentviewofthecosmos“thanLutherandCalvinputtogether.”24

Thepopeorderedaprosecution.Thisgavethepapallawyersabiglegal

problem,forGalileohadabidedbythedecreeof1616.Suddenlyadocumentwas“discovered”totheeffectthatGalileointhenegotiationsleadingtothedegreeof1616hadbeenprohibitedfrom“teachingordiscussingCopernicanisminanyway.”Hehadthereforeobtainedthedecreebyfalsepretensesbecausehisbookwasdisguiseddiscussionandteaching.Theestablishment

mountedashowtrial,whichtookplacein1633whenGalileowasinhisseventiethyearandill.Hewasconvicted,buthisimprisonmentwascommuted.HewasorderedtorecantCopernicantheoryandstatethathe“abjuredcursedanddetested”hispasterrorsinsupportingCopernicus.Whileunderhousearresthewrotesomeofhisgreatestworks,summarizinghisearly

experiments.Hislastbigdiscovery,ofthemoon’sdailyandmonthlymovement,camein1637,justbeforehewentblind.Hediedin1642.

Galileo’smonumentalachievementswereessentiallytheuseofapowerfultelescopetodiscovertheheavensandvalidateCopernicus’sworkandhispioneeringthoughtsongravity.Hewasthefirst

Europeanwhocouldseethatmathematicsandphysicswerepartofthesamesubjectandthatearthlyandheavenlyphenomenacouldbecombinedintoonebranchofscience,ascouldexperimentswithcalculation,theconcreteandtheabstract.GalileopavedthewayforNewton.

GalileoiscreditedwithdiscoveringJupiter’smoons,Io,Europa,Callisto,and

Ganymede,in1616.SomescholarscontendthattheGermanastronomerSimonMayerdiscoveredthemafewdaysearlier.In“AncientChineseAstronomerGanDeDiscoveredJupiter’sSatellites2000YearsEarlierthanGalileo,”PaulDong,RosaMui,andZhouXinYanciteProfessorXiZezongoftheChineseAcademyofSciences,statingthataChineseastronomer,GanDe,

haddiscoveredJupiter’smoonsin364B.C.25Thebasisforthisclaimcanbefoundinvolume23oftheancientChineseastronomicalworkKaiYuanZhanJing(Booksofobservationsfromthebeginningofhistory).Apassageinitreads,“GanDesaid‘IntheyearofShauYo,Xi,Nu,ShuandWei[Io,Europa,Ganymede,andCallisto]theAnnualstarwas

verylargeandbright.Itseemedtherewasasmallredstarattachedtoitside.Thisiscalledanalliance.’”

The“annualstar”wastheancientChinesenameforJupiter,thesmallredstar,Jupiter’smoon.TheauthorsofferamoderntranslationofGanDe:“TherewasasmallpinkstarbesidetheplanetJupiter.Wethereforeconcludethisisasatelliteof

Jupiter.”(ItisstillpossibletodaytoviewJupiter’ssatelliteswiththenakedeyeincertainplaces,notablyintheHebeiProvinceofChinaandfromtheSaharaandpartsofJapan.)

MyintentionincitingtheChineseobservationofJupiter’smoonstwothousandyearsearlierisnottodiminishGalileo’senormousachievementsbuttoillustrate

howEurocentricWesternhistoriansandastronomersareinnotcreditingChinawithastronomyvastlymoreadvancedthanEurope’s.ItseemsalmostincrediblethattheJesuitscouldhavepersuadedtheChinesethattheyknewmoreaboutastronomythantheChinesedid,notleastinpredictingeclipses,somethingtheChinesehadbeendoingcenturiesbeforeJesuits

arrivedinChina.

TheDevelopmentofArtandPerspective

LeonBattistaAlberti,asPopeEugenius’snotary,wouldhaverecordedminutesofthemeetingbetweentheChineseambassadorandthepope.AsJoanGadolhassosuccinctlysaid,Albertiwentbeyondtheboundsofastronomytodetermineitsrelationwith

mathematics,andthen[used]mathematicstodeveloppaintingandarchitecture,cartographyandsurveying—evenengineeringdesignsandcryptography.Toscanelli,Alberti,NicholasofCusa,Regiomontanus,andlaterCopernicusandGalileoemployedtherationalconceptionofspaceinformingtheirideas—aconceptiontowhichallwereledbythemethodsof

mathematics.26

Albertikneweverybranchofmathematics—geometry,arithmetic,astronomy,music.InDepictura,hissystemofperspectiveandhumanproportionsconstitutethetechnicalfoundationsofRenaissancepaintingandsculpture,introducingtoartideasandvaluesthathadfar-reachingculturalimplicationsfortheage.Alberti’swork

coveredpainting,sculpture,architecture,aesthetics,mathematics,cartography,surveying,mechanics,cryptography,literature,andmoralphilosophy.

BurckhardtregardedtheRenaissancepioneeredbyAlbertiasthefirstage,thegenesisofmodernEuropeancivilizationandculture.

EuropeBecomesMistressof

theWorld

ItwasthecombinationofamassivetransferofnewknowledgefromChinatoEuropeandthefactthatitcameinoneshortperiodthatsparkedtherevolutionwecalltheRenaissance.

Notonlydidkings,captains,andnavigatorshave,forthefirsttime,mapsthatshowedthemthetrueshapeofthe

world,buttheyalsoacquiredinstrumentsandtablesthatshowedthemhowtoreachthosenewlandsbythequickestrouteandhowtoreturnhomeinsafety.

WhentheyarrivedintheNewWorld,aninternationaltradingsystemcreatedbyChinese,Arabs,andIndiansawaitedthem—onethataccountedforhalftheworld’sgrossnationalproduct.This

systemwasbaseduponthetransferofChinesemanufacturedgoodsinexchangeforrawmaterialsfromtherestoftheworld.Thetradingpatternhadbeenbuiltupbythousandsofseavoyagesoverhundredsofyearshonedbycenturiesofexperienceofmonsoonsandtradewinds.WhenChinalefttheworldstage,thistradingsystemwasEurope’sforthetaking.

EuropeansfoundnotonlyrichnewlandsbuttheresultsofsophisticatedtransplantingandgeneticengineeringpioneeredbytheChinese—maizeinSoutheastAsia,whichoriginatedinAmerica27cottonintheAzores,theresultofcross-pollinationofIndianandAmericanstrains;sweetpotatoesfromSouthAmerica,whichfedindigenouspeoples

acrossthePacifictoNewZealand;ricetakenfromChinatoBrazilandto“NewEngland”;orchardsofcitrustreesintheCarolinas,Florida,Peru,WestAfrica,andAustralia.28

Thesamewentforanimals:vastsnailfactoriesintheParanáRiverofSouthAmerica;AsianchickensacrossSouthAmerica;AmericanturkeysinIndia(de

l’inde-dinde);ChinesehorsesinNorthAmerica;fishfarmsinNewZealand.Plantsthathavefed(maize),clothed(cotton),andhoused(coconuts)theworldforthepastsixhundredyearshadbeentransplantedortranshippedbetweencontinentsbeforeEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorld.

Rawmaterialshadbeenminedandshippedacross

continents.EuropeansfoundworkedgoldminesinAustralia,ironminesinNewZealandandNovaScotia,copperinNorthAmerica,andasophisticatedsteelindustryinNigeria.

NewmethodsofcartographyenabledEuropeanstomapthefabulousrichesoftheNewWorld.Printingenablednewsoftheseexoticdiscoveriesto

spreadfarandwide—notleastamongstthenewlyemergent,brash,competingEuropeannation-states.

Atthesamemoment,EuropeanslearnedofChinesegunpowdercoupledwithadvancedChineseweapons—bazookas,mortars,explodingshells,rockets,andcannons.ThepoorIncas,armedwiththeirfeathertunicsandclubs,weremowndownbythe

brutal,ruthless,butincrediblybravebandofconquistadoresunderPizarro.Atahualpastoodnochance;neitherdidMontezuma.AsaresultofPizarro’smassacre,Spaingainedaccesstotheworld’smostvaluablesilvermines,whichshegrabbed.

KnowledgeofprintingspreadtherichesoftheNewWorldaccuratelyandrapidly.Withgunpowderweapons

Europeanrivalrytookonanewpotencyandurgency,resultinginfreneticcompetitiontoconquertheNewWorld.

ThesamedramaticchangescanbeseeninEurope,notleastinfoodproduction,mining,andprocessingofrawmaterials.TheintroductionofriceinthePoValleyinthe1440sdependedforitssuccessonthe

aqueducts,canals,andlocksystemsdesignedbyLeonardodaVinciandFrancescodiGiorgio,coupledwiththenewChinesebucketpumpsthatenabledwatertobetransferredinatimelyandeconomicwayacrossthericefields.

Milan’sbuildingboomwasassistedbyharnessingtheRiverPo—throughtheuseof“Chinese”locksandfeeder

canals.Higherfiringtemperaturesforkilnsandsmelterswereachievedwithcompressorspoweredbywaterturbines.CorncouldnowbegroundbynewefficientwindmillswhosedesignshadbeendevelopedoverthecenturiesbyChineseengineers.

Inartandarchitecturethenewrulesofperspectiveexplainedbytherational

mathematicsofAlbertiandperfectedbythegeniusofLeonardodaVincicouldbeappliedtocreateallmannerofnewbuildings—whichcouldbeaccuratelyandquicklyexplainedanddescribedbyprinting.ThesenewideasspreadoutfromFlorencelikeaforestfire.

PerhapsthemostimportantsingletransferofknowledgefromChinatoEuropewas

thatofhowtheuniverseworked.GreekandRomanconceptsthattheearthwasatthecenterandsunandplanetsrotatedarounditwerereplacedbyarationalsystemexplainedbymathematics.Mannowcould,anddid,lookateverythinganewandexaminehisplaceintheworld.Thisnewspiritofinquirywasappliedtoeveryaspectoflife—inphysics,mathematics,science,and

technologyaswellastheartsandreligion.EverythingcouldbeexplainedwithouttheblessingoftheChurch.Thoughtwasfreedfromcenturiesofreligiousdogma.

Inthedoublepagediagramincolorinsert3,the“inventions”anddiscoveriesofToscanelli,Alberti,NicholasofCusa,Regiomontanus,Taccola,Pisanello,AndreaBianco,

FrancescodiGiorgio,andFontanaareshown.Asmaybeseen,theyproducedlittleofconsequencebefore1434andthencameanexplosionofnewideas,inventions,andtheories.

Thetransferofintellectualknowledgein1434wasbetweenapeoplewhohadcreatedtheircivilizationoverthousandsofyears,andaEuropethatwasjust

emergingfromthethousand-yearstagnationfollowingthefalloftheRomanEmpire.TheChineseseedsfellonveryfertileground.

UntilnowtheRenaissancehasbeenportrayedasarebirthoftheclassicalEuropeancivilizationsofGreeceandRome.Chineseinfluencehasbeenignored.WhileGreeceandRomewereunquestionablyimportant,in

mysubmissionthetransferofChineseintellectualknowledgewasthesparkthatsettheRenaissanceablaze.

ItistimeforanagonizingreappraisaloftheEurocentricviewofhistory.

III

China’sLegacy

22

TRAGEDYONTHEHIGHSEAS:ZHENGHE’S

FLEETDESTROYEDBYA

TSUNAMI

In2003,CedricBell,amarineengineer,visitedhissonandfamilyonNewZealand’sSouthIsland.Magneticanomalysurveyshemadeduringhisstaythrewupanastonishingpossibility:aconsiderablenumberofjunkshadbeenwreckedontheisland’ssoutheastcoast.Survivorshadapparentlymanagedtogetashoreandhadbuiltstonebarracksas

livingquarters,hadsownricefieldsandsetupfishfarmsforfoodandsmelterstomakeiron.CedricbelievedanentireChinesefleethadbeenwreckedbyacolossalstorm.

CedricBell’sreportwassofar-reachingthatatfirstIwasincredulous—myinitialreactionwastodonothing.However,ameetingwithMr.Bellconvincedmethathewasadisciplinedpractical

engineernotgiventoexaggerationorflightsoffancy.Soweagreedtoembarkonaseriesofindependenttestsononebarracksblock,onewreck,andonesmelter;ifanyonecoulddisprovehisresults,wewouldnotpublicizehiswork.

ThebarracksblockwastheruinsCedrichadscannedunderanAkaroacricketgrounds,wheresatellite

photographstakeninmidsummerhadshownthegrassabovetheburiedwallstobeparched;thewallswereoutlinedwhenlookedatfromspace.

Weretainedanindependentcompany,GPRGeophysicalServicesofAuckland,tocarryoutaground-penetratingradarsurveythere.ThesecorroboratedCedric’swork,savethatone

ofthewallsseemedtoostraighttobetrue.Weaskedthelocalauthoritiesforundergroundplansofburiedservicepipesbeneaththecricketpitch.Thedeadstraightwallwasoneofthese,butthebarracks’otherthreeouterandinteriorwallswerenot.CedricBellwasvindicatedonthatone.

WechosethesmelteratLeBonsBay,nearAkaroa,

becauseitwasonpublicland,easilyvisibleandaccessible,andnearironoredeposits.Moreover,ithadasophisticateddesign:twostreamspoweredawaterturbine,whichinturnpoweredaircompressorstoraisethefiringtemperatureoftheore.Therewasastoragehousenearby.Accelerometermassspectrographyandcarbon-datingtestswereconductedbyRafter

RadiocarbonDatingLaboratoryandbyWaikatoUniversity(bothofinternationalstandingandpreviouslyunknowntomeorCedricBell)ondifferentoldbuildings.Thedatingcertificatescanbeseenonourwebsite.CedricBell’sconclusionthatthissmelterhadbeenworkedbeforeEuropeansarrived,byanunknownpeople(theMaorisdidnotsmeltiron),was

provedcorrect;smeltingbysophisticatedmethodswithhighfiringtemperatureshadbeeninusebeforetheMaori.

ResearchbyDr.R.N.Holdawaycorroboratedthis.AsianratboneshehadfoundinNewZealandwereshownbycarbondatingtobetwothousandyearsold.Asratscannotswimmorethanafewyards,humansmusthavebroughtthem.

ThewreckselectedforanalysiswasalsoinLeBonsBay,notfarfromthesmelter,coveredbysandandunderwaterotherthanatlowtide.AnalysiscarriedoutbyGPRshowedtwoforeignobjectsofthesamesizeandthesamepositionasCedricBell’smagneticanomalysurveywiththesameshapes.(Resultsareonourwebsite.)

CedricBell’ssurveyofa

barracks,asmelter,andawreckhadbynowbeeninvestigatedbyseveralmethodsbydifferentreputableorganizationswhoseresultshadinbroadtermscorroboratedhiswork.TheirfindingsdisclosedthatasophisticatedpeoplewhoarrivedbyjunkshadlivedandworkedinNewZealandlongbeforetheMaoris,theEuropeans,or,indeed,beforethearrivalofZhengHe’s

fleets.

OurnextresearchwasintotheMaoripeople.Whowerethey?Dr.GeoffreyChambersandhisteam,notablyAdeleWhyte,hadconductedDNAteststofindtheanswer.TheyconcludedthattheMaorimitochondrialDNAwasChinesefromTaiwan,astheforeignministerofNewZealand,Dr.WinstonPeters,agreedinhisaddressatthe

meetinginMalaysiaoftheAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)onJuly25,2006:“Mypointisverysimple,thattheindigenouspeopleofNewZealandcamefromChina….DNAisirrefutableevidence.”

WenowhopetheNewZealandgovernmentwillmoderateitsapproachinrepresentingNewZealand’searlyhistory:inparticular

thatsitescurrentlyofflimitstotheNewZealandpeoplewillbeopened;andthathumanbonesthatpredatetheMaoris’arrivalnowinpossessionoftheNewZealandgovernmentwillbeDNA-tested.Ihaveofferedtopayforthesetests,andadistinguishedprofessorofgeneticsatOxfordUniversitywithaworldwidereputationhasagreedtoconductthem.Allwenowawaitis

governmentagreement.

CedricBellReturnstoNewZealand

Aftertestsonhisearlierfindshadbeenconcluded,CedricBellreturnedtoNewZealandin2004andfoundyetmorestartlingevidence—includingwreckedjunksimpaledupsidedownhighonthecliffsofSouthIsland.Theoutlineofthewoodenhull

wasclearlyvisible.Sowastheconcretehulllining,whichwasprovedbyanalysistobemanmadefromamixtureofburntlimeandvolcanicash.Markswerefoundinthecementwhereithadbeenbondedtothehullbyriceglue.Somewreckswerecharred;somewereupsidedownandtiltedasifagianthadhammeredthemintothecliffs;somerosenearlyonehundredfeet

abovethesea.Thecliffssometimesdisgorgedcannonballs,counterweights,andmiscellaneousobjectsincludingtheremainsofaship’sbell,alaminatedknife,andaveryoldBuddhistbroochinscribedwiththeChinesewordfor“mountain.”

Theonlyfeasibleexplanationforsuchwidespreaddestructionwasa

tsunami.Greatwaveshadsmashedthejunksintothecliffs,leavingthemimpaledwhentheseassubsided.WelearnedthatProfessorTedBryantofWollongongUniversityhadpublishedinacarefullydocumentedbook,Tsunami:TheUnderratedHazard,hisfindingsthatNewZealand’sSouthIslandhadbeendevastatedbyfiresandbyatsunamisometimebetween1410and1490—

datesthatheobtainedfromden-drochronographyofthetrees.ProfessorBryant’sbookwaspublishedwellbeforemyown1421.AsNewZealandliesonafaultline,thetsunamiandforestfirescouldhavebeencausedbyaseismicevent,asmanyNewZealandexperts,includingDr.J.R.Goff,haveargued.However,anearthquakewouldnotexplainhowthewreckshadbeenturnedto

charcoalbeforebeingimpaledinthecliffs,foritwouldnotcausemassivelyhotfiresintheoceanfromwhencethejunkshadcome.

ProfessorBryant’sbookdescribeshowtheAboriginesinAustraliaandtheMaorisinNewZealandbothreportedacometbeingthecauseofthe“mysticfires.”BothChineseandMayanastronomersdescribealargebluecomet

seeninCanisMinorfortwenty-sixconsecutivedaysinJune1430,adatecompatiblewithProfessorBryant’sden-drochronography.TheninNovember2003DallasAbbottandherteamattheLamont-DohertyEarthObservatory,Palisades,NewYork,announcedthattheyhadfoundthatthecomethadimpactedtheseabetweenCampbellIslandandthe

SouthIsland,blastingacratertwelvekilometersacross.

LetusnowimagineafleetofjunkssailingnorthafterleavingCampbellIsland,homewardbound.TwodaysoutfromAucklandIsland,thelookoutwouldhavereportedagroupoflow-lyingislandsrightahead(theSnaresIslandsat48°10'N,166°40'E).Thefleetwouldhavetoaltercoursetoroundthe

islands:onehalfturnseast,theotherwest,andthetwohalvesaresometwentymilesapartcenteredonposition48°10'N,166°55'E.

Thencomesthecomet,twenty-sixtimesbrighterthanthesun,itshundreddecibelsscreaming,blowingouttheeardrumsofthesailors.Itscolossalheatsetstheirskinonfire.Thenthecomethitstheoceansomesixtymiles

southofthecombinedfleet.Giganticwaves,morethansixhundredfeethigh,tosstheshipsaboutlikematchsticks.Themastsandriggingareafire,fannedbyfour-hundred-mile-an-hourwinds.HereistheextractthatDallasAbbott,AndrewMatzen,andStephenF.PeckaroftheLamontDohertyEarthObservatoryandEdwardA.Bryant,oftheUniversityofWollongong,Australia,

submittedtothemeetingoftheGeologicalSocietyofAmericainthefallof2003:

GoffattributescoastalabandonmentinNewZealandin1500A.D.toanearthquake-inducedtsunamievent.However,thelargesthistoricalearthquakeproducedmaximumtsunamirun-upsoffortytosixtymetres[150to200feet].OnStewartIsland,NewZealand,

beachsandispresent~220metres[720feet]abovesealevelatHellfirehutand~150metres[500feet]abovesealevelatMasonBay.IneasternAustraliatherearemegatsunamidepositswithmaximumrunupsof130metres[425feet]andacarbon14ageofabout1503.MegatsunamidepositsoccurontheeasternsideofLordHoweIslandinthemiddleoftheTasmanSea,implyinga

sourceforthecraterfurthereast.WenamedthissourcecraterMahuikafortheMaoriGodofFire.Mahuikacraterisapproximately20kilometres[about12miles]wideandatleast153metres[502feet]deep.ItisontheNewZealandcontinentalshelf48.3°Sand166°4'E.SeveralpiecesofevidencepointtoMahuikaasthesourcecraterforthe1500A.D.event.Thefirstisthat

thecraterliesonagreatcirclepathfromAustraliaorientedatabouta45degreeangletothegeneraltrendoftheeasternAustraliacoast.MegatsunamidepositsnearWollongongandatJervisBay,Australiansuggestatsunamiwaveorientedatthisangletothecoast.Thesecondisthesubbottomdepthoftheimpactdeposits.Wehavefoundimpactejectainallofthedredgesnearthecrater.

Becausemarinesedimentsaredepositedatarateofabout1cm[.39inch]perthousandyears,thisisexpectediftheimpactdepositisonly500yearsold.Weareseekingc-14datestoconfirmthis.Thethirdisthedistributionoftektites,whicharefoundontheoppositesideofthecraterfromthedirectionofimpactorarrival.Althoughwefoundimpactejectainmanysamples,onlysome

samplescontainedtektites.Alltektite-bearingsamplesarelocatedSEofthecrater,intheoppositedirectionfromSEAustralia,wheretheimpactfireballwasseenbytheAborigines.

Inmorerecentcorrespondence,theLamont-Dohertyteamhasnarrowedthedatingto1430–1455.Theimpactfireballwasseenover1,000milesaway.The

tsunamiwasmorethan220meters(700feet)highwhenitreachedStewartIslandfarthernorth(beachsandhadbeencarriedtothatheight)and130meters(400feet)whenitreachedAustralia.Thewind’smaximumvelocitywouldhavebeen403milesperhour(Lamont-Dohertycalculations).Increasedpressurecausedbythecomet’skineticenergywouldhavecreatedaCorioliseffect

onwinddirection.WavesradiatingoutwardfromtheimpactzonerunningupNewZealand’ssouthcoastsmashedtheshipsintothecliffs;manyotherswerehurledashoreoneithersideoftheTasmanStraitinsoutheastAustralia.

CedricBell’sfullreportonthejunksimpaledonNewZealandcliffsiscontainedonourwebsitewww.1421.tv

undertheheading“IndependentReports”andincludesafullscheduleofwreckswiththelatitudeandlongitudeofeach.Theeightywreckshehaddiscoveredby2004arefromthreeprincipallocations:attheCatlinsonNewZealand’ssoutheastcoast;farthernortharoundMoeraki;andnorthagainaroundtheBanksPeninsula.

ThewrecksonAustralia’s

southandeastcoastcanbebrieflysummarizedasfollows.TheoneontheeastsideofKingIslandhasbrasspinssimilartothoseintheRuapukewreck.AfterstormsthewreckontheeastcoastofTasmaniainStormBaydisgorgesHongWu(ZhuDi’sfather)coins.ThefirstsettlerstoreachKangarooIslandfoundferalChinesepigs.OtherferalpigsaroundWarrnamboolhavesimilar

fleacharacteristics(AsianandEuropeanpigshaveverydifferentfleas).ThereareafurtherthreeunidentifiedwrecksbetweenWarrnamboolandKangarooIsland.ThestretchofcoastnamedtheCoorongincludesanumberofold“Chinaman’s”wells.Accordingtotheaboriginalpeoplewholivealongthisstretchofcoast,foreignpeoplesettledamongthem

afterashipwreckthatoccurredlongbeforeEuropeansarrived.

ThetsunamifromtheMahuikaimpactpositionwouldhavecarriedwreckedjunkstowardsAustralia.AstheyapproachedthecoasttothenorthoftheBassStrait,thecorioliswindswouldhavedriventhemthroughtheBassStraitsdumpingtwoonFlindersIsland,oneonthe

eastcoastofKingIslandneartheElephantRiver,anotherontheWarrnamboolcoast,andonKangarooIsland.WrecksherearecompatiblewithknownfactsabouttheMahuikacometandresultanttsunami,asareCedricBell’sdiscoveriesinNewZealand’sSouthIsland.

EvidenceoftheTsunami:aWreckedChineseFleetinOregonandBritish

Columbia

OnJanuary31,2007,Mr.DaveCotner,aneighty-two-year-oldAmericancitizen,e-mailedmefromhishomeinLasVegas,describinghisfindingofwhathebelievedweretheremainsofaveryoldChinesejunkburiedabout130deepinsanddunesinlandsome1,600yardsfromtheocean.LikeCedricBell,Mr.Cotnerhadmadehis

discoveryusingthemagneticanomalysystem.

ImetMr.CotnerinLasVegasthefollowingFebruary20.Togetherwestudiedtheplansofhisfindings.Thenextday,weflewtoCoosBay,Oregon,hiredacarandexploredthesite.

ThewreckisinWilliamTugmanStatePark,partoftheOregonDunesNational

RecreationArea.Thelocation,atapproximately43°30'N,iswheretheCaribbeanexplorersJuanRodriguezCabrilloandBartolomeFerrellohadreportedawreckedChinesejunkin1542.DaveCotner’sMASsurveyhadshownthewreckofaseven-mastedwoodenshipbrokeninhalflyingonitsside,listedabouttwentydegreestoportundertwentytofortyfeetofsandat

aboutseventy-fivefeetabovesealevel.Theanchorextendstothenorthwestofthewreck.WhenMr.Cotneroriginallyfoundthewreckin1985,heduganeight-foothole,putinapump,andextractedwood.Hefoundthewrecktobeaveryoddshape,resemblingabargeconstructedoflarge(twenty-fourinchessquare)timbersforakeelrunningitsfulllength.Thepositionoftheanchorindicatedthatit

wasinusewhendisasterstruck.Thepositionoftheanchorrelativetothewreckshowedthatthejunkmusthavebeencarriedsidewaystobedumpedsixteenhundredyardsinshoreatanelevationofseventy-fivefeetbyawaveataboutthatheight.

WebasedourplanningontheassumptionthatthetsunamiresponsiblewasaresultoftheMahuikacomet

andthereforewouldhavehittheOregoncoastonitspassagefromNewZealandonabearingofabout040.Thebeachshallowsgraduallyintotheoceanoverseveralhundredyards—anidealconditionforatsunamirun-up—therearenooutlyingislandstoblunttheforceoftheimpact.

Wedecidedtostartthemagneticanomalysoundings

justseawardofthewreck,thenmovedownthesanddunesonatrackof220degreestowardtheocean.WheneverMr.CotnerfoundsomethingwewouldstopandreadoutthesatellitepositionandIwouldtakeaphotograph.(Thesatellitereadingsatthatstagemeantnothing—theywereeight-andten-figurenumbers.)Onreturntoshelterweplottedoutthemagneticanomalies

andrealizedwehadevidencethatthejunkhadbrokenuponitspassageasitwascarriedbyahugewavefromitsanchorageontothesanddunes,litteringevidencealongitstrackasitdisintegrated.

Theshorelineslopessogentlytowardtheoceanthatwavesareaccentuated—althoughitwasonlyblowingforcefiveduringourvisit,the

waveswerequiteugly.Ajunkstrandedashorewouldhavebeensmashedtobitsinnotime.Ferrellocouldnotpossiblyhaverecognizeditasajunk110yearslaterandmusthaveseenitwellinshore;subsequentsandstormswouldhavecovereditinashroud.Wecommissionedfurthertestingtoobtainathree-dimensionalpictureofthewreck(aswedidatSacramento)andwill

approachtheauthoritieswiththeseimagesrequestingpermissiontoexcavatethem.TheycorroborateDaveCotner’sMASsurvey.

EvidenceoftheTsunamiinWesternCanada:WreckedChineseJunksBetween43°NandVancouverIsland

Amongnumerousreports,hereisonemadelongagoofawreckonClatsopBeach

northofwheretheCotnerjunkwasfound.ItisaChinooklegend,“FirstShipseenbytheClatsop,”narratedbyFranzBoaswhichstartswithanoldwomanwalkingalongthebeachinsearchofherlostson.Shesawsomethingshethoughtwasawhale.Butwhenshecamenearer,shesawtwosprucetreesstandinguprightonit.“Behold,itisamonster,”shethought.

Whenshereachedthethingshesawthatitsoutersidewasallcoveredincopper.Ropesweretiedtothesesprucetrees,anditwasfullofiron.Thenabearcameoutofit.Hestoodonthethingthatlaythere.“Helookedjustlikeabear,”saidtheoldwoman,reportingherfindtoonlookers,“buthisfacewasthatofahumanbeing”1

Amanclimbedupfromthe

beachandwentdownintotheship.Whenhelookedaboutintheinteriorhesawitwasfullofboxes.Hefoundbrassbuttonsinstrings[coinswithholesinthemiddle]—halfafathomlong.TheClatsoppeoplegatheredtheiron,thecopperandthebrass.”

ThisstoryiscorroboratedbytheoralhistoryoftheSenecaIndians,whosayChineselandedonwhatis

nowtheWashington-OregoncoastbeforetheEuropeansgotthere.ApparentlyasmallcraftlandedduringsummermonthsandmetthelocalIndianpeople.Afleetreturnedduringthewintermonthsexpectingasimilarwelcome,buttheywerewipedoutbytheCrowpeople,whohadcomedownfromtheplainstoescapeaharshwinter.2

QueenCharlotteandVancouverIslandsappearintheWaldseemüeller(1507)andZattamaps(1776)3drawnbeforewesternEuropeansreachedBritishColumbia,thatis,beforeVancouverorCook.ZattacallsVancouverIsland“ColoniadeiChinesi”andgivesasauthoritytheRussianexplorerswhofoundChinesetherewhentheyarrivedin

1728(Bering)and1741(Chirikov).RussianhydrographersinVladivostokhavefoundChirikov’sdrawingsoftheseChinesepeople.

HugoGrotius(1624)reportingGalvão:“ThepeopleofChina…sailedordinarilythecoast,whichseemstoreachunto70degreestowardsthenorth,”thatis,asfarnorthasthe

BeringStrait.

WhenMajorPowersoftheU.S.ArmyarrivedtotakeoveradministrationfromtheFranciscansintheKlamathValley,Oregon,hefoundaChinesecolony(40°N).Allalongthecoastfrom40°to50°NthereisextensiveevidenceofwreckedChineseshipsofZhuDi(1403–1424)andtheXuanDeemperor(1426–1435).Bothemperors

hadbuiltmassivefleets.ProfessorLongFeiandDr.SallyChurchofCambridgeUniversity,whoexaminedtheShi-lu,OfficialShipbuildingRecordsfor1403–1419,report:2,726Junkswerebuiltinthesesixteenyearsofwhichaminimumof343andamaximumof2,020wouldhavebeenavailabletoZhengHe.4

EvidenceoftheTsunami

AlongtheNorthAmericanWestCoast

AtSusanville,California,abeautifulXuanDe(1426–1435)brassplatewasfoundburiedinwoodland.

TheUniversityofOregonAnthropologicalPaperNumber23(1981)reportsthediscoverybyHerbertK.BealsandHarveySteeleofChineseporcelainfromthe

NetartsSandSpit(45°29'N),150milesnorthoftheCotnerJunk:“Between1956and1958thearchaeologicalsitedesignated35-TI-IwasexcavatedunderthedirectionofL.S.CrossmanoftheUniversityofOregon.In1958excavationsinHouse13oftheirsite,underthesupervisionofThomasM.Newmanledtotherecoveryof127fragmentsofChineseporcelain.”

Thereportthenbreaksdownthefindsintotwogroups:possibleChengHua;YungLo(ZhuDi)andHsuanTe(XuanDe.)Theauthorsconclude:“ItisofcoursepossiblethatearlyMingporcelaincouldhavebeenbroughtoveronChinesejunksortradingjourneysinpost-Columbiantimes.Thishoweverdoesappearlogicallytobedoubtful.Wecan’timagineporcelainfor

seafaringvoyagestobeantiqueespeciallyasantiquitywassohighlyvalued.”

ThecuratoroftheTillamookCountyPioneerMuseum,inlandfromtheNetartsSandSpit,wheretheceramicswerefound,informedmeofalargepulleymadeofcalophyllum,anAsianwoodfoundintheseaandgiventotheHornerMuseumatCorvallis.5Ithas

beendated1410.

Ozette,afewdays’sailingnorthoftheCotnerJunk,isaMakahvillageburiedbyamudslideinthe1770s.TheDepartmentofAnthropologyofWashingtonStateUniversityhaspublishedthreevolumesofOzetteArchaeologicalProjectResearchReports6comparinghundredsofreportsofpeoplewhohavecontributedsince

initialexcavationswerebegunin1966.Accordingtoonereport,“asectionofthehillsideaboveOzettevillagegaveway…andtheliquefiedclayroareddownhill,displacingorcrushingeverythinginitspath.Thispartofthevillagewasdenselypackedwithlonghouses.”

Excavationsoftheselonghousesandtheirmiddens

hasbeencarriedoutmethodicallyandcarefully,separatingoutthedifferenteras.OfrelevancetothisreportistheuseofirontoolsandtheevidenceoftradewithJapanbetween1400and1450(Makahpeopledidnotsmeltiron).

InanarticleinContributionstoHumanHistory,7RoyalBritishColumbiaMuseum’scurator

GrantKeddieexaminesclaimsthatnativeIndianculturesofthenorthPacificcoastofNorthAmericawereinfluencedbyprehistoriccontact(i.e.,pre-European)withadvancedculturesofChina.Heconcludes:

ThenativeuseoflargenumbersofChinesecoinsonthenorthwestcoastasaresultofthefurtradeiswelldocumentedinthejournalsof

earlyexplorersandtraders.ThemanufacturingdatesofChinesecoinstradedtoNorthAmericanIndiansandintroducedlaterbyChineseimmigrantsweremostoftenapre-contact(beforeEuropean)date….ItisclearthatthetemporalandspatialcontextoflateprehistorictradebetweenOldandNewworldsisinneedoffurtherstudy.

Since1990whentheabove

reportwaspublishedamassofnewevidenceofpre-ColumbusChinesevoyagestotheAmericashasbeenfound:wrecksatLongBeach,VancouverIsland,saidtobecarryingrice;aChinesevasedredgedbythetrawlerBeaufortSeaoffUclueletandanotheroffTofino(westVancouverIsland);awrecksaidtobeofaChinesejunknorthofSequimintheJuandeFucaStrait;aChinese

talismanandlamp(pre-Columbus),bronzefigurinesofthegodGaruda,andancientChinesebronzesonVancouverIsland;oldChinesecoinsatChinlac;ChinesebronzeshauledupfromtheStraitofJuandeFuca;inexplicablestonestructuresandstonecairns.

NumberofWreckedJunks

Takingalloftheabove

findingsintoaccount,itseemsthatatleastthirtyjunkswerewreckedalongthecoastbetween41and49°N.Ifthatisso,thereshouldbeevidencethatasubstantialnumberofsurvivorsgotashore—aswasthecasefollowingasimilarcatastropheinNewZealand(CedricBellreport).

ChineseSettlementsontheColumbiaRiver

Someoftheevidenceofwreckedjunksisnearthefive-mile-wideentrancetotheColumbiaRiver.Onehundredfiftymilesupriverwheretheriverhookstotheeast,justnorthofPortland,liesLakeVancouver.ThereinthenarrowvalleyofLakeRiverhundredsofceramicartefactshavebeenfound,firedby“theWashingtonPotters,”agroupwhoappearedfromnowhere

“around1400”anddisappearedequallysuddenlythreehundredyearslater.8TheU.S.InstituteofArchaeologicalStudiesconcludedtheirpotterywasAsianinform.Afurther120milesuptheColumbiaRiverinanareawestofTheDallesisHogCanyon,wherepigswithshortlegs—saidtobeChinese—ranwilduntilrecently.

InlakesbesidetheColumbiaRiverlocalpeoplegrewapotato-likevegetablecalledthewapato,whichisnativetoChina.TheNezPercéIndians,reachedfromtheColumbiaRiver,arewellknownfortheirverydistinctivespottedhorsescalledAppaloosa,showninpaintingsoftheChineseYuandynasty.

Evidencealongthe

ColumbiaRiverandacrossBritishColumbiasuggestsanoldChinesecolony.SquamishIndianshaveaccountsofChinesetradersbeforeEuropeansarrived,asdotheHaidaofQueenCharlotteIsland,whodescribepeoplesailingfromthewesttowardthesunrise.Nootkafolklorehas“visitorsfromafar”whocamebeforetheEuropeans.Theindigenouspeopleof

WhidbeyIslandinPugetSoundbelievetheChineseloggedofflargetractsofforesthundredsofyearsago.TotempolesonVancouverIslandandontheWashingtoncoastareidenticaltothoseofChina’sWuhanProvince.Potlachceremoniesinbothplacesarethesame.MorethanthirtywordsspokenbytheHaidapeoplehavethesamemeaninginChinese—tsil(hot);chin(wood);etsu

(grandmother).OlympicStateParkhasitsHoRiverandVancouverIslanditsChinaBeachandChinaHill.Localpeoplethereofferupwhitedogsassacrifice“tobringheaven’sblessings”astheydoinChina.

DNAEvidence

MarianaFernandez-Coboandcolleagues9examinedtheubiquitousDNAvirus

polyomavirusJCofSalishpeoplewhooncelivedonthePacificcoast.Theydescribeinlayperson’slanguagehowtheyanalyzedtheurineofthesepeoplesandfoundthatthebenignkidneydisorderof“Japan”(i.e.,MongoliaandJapan)strainsMY[ZA]andTokyo-1areidenticaltoSalishMT-1[ZA]andMT-3[ZA].Inshort,theSalishwhonowliveinMontanaandtheMongolian/Japanesepeople

testedhavethesameancestors.

TheCotnerJunkisavitalpieceofevidenceinmanyways.First,itappearstocorroboratetheextensiveevidenceofthetsunamithatCedricBellhasfoundinthewreckedjunksinNewZealand.Secondly,itshouldprovideevidenceabout

ZhengHe’sjunks—knowledgethatcanbepassedtobuildersofareplicafortheBeijingOlympicGames.Third,itservesasafocalpointingatheringevidenceofthevoyagesofZhengHetoAmerica.PublicationofthedetailsoftheCotnerJunkwillundoubtedlyresultinatidalwaveofnewevidence.

EvidenceofWreckedChineseFleetsinSouth

America

Wehavereceivedagreatmanye-mailsrelatingtopre-ColumbianpresenceofChinesepeopleandofwreckedjunksinSouthAmerica,especiallyinPeru.DetailsmaybeseenonourwebsitebysearchingforPeruandChile.BecauseIbelievethatatleastonefleetwaswreckedbytheMahuikatsunami,wehavespentsome

timenarrowingthesearch.ZhengHe’sfleetswouldhavetradedwiththecivilizationsthenexistinginSouthAmerica.

WherethosecivilizationshadtheirprincipalportswasdeterminedbytheuniquegeographyofSouthAmerica.TheAndesMountainsstraddletheequator;astheymarchsouththeywidenandthecoastalplainthatstartsa

hundredmileswideinEcuadorgetsnarrowerandnarroweruntilinChileitisonlytwentymileswide.Wherethemassifbroadensinthesouth,agrasslandplateausome11,500feethighemergesbetweenthepeaks.RunningwestwardfromthehighAltiplanodowntotheseaareinnumerablesmallriverslikelegsofacentipede.TotheeastoftheAndesstretchesawide,hot,low

plain,whichsoaksupmoistwindsfromtheAtlantic.AsthewetwindsspreadwestwardtheydelugetheBrazilianforestwithrainbeforedumpingtheremainderontheAndes,which,duetotheirheight,fallsassnow.InspringbetweenSeptemberandApril,thewindsfreshen.Forabriefperiod,snowevenreachesthehighslopesofthewesternAndes.Whenthe

snowmeltsinsummer,watercascadesdownthe“centipede”riversintothePacific.Thusstartingattheequatorandtravelingeastwardoneencountersanastonishingdiversityofclimates.Firstcomesthebone-drystripofcoast;thenthewesternslopesoftheAndespunctuatedeverythirtymilesorsobyriversfullofwatersomethreemonthsoftheyear;thenthehigh,cold

grassyplateau,theAltiplanowithplentyofrainforaquarteroftheyear;andfinallythehot,low,wetAmazonjungle.

Thebone-drydesertcoastexistsbecauseofthecoldHumboldtCurrentflowingnorthwardfromtheAntarcticandahigh-pressuresystemfaroutinthePacific,acombinationthatpreventsrainfall.Consequentlythereis

nowordfor“rain”ineithertheQuechuaorAymaralanguages.Instead,inwinterthecoastiscoveredbyafinemist,whichisburntoffasthesunheatsuptheland.TheChinesenameforthismistisPeru.

AstheHumboldtCurrentrisestothesurface,itbringsmillionsoftonsofplanktonfromitsdepths.Smallfishfeedontheplankton,

attractinglargerfish,whichinturnattractsealions.Thewateryields1,680kilogramsoffishperhectare,almostathousandtimestheworldaverage.Themostvividwayofseeingthisextraordinaryrichnessisbyship(orsubmarine)fromoutinthePacific;theHumboldtCurrentisdelineatedbyacrobaticdisplaysofhugeflocksofseabirdsdivingintothewatertogorge

themselves.Millionsofthesebirdsnestashore,producinganendlesssupplyofguanofertilizer.

SothepeoplelivingalongthePacificcoastofsouthernEcuador,Peru,andnorthernChilehadanendlessbountyoffish,shellfish,birds,andsealionsforfood.Theirrivervalleyswerefullofwaterforaquarteroftheyear,andtheyhadplentyoffertilizer.Soit

isnotsurprisingthatthisstretchofcoasthasproducedrichhumancivilizationssincethedawnoftime.ThelandhadasmuchtoofferastheNile,theriversofMesopotamia,theGanges,ortheriversofChina.SouthAmericancivilizationsarehenceasoldasanyontheplanet:Peru’sCaralSupeareabout5,000yearsold;Chinesecivilizationis3,900yearsold;India,4,600;

Egypt,5,300;andMesopotamia,5,700.

ThegreatestcivilizationsofthePacificcoastofSouthAmerica,startingwiththesitesofCaralandChavín,werebasedbetweentheLambayequeRiverinnorthernPeruandtheIcaRiverinsouthernPeru.SouthoftheIcathecoastnarrowsconsiderably,andnorthoftheLambayequetheHumboldt

Currentanditsfishsuppliespeterout.SincePeruwashometotherichestcivilizationofthemall,thisareawouldhaveattractedZhengHe.

ThispartofPeruisawashwithevidenceofChinesevisitorsoverthepasttwothousandyears.TherearestillonehundredvillagesintheAncashregionofPeruthatretaintheirChinesenamesto

thisday.IncapeoplehaveEastAsianadmixtureintheirbloodtosuchanextentthattheirDNAprofilecouldalmostbecalledChinese.(ProfessorGabrielNovickandcolleagues—seewww.1421.tv,then‘Evidence’,then‘PartVII—TheGeneticlegacyofZhengHe’sfleets’)10

Theclearestpossibleevidencecanbeseenin

Lima’sMuseoArqueológicoRafaelLarcoHerrera,whichhas45,000exhibitsfromgravesoftheCupisniqueperiod(1000B.C.)throughtheMoches(A.D.400–800)andmorerecentNasca,Chimu,andChancaperiods.Iaskedthemosthelpfulcurator,Mr.ClaudioHuarache,iftherewereportraitsofChinesemerchantsfoundonpotteryfromthegraves.He

immediatelyshowedmebeautifulpaintingsofChinesefromMoche,Chanca,andNascagraves—spanningthepasttwothousandyearsandcoveringthewholecoastofPerunorthtosouth.ApictureofaChinesemerchantisshownonourwebsite.

PeruappearsonChineseworldmapslongbeforethe1418map(HendonHarrismapcollection)andbefore

ZhengHe’snauticalchart(whichalsoshowsPeru—seeLiuGang’s‘Mapspeakswithoutwords’onwww.1421.tv).DiegoRibero’smasterchartoftheworldof152911showsthecoastofPeruingreatdetail,withaninscriptionthatdescribesPeruas“provinceandcitiesofChinesesilk.”Ribero’smapwaspublishedbeforePizarro(thefirst

European)gottoPeru.TheWaldseemüllermap,alsopublishedbeforePizarroreachedPeru,showstheAndesalongthewholelengthoftheSouthAmericancoast.

SoitseemssafetoassumethatZhengHeknewofPerubeforehesetsail.Hewouldhavevisitedportswherehisfleetscouldtrade.WeknowfromtherecordsofthefirstSpanishchroniclesthatinthe

1420stheprincipaltradingareaswouldhavebeenChanChaninthenorthofPeru,then,comingsouth,Chancay(northofLima),thenPachacamacinthesouthernsuburbsofmodernLima,thenParacassome150milessouthofLima.Chancaysuddenlystartedtomass-producepotteryinthe1420s,someofwhichtheycalled“china.”MyfirstthoughtwasthatChancaywastheportZheng

Hevisited(inmedievalCastilianthenamemeans“CityofChinesesilk”),butunfortunatelytheplacehasbeensobadlylooteditisimpossibletobesure.Soweneedotherclues.

The1418maphasthisdescriptionalongsidePeru:“ThelocalpeoplepractiseParacasreligion.”ItalsoshowsariveronthePeruviancoast.WhenLiuGang

publishedthemapIresearchedJesuitandFranciscanrecordstofindwhenthisreligionwasfirstmentionedinEuropeanannals.Tomysurprisetherewerenomentionsatall.TofindoutmorewedrovesouthtotheParacasPeninsula,whichtodayisanationalreserveprotectedbythePeruviangovernment.HereistheJulioTellositemuseum,whichprovidedtheanswerto

theriddle.TheParacaspeopleburiedtheirdeadinveryrichfunerarybundlesmadeofafabricthelocalcottonandvicuñawooldyedwithbeautifulnaturalcolors.ThefabricwasfirstseenontheLimamarketinthelatenineteenthcenturyandexaminedbyMaxUhle,aGermanarcheologist,whonameditasEarlyIncaculture.

PhotographicInsert3

Atypicalsceneatthepapalcourt—PinturicchiodepictsthecourtofPopePiusII.

Florenceandhermostfamousson,Leonardoda

Vinci.

RENAISSANCEMENANDTHEIROUTPUTBEFOREANDAFTER

1434

Timelineshowingkeydates

intheItalianRenaissance.

EphemeristablefromthePepysianLibrary,Cambridge

University.

Needham’spostcardisself-explanatory.

Regiomontanus’ephemeristables.

ChineseastronomywasclearlymoreadvancedthanEuropeaneffortsuntilafterthe1434Chinesevisitto

Florence.

Wheredofuturediscoveriesleadus?ToAmericaand

beyond…

23

THECONQUISTADORES’INHERITANCE:OURLADYOFVICTORY

Trujillo,Spain,July25,

1434:TheFeastofSaintJames

ThePizarrofamilylefttheirhouseintheCalleradelosMatiresatnoon.ItwasbutashortwalkdownaslipperystonepathtothePuertadeSantiago.ThroughitappearedthesquattoweroftheChurchofSantiagowheretheywouldattendmassonthis,thebirthdayofSaintJames.

OneofthemostamazingfeatsofarmsintheannalsofhumankindhaditsgenesishereinthissmallmountainvillageinlandlockedExtremadura.NoneofthePizarrofamilyhadseenthesea;theirdustymountainvillage,Trujillo,hadnomaritimetradition.YetthenameofTrujillowouldsoonbestampeduponthelengthandbreadthoftheAmericas.AsonofTrujillo,Francisco

Pizarro,wouldconqueramightyIncaempire,triumphingoveracivilizationof20millionpeoplewithabandof180comrades.

Extremadura,birthplaceoftheconquistadores,isalandisofunspeakablebeautyandsavagecruelty.Inspring,itiscarpetedwithflowers.Insummer,wolvestraildyingsheepastheyplodwearilyalongMestatrailsinsearchof

pasture.Theland’sinfinitehorizonsarefringedbymountaintopsthatarerosepinkatdawn,deepvelvetbynightfall.Atmidday,thecracked,redearthvibrateswithheat,sendingwildpigsscurryingforshelterbeneaththeolivetrees.

InExtremadura,oneseesthelastvestigesofRomanSpain—remnantsoftheforestofarbutus,cork,andholm

oaksthatoncecoveredthewholeofthepeninsula.Theprehistoricdehesaisstillpracticed—thinningforestsandscrubbyamethodofslashandburn.Intheeverlastingcobaltsky,vulturesandimperialeagleswheel,searchingforlizardsandsnakesslitheringacrossthebakingsand.Barrenrockcoversathirdoftheland.Nowandthen,chalk-whitevillagesappearsplatteredon

themountainside,asifthrownbyagianthand.

ThenameExtremadurawascoinedasatermofdisparagement.Extremadurawassynonymouswithstupidity,backwardness,andbarrenness.Itsuggestsalandthathasbeenabandoned—asubjectoffarce.IntheSpanishversionoftheBritishcomedyseriesFawltyTowers,Manuel,theidiotic

waiter,hailsfromExtremadura.WhenCervanteswantedtocreateafool,he,too,choseonefromExtremadura.

Today,Extremaduraisathriving,proud,independentregion.LikealltheregionsofSpain,ithasitsownpresidentandgovernment;itisvirtuallyanation.Inthenorth,LasHurdes,themountains,closeintoform

oneofthemostfascinating“lost”regionsofEurope,thesubjectofLuisBuñuel’smelancholyfilmLasHurdes:TierraSinPan(Landwithoutbread).AdjacenttoLasHurdesisLaVera,richingrapes,cherries,andpears.

Extremadura’shistoryhasbeendeterminedbyitsneighbors.TothewestliesPortugal,tothenorthCastile,tothesouthAndalusia.From

eachdirection,conqueringarmieshavetrampledExtremaduransoil,beginninginCarthaginiantimesrightuptotheSpanishCivilWarinthe1930s.FortwothousandyearsExtremadurapeasantshaveenduredarmiesofstrangersoccupyingtheirfields,stealingtheircattle,rapingtheirwomen,burningtheirhousesandcrops.

Yetthisravagedlandwas

thebirthplaceoftheconquistadores,whoconqueredthemightyInca,Maya,andAztecempires.ExtremaduranscolonizedAmericafromFloridatoTierradelFuego.Today,theExtremadurannamesTrujillo,Guadelupe,andMedellínarefoundthelengthandbreadthoftheAmericas,atestamenttothecourageofthosepoor,brave,devoutmenoflongago.

Thecontrastin1434betweenthewealthofChina,orofthegreatcivilizationsoftheAmericas,andthepovertyofExtremaduracouldhardlybegreater.AstheIncaemperorViracochawasleadinghispeopleintothemainsquareofCuscoonMidsummer’sDay1434,hewasadornedingoldandjadejewelry,dressedinclothesofexoticvicuñawool.InExtremadura,Francisco

Pizarro’sgrandfatherwasattendingmassdressedinhispoorbest.NoneofthepeoplewhosegrandchildrenwouldsetofftoconquertheNewWorldwasawarethattheAmericasexisted.Evenmoreextraordinary,almostallofExtramadura’sconquistadorescamefromthemostbarrenpartoftheregion,withinasixty-mileradiusofMérida.

FranciscoPizarroandFranciscodeOrellanawereborninTrujillo,HernánCortésinMedellín,PedrodeValdiviainVillanuevadelaSerena,VascoNúñezdeBalboaandHernandodeSotoinJerezdelosCaballeros.Inshort,thefirstcolonizersofFlorida,Texas,Louisiana,Mexico,Guatemala,Honduras,ElSalvador,Panama,Nicaragua,Colombia,Ecuador,

Venezuela,Peru,Brazil,andChilecamefromthesamesmallaridpocketofland.

Stillmoreastonishingisthenumberofconquistadoresfromasingle,smallmountainvillage:Trujillo,HernandodeAlarcón,thefirstEuropeantomapCalifornia;NuñodeChávez,founderofSantaCruzinBolivia;DiegoGarciádeParedes,founderofTrujilloinPeru;Gonzalo

JiménezdeQuesada,Cortés’scompanioninhisconquestofMexico;FriarJerónimodeLoaisa,thefirstarchbishopofLima;FriarVicentedeValverde,bishopofCusco;InezMunoz,thefirstmarriedwomantosettleinLima;andFranciscodeOrellana,discovereroftheAmazon,alllivedwithinafewblocksofthePizarrofamilyinTrujillo.Didafairygodmotherwaveamagicwandonthatdusty

hillsidefromwhencesomanyconquistadorescame?

IexploredExtremaduraandAndalusiaovermanydecadesseekingananswertothisriddle.Thenonecoldspringevening,asadankgraymistsettledovertheMesetaCentral,IcameacrossNuñezdeBalboa’shouseonasidestreetofJerezdelosCaballeros.Balboa’sbedroomiscoveredinweeds,

devoidoffurnituresaveforaricketyoldbed.Hisfamilywasobviouslydesperatelypoor.Whatgavethisilliterateyoungboytheconfidencetosailacrossthousandsofmilesofstorm-tossedocean,thentohackhiswayacrossalmostimpenetrabletropicaljungle,todiscoverthePacific?ThenIrecalledPizarro’shome,alsoinamountainvillage,alsolittlemorethanacowshed,thefurniturelittle

morethanplanksofwood.Didpovertydrivetheconquistadores’quest?

IdecidedthereandthentoexplorethebirthplacesofExtremadura’smostfamoussons,startinginthenorthatTrujilloandworkingsouthwardthroughVillanuevadelaSerena,Medellín,Mérida,Zafra,andJerezdelosCaballeros.(Avisitorwhowishestofollow

myjourneycancomfortablydosobycarinoneday.)Idiscoveredthreefactorscommontoallthegreatconquistadores.Pizarro,Orellana,Balboa,anddeSotowerepoor;notoneoftheconquistadoreleaderscamefromthetwenty-sixgreatfamiliesofSpain.Notonlyweretheypoor,buttheirpovertyarosefromsocialinjustice.

TheReconquistaofSpainfromtheMuslimshadbeenledbyCastile.Extremadurain1434wasCastile’sfrontierprovince.TothesouthlayAndalusia,thelastbastionoftheMoors.AftertheReconquista,thelandtheExtremaduranshadcapturedfromtheMoorswasgiventoCastilianknights.ThefootsoldiersofExtremadurawhohadfoughtsobravelygotnothing.

Extremadurahadmanyinhabitants,yetthelandbelongedtoafewCastilianfamilies.In1434,CastilestretchedfromthePyreneestothePortugueseborderinthewest,fromthecoastofGaliciainthenorthtotheMoorishkingdomofGranadainthesouth.Itwassaidthatallthislandbelongedtoelevenfamilies.TheduchessofAlbuquerquecouldtravelfromthePyreneestoPortugal

withoutleavingherproperty.Aslateas1931,Andalusiabelongedtoonlyseventeenfamilies.Afewhadeverything;millionshadnothing.

Spainthroughthecenturieshasbeenaclass-riddensociety.Fromthefourteenthcentury,thestatutebookdeterminedclassesandassignedtheirspecificmembers.Thetitledclass—

dukes,marchises,counts,andviscounts—ownedtheland,controlledtensofthousandsofpeople,andhadastonishingpoweroverthegovernment.Theylivedincastles,apingorsurpassingthelifestyleofmonarchs.InTheNobleSpaniard,bySomersetMaugham,agentlemansays,“Icankeepmyhatoninthepresenceoftheking.”Itmayseemajoke,butmembersofthetwenty-

sixnoblefamiliesofSpainwereentitledtodosobylaw.

Theinjusticeofclasswasencapsulatedinabrilliantplay,TheMayorofZalamea,bySpain’sgreatestdramatist,PedroCalderóndelaBarca.Zalamea,inwesternExtremadura,isavillageusedbyCatholicmonarchsasastagingpostfortheirarmiesenroutetoPortugal,theSpanisharmy,consistingof

rudeprivatesoldiersandofficersofminornobility—hidalgos.Themayorisamanofsubstanceandprestige,butheisapeasant.Herealizesthearmywillregardhimasapushover—thekeytothegirlsofthetown.Theheroineisthemostbeautifulgirl,mostatrisk,thedaughterofanhonest,God-fearingfarmernamedPedroCrespo.Hekeepsherhiddeninhishouse.Thecaptainofthe

armybangsonthedooranddemandshisbeautifuldaughter.PedroCresporefuses,saying“sheismydaughter,weareanhonourablefamily,shehasherhonourandhersoul.”

Butthecaptainmaintainsthatonlyhidalgoshavehonor.Hepursuesthegirlintothewoodsandrapesher,assertinghisdroitdeseigneur.

TheMesta

WiththatcruelunderstandingoftheSpanishclasssystem,letusrevisitthePizarros.AstheywalkedtomassonthatsultryJulymorningtheywouldhaveseeninthehazebeneathTrujilloaplainstretchingtoeternity.Inthefifteenthcentury,vastflocksofsheepwouldhavebeenmigratingsouthwardacrossthatplaintotheirwinter

pastures.Therightofpasturagewasanotherofthespoilsthataccruedtonobility.AftertheCastiliannoblesseizedthehugeMoorishestates,theyturnedthemovertosheepranching.Around1300,whentheReconquistawaspracticallyover,merinosheepwereintroducedtoSpainfromNorthAfrica.ThekingsofCastilethenformedtheMesta,anorganizationtopromotesheepfarmingand

woolproduction,whichwasdominatedbythewealthyfamilieswhohadseizedtheland.

TheMestagrewverypowerful.Forcenturies,itsironhandtiedthelandtosheepgrazing,stiflingagriculturalinnovation.WealthflowednorthwardandthewretchedExtremaduransreceivedlittle.Overthecenturies,impoverishmentat

thehandsofCastiledrovepeasantstothetowns.Eventoday,anExtremaduranquarterexistsinMadrid,whereshops,bars,andcafésarefullofimmigrantfamilies.TheharshnessoftheirlifeiscaughtintheliltingsongLaVendimia(Thegrapeharvest):

Asthecartstrundlethe

roads

Theysingthesongofautumn

Andthevinessingthesadsongwithouttheirleaves

Theboysmakeoffincartsfollowedbythewind

Theleavessingsadsongs.

ThehauntingmusicisrepeatedintheHotaExtremeñaadancemuchliketheflamenco,heavilyinfluencedbyIslamicmusic.

Class-basedinjusticeswereinescapableforpoorfamilieslikethePizarros.TheArchofSantiagothroughwhichthefamilywalkedtomasswasownedbythedeChavesfamily,Castilianswhohadledtheattackthatliberated

TrujillofromtheMoorsin1232.Theycontrolledwhopassedthroughitandshutoutthosewhofailedtopaytheirtolls.Thefamilyownedanimposingpalacethatoverlooked—anddwarfed—thePizarrohome.InJerezdelosCaballeros,NuñezdeBalboa’shovelwassimilarlydwarfedbythepalacesoftheRianzuela,deLogroño,andBullonfamilies—allCastilians.

TheVirginMary’sandSaintJames’sRoleintheReconquista

Despitegrindingpovertyandinequality,faithseemedtogivetheconquistadoresthecouragetoovercomeanyenemy.TheconquistadoresweremarkedaboveallbytheirfaithintheVirginMary.SheissaidtohaveappearedinthecloudsaboveTrujilloduringthebattletocapture

thetown.TodayherstatuestandshighabovethePizarrohome,easilyvisibleonthewalktochurch.

ReligiouslifecentredontheVirginMary.ThecoatofarmsoftheVeryNobleandVeryLoyalCityofTrujilloconsistsofanimageofOurLadyofVictoryonasilverbackground.TheVirginwasintimatelyengagedintheReconquista,frequently

appearingtoassistsoldiersintheirhourofperil.Likewise,thespiritualheartoftheReconquistawastheshrineoftheVirginMaryatthemonasteryofGuadelupe,onthesoutheastslopeofthemountainsofthatname.ThecultoftheVirginoriginatedthere.

AftertheReconquista,aperiodofstagnationbegan.Castile’sexpansionhadcome

toahalt.TheappearanceoftheVirgininGuadalupegaverenewedvitality,anewidentity,andfocustopeople’sspiritualendeavors.TheconquistadoresadoptedtheGuadalupeVirginastheirprotector.InSouthAmericaherimageiseverywhere.TheCaribbeanislandwherethePortugueselandedinthe1440swasnamedafterthemonastery.

ThekingsofCastilemadepilgrimagestoGuadalupe,buildingahospederiatoeducatethechildren.GreatexplorerscametoseektheVirgin’sassistancebeforesettingoff.ColumbusreceivedhispermissiontosailwhileatGuadalupe.HernánCortés,conquerorofMexico,spentninedaysinretreatthere,prayingbeforethemiraculousimageoftheMadonna.Helaterdedicated

thegreatestpilgrimageshrineinAmericatoNuestraSeñoradeGuadalupe.

AftertheVirgin,thecultofSaintJameswasanotherpowerfulinfluenceontheconquistadores,reachingitsapotheosisintheOrderofSantiago(SantJago=SaintJames).In1434,theorderineffectruledExtremaduraasastatewithinastate.

IthadallstartedwiththeReconquista.IslamicarmiesoverranSpaininA.D.711afterhavingbeeninvitedbysquabblingVisigothprinces.IttookthemsevenyearstoadvancetothePyrenees.IttooktheChristianssevenhundredtoexpelthem.TheReconquistaofSpainwastiedtoSaintJamesateverystep.

Thediscoveryofhisbody

ontheFieldofStarsinSantiagodeCompostelain889wasthebeginning.ThenewsspreadrapidlyacrossnorthernSpain.ThewholeChristianworldwantedtosafeguardtheapostle’sremainsandkeeptheinfidelsatbay.DuringthisfirstwaveoftheReconquista,theChristianarmieswere,ineffect,followersoflocalwarlordswhoseprincipalaimwastoenrichthemselvesat

theexpenseoftheMoors.Themostpowerfulwarlord,RodrigoDíazdeVivar(1040–1099)isthequintessentialCastilianhero.Hisnickname,ElCid(theLord),wasgivenbytheMoors.Hewouldfightanyone—providedheforesawaprofit.AdevoutCatholic,adevotedhusband,andtheidealCastilianknight,ElCidhascometorepresenttheessenceofCastilianchivalry

andcourage.

By1410,theMoorshadbeenpushedsouthasfarasAntequera,whichfelltotheChristianarmyledbytheorderinthatyear.By1434,theywerepinnedintoanenclaveborderedbyLaLíneadelaConcepción,Ronda,Antequera,Martos,andHuesca.Southofthatline,inapocketshieldedbytheSierraNevada,theArabs

farmedsheepandpaidtributetoCastilianoverlords.

FromVeves,wheretheorderhaditsheadquarters,totheSierraNevada,whichwasthefrontierbetweenChristianandIslamiclands,theorderheldsway.Legaciesofthateraareevidenteverywhere—inchurchesofSantiagofromCáceresinthenorthtoAntequerainthesouth,fortressesofSantiagofrom

SanlúcardeBarramedainthewesttoJaénintheeast.TherearehospitalsofSantiagoinZafraandMéridaandseminariesinCalderadeLeónandZafra.VirtuallyeverytownhasitsCalledeSantiago.

In1410,themedievallineofkingsofAragoncametoanendwhenMartinVdiedwithoutheirs.Civilwarloomed.BytheCompromise

ofCaspein1412FerdinandofAntequera,amemberofajuniorbranchoftheTrastamaradynasty,theroyalhouseofCastile,becamekingofAragon.

InEngland,KingJohnmarriedforthesecondtime.Hisbride,IsabellaofPortugal,boreadaughter,alsocalledIsabella.ShewouldeventuallydefyheradvisersandmarryFerdinand

ofAragon,puttingthesealonaunitedSpain,onethathadbeenunifiedforallpracticalpurposesbytheCompromiseofCaspe.

AunifiedSpainpossessedtheprimeingredientsforlaunchingvoyagesofdiscovery—theExtremadurans.Theyhadtheexampleoftheirforebear,ElCid,whohadachievedhisvictoriesoverinsuperable

oddsbyvirtueofsuperhumanwillandcourage.Andtheyhadthedailyrealityofnobread.

SaveforCortés,everyoneofthefamousconquistadoreswehavementionedcamefromapoorfamily;notasingleillustriousCastilianfamilytookpartintheirvoyagesofexploration.Itisnocoincidencetheconquistadoreswereintensely

legalistic.Theynegotiatedwiththemonarchyinadvance,withthedivisionofspoilsspeltoutindetail.

Foronce,Extremaduranscouldkeepthespoils.Athome,Extremaduranhidalgosstruggledtoobtainfoodfortheirchildren.Overseas,conquest,land,andwealthaffordedthemapurchaseonnobility.Embarkingonvoyagesofexploration,the

conquistadorescouldhopeforthreeseparaterewards—spiritualsalvationforwagingwaragainsttheinfidels,materialgainintheformofvasttractsoflandandwealth,and,oncetheyreturnedhome,fama,gloria,knighthoods,andcastlestobrightentheirtwilightyears.

Theawesomedangersanddifficultiestheconquistadoresfacedinexplorationmust

haveseemedlittledifferentfromthosetheyhadalreadyencounteredintheReconquista.Providedthattheyexhibitedthesameextremecourageastheirforebears,theycouldovercomeanyobstacle,secureintheirfaiththattheVirginMaryandSaintJameswouldprotectthem.Intheend,victorywouldbetheirs.

Besides,by1434,Islamhad

beensqueezedintothesoutherntipofSpainbetweentheSierraNevadaandthesea.Northofthemountains,therewerenolandslefttoreconquer.Forsixhundredyears,theirancestorshadbeenwagingbattle;fightingwasintheirblood.

ThehardshipsofthetierrasinpanexplaintheirurgetoleaveExtremadurabutnothowtheconquistadores

overcametheirhomeland’slackofmaritimetradition.ThatwasremediedbytheunionofCastilewithAragonaftertheCompromiseofCaspe.HavingpushedIslamoutofSpain,Castilewasbusyabsorbingtheimmenseestatesithadrecentlyacquired.

Aragon,ontheotherhand,hadcompletedherpartoftheReconquistatwocenturies

beforeCastileandusedtheinterimtocreateamaritimeempire.By1434,shehadtwocenturiesofvaluableexperience.AragonpossessedshipsthatcouldsailtheworldandcartographerswhohadbeguntomaptheAtlanticandAfrica.HersavantsknewtheearthwasroundandthattheAmericasexistedacrosstheAtlantic.Despitethis,Aragonwasweak;shewouldbethejuniorpartnerdoingwhat

Castilerequiredofher.

TheconquistadoreshadtheexampleofthePortuguesebeforethem.In1415,HenrytheNavigatorhadtakenthecolossalgambleofinvadingAfrica,thehomeofIslam.By1421,Madeirahadbeenpopulated,onthewaytobecomingathrivingPortuguesecolony.Henry’sshipshadsetsailfortheAmericas—thePortuguese

knewtheearthwasround,thattheseasdidnottumbleofftheearth,thatIndiaandtheEastcouldbereachedbyroundingAfrica.

AndwhatcouldtheconquistadoresexpecttofindwhentheyreachedthefabledAmericas,landofAmazons?Inanageofromanticliterature,theirdreamswerenodoubtfiredbytheepicssuchasTheAmadisofGaul.

Nubile,sex-madwomenawaitedtheminmarblepalaces.Handmaidenswouldwashtheirfeetandclothethemingoldengowns.Whiterubiesandgreenemeraldsthesizeofpigeoneggswouldbetheirsforthetaking.SmallwonderPizarrohadsuchaneasytimeselectingtwohundredcomradesfromamongthemanywhoansweredhiscallthatblisteringsummer’smorning

outsideTrujillo’sChurchofSantiago.

Fortunefavorsthebrave.TheconquistadoresfoundthreedesperatelyweakenedempiresintheAmericas.TheAztecshadbecomepsychopaths—cannibalswhoatetheirfellowtribesinMexico.CortéswaswelcomedwithopenarmsasmillionsofMexicanssupportedhisinvasion.In

CentralAmerica,thesameghastlyculthadpoisonedtheMaya.Weakenedbycivilwar,theytooofferedonlytokenresistance.InSouthAmerica,the“mummycult”oftheIncashadreacheditsinevitableconclusion.

Withnowheretoexpand,theIncashadtakentofightingoneanother.Theyhadnoiron.AnarmyofpaddeddollsawaitedPizarro.

Byaseriesofamazingcoincidences,eachempiresuccumbedtofatalweaknessattheverymomenttheconquistadoreslanded.Thethreefruittreeshadripenedsimultaneously,eachwithoutthorns.Theconquistadorespluckedthefruit.

OurquesttorediscovertheworldofZhengHe’seraendsatSanLúcardeBarrameda,ontheestuaryofthe

Guadalquivir.Thispowerful,melancholyriversymbolizesthechangefromOldWorldtoNew.OncethegrandhighwaythatjoinedCórdoba,themagnificentcapitalofIslamicSpain,totherestoftheIslamicworldintheEast,theriverbecamethelinkbetweenSeville,capitalofNewSpain,andherNewWorldcoloniesintheWest.

IftheGuadalquivircould

speak,shemightwearilyagreethatsoextraordinaryweretheeventsofZhengHe’serathatitseemsGodhadgrowntiredofhiscreationanddecidedtotrysomethingnew.

ThelastwordgoestoOmarKhayyám(circa1074).

Thosewhoinancientagescame

Andthosethatliveinlaterdays

Departontheirsuccessiveways:

Forallthejourneyisthesame.

ThisKingdomoftheEarthandSky

Remainseternallyfornone:

Wetoomustgo,astheyhavegone,

Andothersfollowby-and-by.

Ourlongjourneyofexplorationintothemedievalworldisover.Likeourpredecessors,wenowcommendourselvestoGod’skeeping.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thisbookisacollectiveendeavorandcouldnothavebeencompletedwithoutthehelpofhundredsofpeople.Iamafraidtheseacknowledgmentsarelikelytobeincomplete:ifanyonefeelsaggrievedatbeingomitted,pleaseletusknow.

Formoreextensiveacknowledgments,pleasevisitourwebsite.

Iamgratefultothefollowingpeoplewhoconductedmajorindependentresearchthattheyfundedthemselvesandthatlastedformorethantwoyears:

LamYeeDin

IhadthegoodfortunetomeetMr.YamLeeDininHongKongin2003.Mr.LamhasstudiedZhengHemapsinexhaustivedetailandpublishedhisfindingsinfourlengthypapersthatareshownonourwebsite.Mr.Lamis,inmyopinion,thegreatestlivingexpertonZhengHe’svoyages.AtmysuggestionhewasinvitedtodeliverhisfindingstotheLibraryofCongress,whichhedidon

May16,2005.HisspeechwasbroadcasttoChinaandAsiabyPhoenixTelevision.

TaiPengWang

TaiPengWangisahistorianandjournalistbasedinVancouver.HisfamilyisfromQuanzhou,andhecanreadandspeaktheversionofMandarinusedinhisnativeprovince.Thishasbeenvery

importantinthediscussionsontheauthenticityofthe1418map,whichwascreatedbyaQuanzhoucartographer.

TaiPengWanghaswrittenandpublishedfivepapersofthegreatestimportance,particularlyhisthirty-two-pagepaperentitled“ZhengHeandHisEnvoys’VisitstoCairoin1414and1433.”ThisisnottoimplythatTaiPengWangagreeswithall

thestatementsIhavemadeinthisbook.

CedricBell

BeforevisitingNewZealandin2003,Cedricread1421anddecidedtodosomeresearchonthebeachesofNewZealand’sSouthIsland.Hesenttheresultstoacompanythenmakingatelevisiondocumentaryon

1421.Cedrichadfoundsomefortywrecksburiedinsandorincliffsandalsotheruinsofbarracksthattheshipwreckedsurvivorshadbuiltashoreandtheremainsofsmeltersbuilttorefineore.Toconfirmthis,Iretainedwell-knownground-penetratingradarandcarbon-datinglaboratoriestocheckawreck,abarracks,andasmelter.Theresultsareonourwebsite1421,alongwithCedricBell’sresearch.

TheyshowconclusiveevidencethatChinesepeoplehavebeensmeltingironinNewZealandfortwothousandyears.Cedric,inmyview,becauseofhisfindsandsubsequentanalysisofwreckscoupledwithhisexperienceasamarineengineer,hasbecometheleadingauthorityontheconstructionofjunksinZhengHe’sfleets.

RosanneHawardenandDaveBell

RosanneandDavehavefollowedthroughonCedricBell’sresearchinNewZealand,investingtheirowntimeforfouryearsandwithoutfinancialsupportfromme.Theyhavedonethegroundworkthathasenabledustoputforwardanalternativeandlesssimplistichistoryofthesettlementof

NewZealandandtheSouthPacific—thattheoriginalsettlersweretheChinesewhobroughtothersofSouthEastAsianoriginwiththem.ThePolynesians,includingtheMaori,aretheirdescendents.RosanneandDave’sworkhasbeenofverygreatimportanceinfurthering1421evidenceinNewZealand,Australia,andtheislandsoftheSouthPacific.

LiuGang

Mr.LiuGang,thefoundingpartnerofthesecond-largestlawfirminChina,hascollectedmapsandworksofartforseveraldecades.FiveyearsagohefoundinaShanghaibookstore“ZhengHe’s1418MapoftheWorld,”describedindetailonour1421website.Atthetime,heknewlittleofZhengHeandfiledthemapasa

curiosity.In2005LiuGangpurchasedtheMandarinversionof1421andrealizedheownedthefirstrecognizable,accurateworldmapdrawnupafterZhengHe’searliervoyages.Pleaserefertothe1421websiteformoreaboutthismapanditsauthenticity.

DaveCotner

In1985DaveCotner,aretiredU.S.Navypilot,foundthewreckofanoldshipalongtheOregoncoast,buriedinwaterbeneaththirtyfeetofsand.ThelocalmuseumcuratorclassifiedthewreckasChinese.WhenDavecontactedus,wecommissionedawell-knownfirm,GPRGeophysicalServicesofPortland,Oregon,whichconductedtheground-penetratingradarsurveysof

“Cotner1”andconfirmedinallrespectsDave’sMASsurveyof1985—position,size,shape,depth,angle,andsitting.CoredrillingstartedinNovember2007.Thewreckhasunfortunatelydeterioratedintowoodslurry.Afewsmallwoodchippingshavebeenretrieved,andthesewillbedatedandclassifiedinearly2008.Davehasfoundanumberofotherburiedwrecksinthearea.Very

substantialsumswillberequiredtoexcavatethem.

Dr.GunnarThompson

Dr.Thompsonisanexpertinpre-ColumbianNewWorlddiscovery,andhisbooksandresearchonmulticulturalfindingsandearlyAsianvoyagestotheAmericashavebeeninvaluabletothedevelopmentof1434.In

SecretVoyages,Thompsonprovidesevidencethatbetween1277and1287KublaiKhan,emperorofChina,dispatchedMarcoPolototheAmericas,wherehereachedHudsonBay.Dr.ThompsonpresentedhisfindingsattheLibraryofCongressonMay16,2005.Hisresearchcanbefoundatwww.marcopolovoyages.com.

Dr.Siu-LeungLee

Dr.Siu-LeungLeewasbornandeducatedinHongKong,wherehegraduatedfromtheChineseUniversity.HehasaPhDfromPurdueUniversity,didpostdoctoralresearchatYaleUniversity,andbecameaprofessorofchemistryatTexasA&MUniversity,pioneeringintheenzymebiosynthesisofnaturalproducts.

Dr.LeehassetupaverypopularwebsitecalledAsiawind(www.asiawind.com).IncollaborationwithMs.FuYiyao,Dr.LeepublishedacalligraphybookonChinesewisdom.HeisaninternationallyknownexpertonChinesecalligraphy.

Since2002Dr.Leehasbeenareasonedcriticof1421.Howeverin2006heacquired

amedallionthathadbeenfoundburiednearAsheville,NorthCarolina.Dr.LeebelievesthiswaspartofthegiftsintendedbytheXuanDeemperorforAmericanchieftainsthroughhisrepresentative.Havingfoundagreatdealofcorroborativeevidence,Dr.LeenowbelievesthatduringtheMingdynasty,theChinesevisitedNorthCarolina.InJune2006,hepresentedhisfindingsat

theUniversityofHongKong,theHongKongHistoryMuseum,andtheCityUniversityofHongKong.SeeDr.Lee’swebsiteforfurtherdetails.

PaulChiasson

PaulChiassonisafifty-five-year-oldCanadianarchitectbornonCapeBretonIsland.Paulbuiltupasuccessful

practicewithadistinguishedlistofclients.HisspecialtybecameAsianartandarchitecture.

ThereisalegendofthelocalMi’kmaqpeopleofCapeBretonIslandthatlongagoforeignerscamefromtheothersideoftheworldandsettledonaheadlandnowcalledCapeDauphin.FiveyearsagoPauldecidedtoexplorethecolonywhere

thesestrangersbuilttheirtown.OnclimbingontotheplateauhefoundtheremainsofastonetownlaidoutonBuddhistlinesoverlookingtheCibouxIslands.Paul’sfindingsarenowcontainedinhisbest-sellingbook,IslandoftheSevenCities.

In2005PaulinvitedCedricBellandmetojoinhimonasurveyofthesiteinCapeDauphin.Inmyviewthesite,

whileBuddhist,isnotofZhengHe’serabutmucholder.EventuallyIfeelitwillbeshowntobefromthevoyagesofKublaiKhan’sfleet.

CharlotteHarrisRees

CharlotteHarrisReeshasresearchedextensivelyabouttheearlyarrivalofChinesetotheAmericas.Asachildshe

livedinTaiwanthenHongKongwithherBaptistmissionaryparentsMarjorieandDr.HendonM.Harris.Dr.Harris’sfindofanancientAsianmapdisplayingthewesterncoastlineoftheAmericasledtohis1975bookTheAsiaticFathersofAmerica:ChineseDiscoveryandColonizationofAncientAmerica.In2006Charlottecameoutwithaneditedandabridgedversionofthatbook.

TheoldestoftheHendonHarrisFusangMapsareMingDynasty.Theyarebelievedbysometodatebacktoa2200B.C.Chinesemap.TheHarrisMapCollectionwasattheLibraryofCongressfrom2003through2006whileitwasbeingstudied.ItwasexaminedbyDr.Hwa-WeiLee,chiefoftheAsianDivision;Dr.JohnHebert,chiefofGeographyandMapsDivision;andbyProfessor

XiaocongLi,fromPekingUniversity,Beijing.AtmyrequestCharlottepresentedherfindingsataLibraryofCongresssymposiuminMay2005.Shecontinuestowriteandspeak.Herwebsiteiswww.asiaticfathers.com.

ProfessorRobertCribbs

ProfessorRobertCribbsisanadjunctprofessorof

engineeringatCaliforniaStateUniversityandavisitingprofessorofscientificarcheologyandmusicinCairo,Egypt.Hestarted,andruns,severalcorporationsinvolvedinmedicalandindustrialultrasoundandhigh-speedvideoandradarprocessing.Healsopossessestheworld’sthird-largestcollectionofmedievalastrolabes.Inconsequencehehasbecome,inmyopinion,

oneoftheworld’sleadingauthoritiesonthedifferentmethodsusedbyancientandmedievalastronomerstodetermelatitudeandlongitude,thediminutionoftheecliptic,theequationsoftimeofthesunandmoon,andthedeterminationoflongitudebytheslipbetweensiderealandsolartimeorbytheangulardistancebetweenmoon,planets,andstars.

ProfessorCribbshasexplainedthesemethodstomewithsuchclaritythatIhavebeenabletoexplainthemtoothers.ProfessorCribbspresentedhisfindingsataseminaronZhengHeheldattheLibraryofCongressonMay16,2005.

M.BenoitLargerandDr.AlbertRonsin

M.LargerisaretiredFrenchbankerlivinginSaint-Dié-des-Voges.HesponsoredanexhibitionheldatMuséePierre-NöelbetweenMayandSeptember2007.TheexhibitiondrewtogethertheworkofagroupofsavantsincludingMartinWaldseemüllerwhohadbeenrecruitedbySaint-Dié’sruler,DukeRenéII,toproduceaworldmapcopiedfromseparatemapsreceivedfrom

Portugal.Thisexhibition,whichprominentlyfeaturedtheworkofDr.AlbertRonsin,honoraryconservatorofthemuseum,wasthecollationofthelifetime’sresearchofmanylearnedscholarsintoMartinWaldseemüller’smapsof1507and1516andglobeof1506.Theirresearchhasbeenadoptedinthisbook.Iamverygratefulforit—itsavedmealifetimeofresearch.

Dr.TanTaSen

Dr.TanTaSenisaleadingSingaporebusinessmanwhoisalsopresidentoftheInternationalZhengHeSociety.ThissocietycollatesknowledgerelatingtoZhengHe’svoyagesbetween1403and1434.Ihavebeeninvitedtoattendmanyofthesociety’smeetingsandhave

inconsequencelearnedagreatdealfromtheexperts.Dr.TanintroducedmetotheforeignministerofSingapore,whosuggestedthe1421exhibitionsubsequentlyheldin2005.Dr.Tankindlylentseveralpricelessworksofarttothisexhibition,financedtheproductionofmodeljunksofZhengHe’sfleet,arrangedtheloansofveryvaluableartifacts,andprovidedinvaluablesupportinmany

otherways.The1421exhibitionisnowinDr.TanTaSen’smuseuminMalaccaintheformerofficesandwarehouseofAdmiralZhengHe.

LyndaNutter

LyndaNutterisadancerandchoreographerwhounderstandsJapanese,Chinese,andtheNyungah

languageoftheaboriginalpeoplewholiveintheSwanvalleyeastofPerthinWesternAustralia.FiveyearsagoLyndafoundcarvedstonesthatformanastronomicalobservatoryfromwhichlongitudemaybecalculated.ThesestoneshaveinscriptionsinamedievalChinesescriptandareattheheartoftheNyungahterritory.LyndahascorrelatedmarkingsonZheng

He’snavigationalchartwiththecoastlinearoundPerthasaresultofreadingandtranslatingtheChinese.

CristopherPollard

ChristopherPollardhasspentalifetimestudyingmedievalSpain,notablythehistoryofExtremadura.Thefinalchapterofthisbookisanabridgmentofmynotesof

Christopher’slectures.Forthosewhowishtoexplorethesubjectinmoredepth,ChristopherrunsChristopherPollard’sToursbasedinTaunton,England,andpersonallyleadsthesetoursthroughthemagicalcitiesofmedievalSpain.

Libraries

LibraryofCongress,

Washington,D.C.

OwnersofWaldseemüller’s1507and1516worldmaps.TheLibraryofCongresskindlyinvitedmeandsupportersof1421toasymposiumonMay16,2005,onthesubjectofZhengHe’svoyages.Theywereroundlyabusedfordoingsobycriticswhoclaimedthat1421wasafraudulentbookandhencesuchanaugustbodyasthe

LibraryofCongressshouldnotgiveusaplatform.Thelibraryrepliedtheybelievedinthebasicacademicprincipleoffreespeech,andthesymposiumwentaheadasplanned.

TheBritishLibrary

TheBritishLibraryprovidesasuperbservice.Anarrayofhelpfulexpertsisthereto

helpthoseofuswhocannotspeakthelanguage.IfbychancetheBritishLibrarydoesnotholdthebook(certainconstituentbooksoftheYongleDadian,forexample),oneisquicklyputintouchwiththelibrarythatdoesholdthatbook.Iandfiveresearchershavebeenusingthissuperbserviceforyears.Withoutit1421and1434couldnothavebeenwritten.

ThePepysLibrary,MagdaleneCollege,CambridgeUniversity

Thisholdsthe1408astronomicalcalendar.

BibliothèqueNationale,Paris

HolderoftheWaldseemüllerGreenGlobeof1506andDr.

MoniquePelletier’sresearchintotheprovenanceandauthenticityofthatglobe—avitallyimportantmapinthe1434story.

HongKongCentralLibrary

TheprincipallibraryinHongKongismodernandmostefficient.ThemajorityofChineseillustrationsfoundin1434camefromhereandwe

areindebtedfortheirservices.

LibraryoftheDuchessofMedina-Sidonia,SanlucardeBarrameda,Andalucia,Spain

Theduchess’sfamily,hugelywealthylandownersinfifteenth-andsixteenth-centurySpain,backedChristopherColumbusand

inheritedhispapers.ThesedescribeColumbus’sseveralvisitstotheAmericasbefore1492.

TheArquivoNacional,TorredoTombo,Lisbon

Therepositoryofrecordsofpre-ColumbianPortuguesevoyagestotheNewWorld.Inmysubmissionthiswillbeagoldmineforfutureresearch.

MythanksalsototheBodleianLibrary,Oxford;theSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies(SOAS);andtheLondonSchoolofEconomics.

Museums,Institutions,andUniversities

TheBritishMuseumholdsasuperbcollectionofYuanandMingdynastyceramicsand

worksofart,notleasttheChinesemapofthetwelfthcenturythataccuratelydepictsChinaoverlaidwithlatitudeandlongitudelines.Someoftheceramicswereexcavatedfromremotepartsoftheworld,forexample,afineblue-and-whiteearly-MingteapotburiedinAustralia.

MuchevidenceoftheChinesevisitstoVenicehasbeenandwillcontinuetobefoundintheLouvre,Paris—forexample,Pisanello’ssketchesanddrawings.

TheMuséePierre-NöelcontainscollectionsofWaldseemüllerandhisfriendsandcolleagues’memorabilia,therepository

ofrecordsofVespucci’svoyages,andisthebestplacetobaseresearchonWaldseemüllerandhisglobesandmaps.

TheDoge’sPalace,Venice,holdstheworldmapfromIndiatoAmerica,constructedaccordingtonotationsonthemapitself,frominformationbroughttoVenicebyNiccolò

diContiandMarcoPolo.ThiswascopiedandgiventoDomPedroin1428.Themapisupsidedown—assomeChinesemapsofthaterawere.

ChicagoUniversityhassponsoredthesuperbelectronicdatabasesystemJSTOR,whichhasbeeninvaluabletomeandthe1421

team.

SurreyUniversityhaspioneeredanondestructivesystemofanalysisofmaterialsemployingRutherfordbackscatteringtechniques.Inbroadterms,thisenablesdatingwithin5percentandthecapacitytoanalyzematerialwithsufficientaccuracyto

determineitsorigin.SurreyUniversityhaskindlyadvisedushowtoutilizethisvaluableresource,whichwebelievewillproveofgreatassistanceinanalyzingartifactsfoundinornearwreckedjunksaroundtheworld.

ClassicWorksReliedUponfor1434

ProfessorJosephNeedham,

ScienceandCivilisationinChina,CambridgeUniversityPress(variousdatespast50years)

Themonumentalworkofthirty-fivevolumesistomeoneofthemostextraordinarypiecesofhumanendeavorevercreated.Ihavereadallthevolumesoverthepastfifteenyears;withoutthemIwouldnothavestarted1421or1434.Needhamwasa

genius;hismindcancoverthespanofhumanknowledgefromhowtheChinesefermentedliquortomoreobscureaspectsofChinesecryptoanalysis.Hehasnopeer.

JohnL.Sorenson,emeritusprofessorofanthropologyatBrighamYoungUniversity,andMartinH.Raishare

authorsofthemajesticworkPre-ColumbianContactwiththeAmericasAcrosstheOceans.ThisisanannotatedbibliographythatbrieflydescribeswrittenworksthatdiscussthetransmissionoffaunaandfloraacrosscontinentsbeforeColumbus.Therearesomesixthousandentries.ItseemstomethisbookdemolishesanyideathatEuropeanscanclaimtohavediscoveredtheNew

World,andfurthermoreitseemsextraordinarythatthisbookisnotineveryschoolintheworld.EverytimethatIgiveatalk,IdomybesttoacknowledgeSorensonandRaish.TheresearchteamandIareextraordinarilyluckytohavehadthisinvaluableresource.

UniversityofOregon

emeritusprofessorCarlJohannessen,hascollaboratedwithJohnSorensontowriteandpresent“BiologyVerifiesAncientVoyages.”Astheysay:

Examinationofanextensiveliteraturehasrevealedconclusiveevidencethatnearly100speciesofplants,amajorityofthemcultivars,werepresentinboththeEasternandWestern

hemispherespriortoColumbus’sfirstvoyagetotheAmericas.Theevidencecomesfromarchaeological,historicalandlinguisticsources,ancientartandconventionalnaturalsciencestudies….theonlyplausibleexplanationforthesefindingsisthataconsiderablenumberoftransoceanicvoyagesinbothdirectionsacrossbothmajoroceanswerecompletedbetweentheseventh

millenniumbceandtheEuropeanageofdiscovery.

TomeitisnolongerarguabletoclaimanyjustificationwhatsoeverthatEuropeansdiscoveredtheNewWorld.Sorenson,Raish,andJohannessenhavedemolishedthatlegendforever.

InTheArtofInvention:

LeonardoandRenaissanceEngineers,ProfessorPaoloGalluzzidescribesin251pagesthecontributionsthatSieneseengineersmadetoLeonardodaVinci’swork.Thebookwasusedbymeandthe1434teamasabiblewhendrawingupchapters15–20.GalluzzihasanastonishingabilitytoanalyzethisfabulouserainFlorence.Ihopehewillnotbeannoyedbytherevelationsofthe

contributionsmadebytheChinesedelegation.

FrankD.PragerandGustinaScaglia,savantsofItalianRenaissanceengineering,havewrittenasplendidlyreadablebook,MarianoTaccolaandHisBook“DeIngeneis,”publishedin1972.BeforePragerandScaglia’sbook,onlyTaccola’sbooks3

and4(ca.1438)hadbeenidentified.TheyhavereconstructedforthefirsttimeBooks1and2.IndoingsotheyhaveshownhowmuchFrancescodiGiorgioadaptedfromTaccolaandtheinfluencethatFrancesco’sworkhadonLeonardodaVinci.Thebookisprofuselyillustrated,showingtheapparentlyextraordinaryexplosionofnewmechanicalandmilitarymachinesafter

1433.WehavecomparedthesewiththoseshowninprintedChinesebookspublishedbefore1420.

ErnstZinner’sgreatbookRegiomontanus:HisLifeandWork,providesareadable,lucid,andcomprehensiveaccountoftheamazinglifeofRegiomontanus,whoseideaswerelateradaptedby

CopernicusandGalileo—tosuchanextentthatperhapstheCopernicanrevolutionshouldberenamed.IhavequotedandabridgedextensivelyfromZinner.

JoanGadolhaswrittenafascinating,andilluminatingbook,LeonBattistaAlberti:ClassicalManoftheEarlyRenaissance.Albertiwas

notarytoPopeEugeniusIVandwouldhavemettheChinesedelegationinthatcapacity.HepossessedanenormousintellectandcharismaandhadaprofoundinfluenceonToscanelli,Regiomontanus,NicholasofCusa,Taccola,FrancescodiGiorgio,andeventuallyonLeonardodaVinci.IhavequotedextensivelyfromJoanGadol’swonderfulbook.

AcademicSupport

Academicsupportforthe1421and1434theoriesareofcourseofgreatimportance.Thefollowinghavee-mailedwiththeirinterestin1421and/or1434,forwhichIoffermythanks:ProfessorYaoJide,ProfessorYingshengLiu,andProfessorFayuanGao,ProfessorLiuXiaohong,YunnanUniversity;ProfessorJohn

Coghlan,Melbourne–LaTrobeUniversity;ProfessorMiguelLizana,UniversityofSalamanca;ProfessorArnaizVillena,MadridUniversity;ProfessorDrewry,UniversityofHull;ProfessorNgChinKeong,directorandProfessorYeenPongLai,ChineseHeritageCenter,Singapore;ProfessorEthanGallogly,SantaMonicaCollege;ProfessorHwa-WeiLee,chief,AsianDivision,Library

ofCongress;ProfessorHuaLinfu,ReminUniversity,Beijing;ProfessorXinYuan-Ou,ShanghaiUniversity;ProfessorShiPing,NavalCommandCollege,China;ProfessorD.Hendrick,UniversityofNewcastle-upon-Tyne;ProfessorZhiguoGao,ChinaInstituteforMarineAffairs;adjunctProfessorJohnS.Lee,UtahValleyStateCollege;AssociateProfessorTed

Bryant,associatedeanofscience,UniversityofWollongong;ProfessorBiQuanZhong;ProfessorDobroruka,UniversityofBrasilia;AssistantProfessorJ.DavidVanHorn,UniversityofMissouri–KansasCity;professoremeritusofgeologyDr.JohnW.Emerson,CentralMissouriStateUniversity;ProfessorPeterN.Peregrine,associateprofessorandchair,

DepartmentofAnthropology,LawrenceUniversity;emeritusprofessorofanthropologyPeterM.Gardner,UniversityofMissouri;ProfessorGudrunThordardottir,UniversityofReykjavik;J.R.Day,associateprofessor,divisionhead,Science,MathematicsandComputerStudies,theUniversityofHongKong;ProfessorGoranMalmquist,UniversityofStockholm;

ProfessorAlexDuffey,chiefcurator,UniversityofPretoria;professorofarchitectureRichardFrewer,UniversityofHongKong;EmeritusProfessorPeterGardner,UniversityofMissouri-Columbia;ProfessorPeterRoepstorff,UniversityofSouthernDenmark;ProfessorShuxuejun,JiangXiNormalUniversity;ProfessorSusanLangham,visitingShenyang

Universityprofessorofquaternarygeology;ProfessorJackRidge,TuftsUniversity;professorofhistoryandpoliticalscience,HenryPierson“Pete”French,Jr.,StateUniversityofNewYorkandMonroeCommunityCollege;AdjunctProfessorLindad’Argenio-Cruz,BrooklynCollege;ProfessorPeterL.P.Simpson,GraduateCenter,CityUniversityofNewYork;

RichardKanek,retiredprofessorofphysics;visitingprofessorRobinPingree,Mombassa,UniversityofPlymouth;ProfessorJulesJanick,JamesTroopDistinguishedProfessorinhorticulture,PurdueUniversity;AdjunctProfessorAnthonyFazio,GraduateDivisionforAcupunctureandOrientalMedicine,NewYorkChiropracticCollege;R.ThomasBerner,professor

emeritusofJournalismandAmericanstudies,PennsylvaniaStateUniversity;professorofpoliticalscienceJohnLawyer,BethelUniversity,SaintPaul,Minn.;PaulWinchester,clinicalprofessorofneonatologyatIndianaUniversityMedicalSchool;RosaE.Penna,professorofEnglishliterature,CatholicUniversityofArgentinaandtheUniversityofBuenos

Aires;ProfessorVictorM.Rivera,BaylorCollegeofMedicine;retiredprofessorofanthropologyandthefounderanddirectoroftheOverseasResearchCenteratWakeForestUniversity,D.Evans;PattiGrant-Byth,professorofEnglishatKoreaUniversity,UniversityofMinnesota;JohnSplettstoesser,retiredprofessorofgeologyandpresident,AmericanPolarSociety,Minnesota;Daniel

Mroz,assistantprofessoroftheater,UniversityofOttawa;ProfessorJohnPreston,EasternMichiganUniversityCollegeofTechnology;ProfessorP.A.McKeown,emeritusprofessorCranfieldUniversity,U.K.;NielsWest,researchprofessor,DepartmentofMarineAffairs,UniversityofRhodeIsland;DavidGreenaway,pro–vicechancellor,professorofeconomics,

UniversityofNottingham;Dr.ChrisGleed-Owen,researchandmonitoringofficer,theHerpetologicalConservationTrust,Bournemouth;EdwinM.Good,professoremeritusofreligiousstudiesand(bycourtesy)ofclassics,StanfordUniversity;AdjunctProfessorPedroAugustoAlvesdeInda,UniversityofCaxiasdoSul;AssociateProfessorAnthonyNieli,PennsylvaniaCollege

ofTechnology;RearAdmiralZhengMing,adjunctprofessoroftheNavalEngineeringUniversity,Beijing;ProfessorCarolUrness,curatorofJamesFordBellLibrary,UniversityofMinnesota;ProfessorRoderichPtak,MunichUniversity;ProfessorZhengWei,directoroftheUnderwaterArchaeologyCenterattheNationalMuseumofChineseHistory,

Beijing;ProfessorChenXiansi,ProfessorChaoZhongCheng,andProfessorFanJingming,NanjingUniversity;ProfessorZhengYiJun,ShandongUniversity;ProfessorZhuYafei,BeijingUniversity;ProfessorTaoJingYi,SriLanka;ProfessorXuYuhu,TaiwanUniversity;ProfessorLiDaoGang,Thailand;ProfessorSirJohnElliott,OxfordUniversity;ProfessorMikeBaillie,

UniversityofBelfast;Dr.PhilipWoodworth,visitingprofessor,UniversityofLiverpool;ProfessorSuePovey,UniversityCollege,London;ProfessorChristieG.TurnerII,ArizonaStateUniversity;ProfessorGeorgeMaul,FloridaInstituteofTechnology;ProfessorJaneStanley,AustralianNationalUniversity;RobertS.Kung,HongKongZhengHeResearchAssociation;Dr.

JohnP.Oliver,DepartmentofAstronomy,UniversityofFlorida;Dr.EusebioDizon,directorofunderwaterresearch,MuseumofManila;Dr.JosephMcDermott,UniversityofCambridge;Dr.KonradHirschler,London,SchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies,SOAS;Dr.TaylorTerlecki,OxfordUniversity;Dr.IlenyaSchiavon,theStateArchives,Venice;Dr.MarjorieGrice-

Hutchinson,UniversityofMalaga;Dr.LindaClark,UniversityofWestminster;Dr.RobertMassey,RoyalObservatory,Greenwich;Dr.BobHeadland,ScottPolarResearchInstitute,Cambridge;Dr.MuhamedWaley,BritishLibrary,London;J.M.Nijman,AmsterdamPolytechnic;Dr.AlanLeibowitz,UniversityofArizona;Dr.EdgardoCaceres;Dr.TanKoolin,

UniversityofMalaya;Dr.LeoSuryadinata,InstituteofSoutheastAsianStudies,Singapore.

VisitorstoOurWebsite,www.1421.tv

Wecannotpossiblymentioneverybodywhohascontributedtoourresearch,beitbyprovidingnewevidence,ideasfornewresearch,correctionsfor

futureeditionsofbooks,andconstructivecriticism.However,wehavetriedtoincorporateasmanyaspossiblehere,innoparticularorder.Wearemostgratefultothefollowing:

GeoffMandy,whokindlydedicatedagreatdealofhissparetimetoorganizingthe“1421Friends”database.ThankstoGeoff,wehope,fingerscrossed,thatwehave

notleftanyoneoffthelistofacknowledgmentseitherhereoronourwebsite.

Thosewhohavekindlyagreedtomanageindependentwebsiteswithinthe1421website.Thisconceptwasdevelopedtoenablepeoplewhoareinterestedinspecificaspectsofthe1421storytohaveachancetoadvanceknowledgeintheseareas,independently

ofthe1421team.Alltimeandeffortwasdedicatedattheirownexpense,andweareparticularlygratefultothefollowingpeople:JosephDavis,MarkandLaurieNickless,JuanCarlosHoyos,CathieKelly,HeatherVallance,PaulLewis,andAnneUsher.

Thosewhohavehelpedusoutinthefieldwithresearchinclude:

DaveCotner,asmentionedpreviously;Laszlo,whohasfoundanumberofwrecksintheCaribbean,overthepasttwentyyears,whichwereverifiedasbeingnotofanySpanish,English,orDanishshipsyethadChinesecharacteristicsandboreChineseartifacts;Dr.JohnFurryandDr.MichaelBroffman,whosetupthe“ChinaLanding”website,whichhasfurthered

explorationintothemysteryofthe“SacramentoJunk.”Formoreinformationpleasevisitwww.pinestreetfoundation.org/chinalanding.

TheresearchofDr.GregLittleandcolleagues,whohavefoundwidespreadevidenceintheCaribbeanthattheybelievepointtoalong-gonemaritimeculturemoresophisticatedthantheTainoorCaribpeoples.More

recentlywehavebeentoldthatearlytestssuggestthatthecutstonesfounddatetocircafivehundredyearsago.Formoreinformationpleasevisitthefollowinglinks:http://www.mysterious-america.net/newunderwaterbim.htmlandhttp://www.myssterious-america.net/bimini-caysal200.html.

BrettGreen,whoseuntiringresearchagainstconsiderable

adversity,hasprovidedahostofevidencetosupportthepre-EuropeanChineseexplorationofeasternAustralia;WilliamC.Kleisch,RichardPerkins,andPaulMcNamee,whohaveledthesearchfortheelusiveGreatDismalSwampjunk,whichGeorgeWashington’sfriendsawriseoutoftheswampinNorthCarolina;JohnSlade,whoseresearchshowsthepotentialforpre-

EuropeanminingthroughouteasternAustralia,fromtheVictoriangoldfieldstonorthQueensland;RobertsonShinnick,whofoundDr.S.L.Lee’smedallioninNorthCarolinain1994.

OthernotablementionsgotoMichaelBossandalloftheothercontributorstothe“Gallery”sectionofthewebsite—awealthofbeautifulpaintings,photos,

andartifacts;JerryWarsing,anindependentresearcherwhowasoneofthefirsttocomeforwardandletusknowthathehadcometothesameconclusionsthatIhad,beforeme.WearemostgratefulforJerry’scontinuedsupportandresearchinNorthAmerica.ProfessorZhiquiangZhang,whoseindependentresearchonZhengHe’stravelshasbeeninvaluabletoours.D.H.CTienand

MichaelNationofChineseComputerCommunications,whosepioneeringresearchwith“InternetChinese”mayonedayenableusalltolearntospeakChinesewiththeeaseandfluencyofourmothertongues;AnatoleAndro,whosebookThe1421Heresycomplements1421andexploresthetheoryfurther;theCantravelgroup,whohaveaccompaniedMarcellaandmeonmanyan

excitingadventureandcontributedagreatdealtoourresearch:GillandFrankHopkins;CarolandBarryMellor;GordonandElizabethHay;JohnandHeleenLapthorne,andMalcolmandAngelaPotter.

Thefollowingpeoplehaveallhelpedovertheyearstoaddtoourever-increasingwealthofknowledge,freeofcharge,andingoodfaith,for

whichweareextremelygrateful:MalcolmBrocklebank,ChiaraCondi,TimFohl,RobertandMeiLiHefner,DamondeLaszlo,JohnRobinson,BillHupy,GregJeffrey,HectorWilliams,MaryDoerflein,DavidBorden,RewiKemp,RalphMcGeehan,GlenRawlins,MichaelFerraro,GeraldThompson,ChungCheeKit,HowardSmith,KersonHuang,AlCornett,

TonyBrooks,BarbaraMcEwan,NicholasPlatt,ZhangWei,RobinLind,GeraldAndrewBottomley,NicholasWallis,EsterDaniels,WilliamLi,MalcolmRayner,J.F.Webb,CommodoreBillSwinley,DavidBorden,KathrineZhou,JannaCarpenter,GuofengYang,JamieBentley,MartinTai,TedBainbridge,BrianDarcey,RobStanley,Jan-Erik

Nilsson,J.PhillipArnold,DavidLindsay,MikeOsinski,M.J.Gregory,PhilipandWeiLewis;RogerL.Olesen;AdelaC.Y.Lee;GuyDruDrury;SaroCapozzoli;TimRichardson;ProfessorLuisWanke;JoséLeonSanchez;TedJeggo;NgSiongTee;GooSiWei;PaoloCosta;RicPolansky;ProfessorMikeBailie;Dr.WangTao;BillParkhurst,K’ung-FuTzu;DuncanCraig,NicoConti,

BarneyChan,EricMaskrey,PhilipMulholland,GarryBerteig,GeorgeJ.Fery,TonyFletcher,NancyYawDavis,J.PhillipArnold,ChrisRighetti,AndyDrake,PaulWagner,JimMullins,JohnBraine-Hartnell,MichaelPenck,Dr.WilliamGoggins,RussellParker,BillHupy,GillianBartlett,ShakaGarendi,RodneyGordon,BobButcher,KarinHarvey,JohnWeyrich,EdwardD.

Mitchell,NicholasPlatt,DavidTurner,PhillipBramble,JeanElder,AntonMcInerney,PatrickMoran,JoyJ.Merz,JohnS.Marr,ScottMcClean,LynnCanada,RichardZimmerman,WilliamVigil,RicBaez,TerryJackson,JeffersonWright,EanMcDonald,BethFlowerMiller,MichaelErnest,OmarM.Zen,BruceTickellTaylor,Dr.EdwardTumolo,MarieE.Macozek,

JohnForrest,JulianWick,KeithWise,BobbySass,MichaelLane,MariStair,DavidLorrimer,MarkSimonitsch,DaveBlaine,DarylF.Mallett,LuisRobles,BarryWright,MarkSmith,JeffSpira,ChrisNadolny,LiHuangxi,JohnPletcher,PaoloVillegas,KevinWilson,JaniceAveryClarke,PatriciaDuff,DanBrech,MatthewWissell,HarryL.Francis,YangyongLi,FredJ.

Gray,ThomasHerbert,MichaelAtkinson,GarthDenning,JanetMillerWiseman,DeanPickering,ArjanWilkie,GeorgeBarrett,MarkNewell,RoyDymond;KateMeyer;LawrenceSmalheiser;AliceChan;DesmondBrannigan,andEdwardGriceHutchinson.

ExhibitionsandSymposia

TheSingaporeTourism

Board,inassociationwithPicoArtInternational,mountedtheexhibition“1421:TheYearChinaSailedtheWorld”betweenJuneandAugust2005.Itwasheldinalarge,speciallymadepavilion,areplicaofthatusedbytheearlyMingemperorswhentouringthecountry.ThepavilionwassetupinabeautifulsiteoverlookingSingaporeHarbor.Pico,thecelebrated

exhibitiondesigners,arrangedfortheloanfromallaroundtheworldofartifactsthatevidencedZhengHe’svoyages.TheexhibitiongeneratedhugepublicityandcorrespondingnewevidencefromAsiaandChina.Iamindebtedtotheprovidersandsponsorsoftheexhibition.TheexhibitionhasnowmovedtoDr.TanTaSen’swonderfulChengHoCulturalMuseuminMalacca.

LaboratoriesandTestingInstitutions

Iamindebtedtothefollowinginstitutionsfortheireconomical,efficient,courteous,andtimelytestingofevidence:RafterRadiocarbonLaboratory,WaikatoUniversity,GPRDataLLC,Oregon,GPRGeophysicalServices,andForestResearch;Pearsonplc.Fortheirfinancialassistance

inprovidinggroundpenetratingradarsurveyoftheSacramentowrecksite;SurreyUniversityforestablishingtheoriginofelementsinartifactsemployingRutherfordbackscatteringtechniques.

HarperCollinsTeam

FormuchappreciatedhelpandassistanceprovidedbyHarperCollinsanditsimprint

WilliamMorrowintheUSA—particularlymyeditor,HenryFerris,andhisassistant,associateeditorPeterHubbard.ThanksalsotoLisaGallagher,LynnGrady,TaviaKowalchuk,andBenBruton.

ForHarperCollinshelpandsupportintheUnitedKingdom,thankstoCaroleTonkinson,KatyCarrington,JaneBeaton,AnnaGibson,

IainChapple,andJessicaCarey.

The1434Team

Finally,mythankstotheteamwhohavebeendirectlyresponsiblefor1434:

Midas,ledbyStevenWilliamsandassistedinAsiabyKaiitenCommunications,haveachievedalmostunbelievableworldwide

publicity—Iamtoldmorethan22,000articlesormentionsinprintmediaalone.InactingformeIfeelsureMidasdidnotchargenormalcommercialratesbutwhatIcouldafford.TheirsuccesshasresultedinanendlessstreamofnewevidenceandhasassistedTransworld(whodidawonderfuljobwith1421)sellingworldwideliteraryrights.

ChristopherHigham,whohandlesTVrights,hascontributedtoworldwidesalesbyachievingimportanttelevisiondocumentariesbroadcastacrossAmerica,Europe,thePacific,Australia,andAsia.Thisinturnhasbroughtnewfriendstoourwebsitewithnewideasandnewevidence.Chrishasbornehisownexpensesandcontributedhistimeforfiveyears.

Pedalohasdevisedwebsiteswww.1421.tvandwww.gavinmenzies.nettocopewiththisavalancheofnewevidence.Itseffortshaveresultedinverypopularsites—wenowhave3,500visitsadayfrom120countriesaroundtheworld.Pedalo’sfeeforachievingthiswasonethirdthatofitsnearestcompetitor.

LuigiBonomi,myliterary

agent,principalofLBA,sold1434toHarperCollins,thefirstpublishertobeapproached.Luigialsosold1421toTransworldwhenhewasapartnerinSheilLand.Luigiis,tomymind,themostsuccessfulBritishliteraryagent—authorstakenote!Withouthimtherewouldhavebeenno1421andno1434.

FrankLee,anexperienced

Chinesebusinessman,sold1421filmrightstoWarnerBros.ChinaandwasinstrumentalinnegotiatingwithPhoenixTelevisiontoproducealengthyMandarin-languagedocumentaryon1421andinreturnsetupaMandarin1421website—agreatsourceofnewevidencefromMandarinandCantonesespeakers.Frankhasinhisbusinesscareersetupaverysuccessfulsales

teaminChinaandelsewhereinAsiaandhasahugenetworkoffriendsandcontacts.HeisalsoadiscerninghistorianandhaspioneeredanewsearchengineforChinesehistoricalrecords.Frankwilltakeoverfrommeaschiefexecutiveofthe1421and1434organizationsinlate2008orearly2009.BythenwehopetheWarnerBros.filmonZhengHewillhavebeen

releasedfordistribution.

WendiWatsonandherhusband,Mike,haveproducedtheillustrationsanddiagramsfor1434astheydidfor1421.Wendihasworkedfrommyoriginalunpromisingscrawlwithgoodnatureandpatienceforthepastsevenyears.Herresultsspeakforthemselves—inmyviewWendihasgreatlyenhancedthebook

andmadethedetailedevidencemucheasiertoassimilate.

LauraTathamhasword-processed1434innofewerthanfourteendraftswithoutoncecomplainingorlosinghersenseofhumor.Laura,whoatthiswritingisapproachingherninetiethyear,hassupportedmebyword-processingmyscribblesforthepasttwenty-fiveyears.

ItisablessingformethatIhavebeenabletodissuadeherfromretiring!

Ourresearchershere—EricaEdes,AntoniaBowen-Jones,VanessaStockley,LornaLopes,AnnaMandy,AnnaRennie,SusieSanford,andLeanneWelham—areatestamenttotoday’syoungpeopleandtheBritisheducationsystem.Unlikeme,theyareuniversitygraduates

withgoodhonorsdegrees.Theyhaveconsistentlyandwithoutexceptionshowndedication,responsibility,initiative,andhardworkinassemblingintoacoherentwholeadisparatemassofassortedevidencethatpoursintoourcomputersdayafterday.TheyareheadandshouldersbetterthanIandmanyofmyfriendswereatasimilarage—wewere,forthemostpart,drunken,

irresponsibleruffians.

TheirdedicationandgoodnatureisalsoattributabletoIanHudson,whohasledourresearchteamthesepastfiveyears.IanhasthequalitiesIlack—goodnature,politeness,andcommonsense.WhateverreadersconsiderwemayhaveachievedisduetoIanasmuchastome.Thefuturesuccessofthe1434teamwill

largelydependonIan’sleadership,justasthe1421teamhasthesepastfiveyears.

Andfinally,Ioffergratitudetomybelovedwife,Marcella.Readerswillappreciatethatitisnotaneasydecisionforawifetobeaskedtoagreetoahusbandinhisseventiesinmoderatehealthplowinghisroyaltiesintofutureresearchratherthanintoapension

fund—andinadditiontakingonnewfinancialobligationsforyetfurtherresearch.Inourexcitementsandsetbacksoverthepastfiveyearssince1421waspublished,Marcellahasonceagainsupportedmetothehilt,enablingthisgreatadventuretocontinue.

Iandthisbookowehereverything.

GavinMenzies

London

FeastofAllSaints,2007

NOTES

Introduction

1.AntonioPigafetta,Magellan’sVoyage:ANarrativeAccountoftheFirstCircumnavigationtrans.R.A.Skelton.(Cambridge,Mass.:FolioSociety1975)p.49.

Chapter1:ALastVoyage

1.Twitchett,CambridgeHistory,vol.3p.231.2.PrivatecorrespondencebetweenauthorandMr.FrankLee,2005.3.Tsai,PerpetualHappiness,reviewedinJournaloftheAmericanOriental

Society122,no.4(Oct.–Dec.2002):849–50.ViewableonJSTOR.4.Dreyer,ZhengHe,p.6.5.Tamburlainediedin1405.HissonShahRokhsucceededhiminPersia,asdidhisgrandsonUlughBeghinSamarkand.Accountsofthe

accidentarebasedonaPersianfifteenth-centuryaccount.6.Dreyer,pp.174–182.7.CambridgeHistoryofChinap.272.DictionaryofMingBiography,p.533.8.CambridgeHistoryofChinap278,302.Renzong

ShiLu,ch.1.9.CambridgeHistoryofChinaVII286–8.

Chapter2:TheEmperor’sAmbassador

1&2.AmedallionhasbeenfoundinNorthCarolinaissuedbytheXuanDeemperortohisrepresentative.For

theargumentsputforwardabouttheauthenticityofthebrassmedallionandrefutationsbyDr.S.L.Lee,refertoDr.Lee’swebsiteAsiawind(seebelow).IamconvincedthatthemedallionissuedbyZhuZhanjifoundinNorthCarolinaandnowownedbyDr.

LeeisgenuineforthemultiplicityofreasonsgivenbyDr.Lee.ResearchofDr.S.L.Lee.See1421website,(www.1421.tv),andAsiawind,(http://www.asiawind.com/zhenghe/).3.Dreyer,EarlyMing,p.144,translatingfromXuanzongShi-lu,Theshi-lusweretrue

recordsoftheperiodcompiledinahighlyformalizedmandarinprocess,summarizedaftertheemperor’sdeathwithashi-luofhisreign.shi-lusservedastheprimarysourcefortheofficialhistoryofthedynasty,frequentlycompiledduringthesucceedingdynasty,

e.g.,bytheQingdynastyfortheMing.ZhengHelivedinthereignsoffiveMingemperors,fourofwhomhadaShi-lucomposedfortheirreigns.Theshi-lusystemhasseverallethaldeficiencies.First,succeedingdynastiesinvariablyloatheearlieronesanddestroymuch

thattheyconsidercreditablefromanearlierdynasty.Second,mandarineducationwasnarrowintheextreme.Ifsomethingdidnotappearinashi-lu,itcouldnothavehappened.Thisisepitomizedintheabsurdconclusionreachedbycertain

mandarin“scholars”thatiftheshi-ludoesnotsayZhengHe’sfleetsreachedAmerica,thentheydidnot.SuchasystemignoresfleetsthatsailedtoAmerica,gotwreckedthere,ordecidedtostayandneverreturnedtoChina.Theshi-lusystemleaves

appallingholesinChinesehistory.However,perhapsIshouldbethankful—ifhistoryhadbeenproperlyrecordedinChina,Chinesescholarswouldhavewrittenbookssimilartominecenturiesago!SeeDreyer,ZhengHe,p.144.4.ThisisJ.L.L.Duyvendak’s

translation,in“TheTrueDates,”pp.341–345,349.Duyvendak’sviewsonthevoyagesreachedalmostmythicalstatus—takenasgospelbyhistorianafterhistorian.InmyviewDuyvendak’srestrictionofZhengHetosevenvoyagesisludicrous.Ifone

takestheshipbuildingrecords,thereweremorethan1,000ships(andpossiblymanymore)availabletoZhengHeoneachofthe“sevenvoyages”recordedbyDuyvendak.Itisnotremotelypossibletocontrolfleetsofthatsize.Therewereinmyviewbetween20

and50fleetsatseacontinuouslybetweencirca1407and1434,undertheoverallstrategiccommandofZhengHe,whomayindeedhavereceivedonlysevenimperialorders.Therewerehundredsofvoyagesduringthoseyears,notseven.Re“3,000countries,”

Duyvendakatp.345,n.2,arguesthat“3000”isacopyisterrorfor“30.”HethendestroyshisargumentbyshowingtheChinesesymbolfor“3,000”besideonefor“30.”The“3,000”symbolhasanextrabarontop.A“copyisterror”wouldproduce“30”from

“3,000,”nottheotherwayaround.The“3000”madebytheengraverisclearlydeliberate.5.Ibid.6.CorrespondencebetweenauthorandMr.LiuGang.Fulltexton1421website,www.1421.tv.Mr.LiuGang’stranslationmaybe

viewedonthe1434websiteundertheheading“TheRealDiscovereroftheWorld—ZhengHe.”(Seenote20for‘3000’countries)7.LiuGangResearch2006see1434website8.ProfessorXiLongfeiandDr.SallyChurchreferencesare

invaluable.Theyshouldbereadinconjunctionwithnote9.AfulllistofreferencesintheTaizongShi-lutoshipbuildingaregiveninDreyer,ZhengHe,p.116–121.9.Chaudhuri,TradeandCivilisationintheIndianOcean,p.

241,Notes,Chapter7,Note29,citingAbdu’rRazzaq,Matla’alSa’daininElliotandDowson,eds.,TheHistoryofIndia,IV,103.10.Camões,K.N.Chaudhuri“TradeandCivilisationintheIndianOcean,”CambridgeUniversityPress,1985.p.154

11.ProfessorPanBiao’sworkwasbroughttomyattentionbyTaiPengWang.Mr.Wanghaskindlyallowedmetoplaceonourwebsitethearticle“TheMostStartlingDiscoveryfromZhengHe’sTreasureShipyards.”ProfessorPanBiao’sworkwascarriedout

attheInstituteofWoodMaterialScienceofNanjingForestryUniversity.Theyanalyzed236piecesofwoodfoundatthebottomofno.6drydockinNanjing,whichhadbeenfloodedfor600years.ProfessorPanBiaoshowsthathardwoodwasimportedtoChina

andJavaonamassivescaletoallowZhengHe’sjunkstobebuiltinChinaandrepairedinJava.ThesefindscorroboratetheworkofProfessorAnthonyReid(seen.11).AcombinationofPanBiao’sandReid’sworkshowshowbuildingsuchmassivefleets

resultedinglobalizationofthetimbertradeinAsia.Seewww.gavinmenzies.net.12.Reid,SoutheastAsiaintheAgeofCommerce,vol.2,p.39.ProfessorReidsuggeststhatthemostlikelyexplanationforthefloweringoffifteenth-century

Javaneseshipbuildingwasa“creativemeldingofChineseandJavanesemarinetechnologyinthewakeofZhengHeexpeditions.”“Ineachoftheseasons1406,1414,1418and1432fleetsofahundredormoreChinesevesselsspentlongperiods

refittingintheportsofEastJava.”13.ThisexercisetookplaceintheAndamanSeaandStraitofMalaccainJanuaryandFebruary1969.SingaporeandMalaysianarmedservicesparticipated.14.ThistookplaceintheSouthChinaSea,southofthe

AnambasIslands,inJuly1969.15.Dreyer,p.127,hasagoodsummary.Thenamesoftheviceandrearadmiralsaretakenfrominscriptionsonthestelesdescribedearlierinthechapter.Dreyergivesthenamesatpp.146,208–15.WangJinghong’s

nameissometimesspelledWangGuitong,WangQinglian,andWangZinghong.HewasafterZhengHethesenioradmiraluntilbeingdrowned.HouXianwaslaterenvoytoTibetandNepal.16.Fortheeffortsofthe1421teaminassistingtolocatethevarious

remainingpiecesoftheYongleDadianthatarescatteredaroundEuropeanlibrariesanduniversities,pleaserefertoour1434website,www.gavinmenzies.net.TheNationalLibraryofChinawilldigitizewhatisleftofthismassiveencyclopedia,which

wastwelvetimeslargerthanDiderot’seighteenth-centuryencyclopedia,thentheworld’slargestoutsideChina.CurrentlytheNationalLibraryinBeijinghas221books,and60arestoredinTaiwan.TheLibraryofCongresshas41books,theUnited

Kingdom51,Germany,5,andCornellUniversity,5.CornellUniversityhasanexcellentwebsite,ExploreCornell-WasonCollection.“Startingin1403undertheaegisoftheMingDynastyYongleEmperor(reign1402–1424)theentireintellectual

heritageofChinawasscrutinisedfortextsworthytobeincludedinwhatwastobecometheeditorialisedexpressionofChinesecivilization.OnehundredandfortysixofthemostaccomplishedscholarsoftheChineseempiretookpart.(Seealso

NeedhamVol32p.174–5)After16monthsofwork,theScholarssubmittedthefinalproduct….”TheEmperorhoweverrefusedthetomeonthegroundsthatitwasnotonthegrandscalehehadenvisaged.Consequentlyheappointedanothereditorialcommittee

completewithcommissioners,directors,sub-directorsandastaffofnolessthan2141assistants“making2169personsinall.”Thenewlyassembledcommitteeexpandedgreatlyontheideaofliteratureandincludedsacredtexts,medicine,

writingsongeographyandastronomy,theartsandcrafts,history,philosophyandthebythencanonizedConfuciantexts….TheEmperorthenorderedtheentireworktobetranscribedsothatitcouldbeprintedwhichwouldfacilitatethe

distributionprocess.”Seee-mailsbetweenLamYeeDin,TaiPangWeng,LiuGang,Dr.S.L.Lee,andEdLiuatwww.gavinmenzies.net.InmyopinionthemostlikelyplacetofindchunksoftheYongleDadianwillbetheLouvre.Napoleontook

VenetianrecordstoParis.SeeNeedham,ScienceandCivilisation,vol.19,andvol.32,p.174.17.SeeNeedham,ScienceandCivilisation,vol19,p.49–50,109–10,andvol.32,p.174.InMay1913,HerbertGileswrotetoCornellUniversityconfirmingthat

Cambridgeonlyhasonevolume.Seealsoe-mailsbetweenLamYeeDin,TaiPangWeng,LiuGiang,Dr.S.L.Lee,andEdLiuon1434website,www.gavinmenzies.net.18.TaiPengWangkindlybroughtthisresearchtomyattention,ashasLamYeeDin.See1434

website19.Needham,ScienceandCivilisation,vol.32,pp.100–175;andTemple,GeniusofChina,pp.110–15.Fortranscribedcopies,seeCornellUniversityExploreCornell-WasonCollection.20.Needham,Scienceand

Civilisation,vol19.21.K.N.Chaudhiri“TradeandCivilisationintheIndianOcean,”CambridgeUniversityPress,1985.p.154,Note29.

Chapter3:TheFleetsArePreparedfortheVoyagetotheBarbarians

1.IamIndebtedtotheresearchofTaiPengWang,whoseworkhasbeenthefoundationforthischapter.Seetitlesofpapersinbibliography.2.NeedhamVol27p.1453.NeedhamVol30pt.2p.83Forcalendars,seeNeedham,vol.3,

pp.49,125,378–381.

Chapter4:ZhengHe’sNavigators’CalculationsofLatitudeandLongitude

Extensivenotesonwww.gavinmenzies.net.

Chapter5:VoyagetotheRedSea

1.TaiPengWeng,“ZhengHeVisitto

Cairo,”p.2,n.18,and“TaleofGlobalisation.”2.Nelsonhadtwenty-sevenshipsatTrafalgar.3.YingzongShi-lu,chap.31,38,45.4.XiFeilong,YangXi,andTangXieninTaiPengWang,“ZhengHeDelegationtoPapalCourt,”p.6,

detailingHongBao;and“ZhengHeandHisEnvoys”p.1.5.Hall,EmpiresoftheMonsoon,p.87–89.6.Ibid.,p.124.7.TaiPengWang,“ZhengHeandHisEnvoys,p.1.8.IbnTagriBirdi,AlNujunAzZahiraFiMulekMisrWalKahira.

9.LamYeDinandLiuGangresearch,onwww.gavinmenzies.net.SeealsoTaiPengWang,“WhatWastheRouteTakentoFlorence”,p.1.10.IbnBattutavol4,p.813.11.TheTravelsofIbnBattutaAD1325–1354,vol.4HakluytSociety,

1994),p.773.12.TaiPengWang,“ZhengHeandHisEnvoys,”p.2.SeealsoS.D.Goitein,“NewLightontheBeginningsofKarimMerchants,”bothavailableatwww.gavinmenzies.net.13.TaiPangWeng,“ZhengHeandHisEnvoys,”p.2.14.TaiPengWang,

see1434website15.PooleHistoryofEgypt.FrankCassandCoLtdLondon189416.TaiPengWang,see1434website.17.On1434website.18.TaiPangWengandLamYeeDinresearchon1434website

Chapter6:Cairoandthe

RedSeaCanal

1.Thisparagraphandindeedmuchelseofchapter6isaparaphraseofchaptersfromJamesAldridge’smarvelousbookCairo:BiographyofaCity.Macmillan1969Tomymindthisbookisthefinesttravelbook

everwritten.Aldridgehasanamazingknackforaccuratelycompressingandsummarizingawealthofinformationinafewsentences.Heisalsoabrilliantwriter,wittywithoutbeingunkind,choosingwithgreatskillhowandwhento

highlightcolorfulepisodesofEgypt’shistory.Thisbookisajoytoread,andIhavedonesomanytimes.IstronglyrecommendittoanyonethinkingofvisitingEgypt.2.Ibid.,pp.5,27,and127.3.Redmount,“WadiTumilat”;andPayne,TheCanalBuilders.

Payne’schapterentitled“ScorpionandLabyrinth”givesadetailedaccountofthebuildersfromthepharaohstoGreekandRomantimes.4.Aldridge,Cairo,pp.27,43,78,79.5.Poole,HistoryofEgypt,p.20.“Ina.h.23…itranpastBilbeystotheCrocodileLakeand

then…totheportattheheadoftheRedSea.”6.Aldridge,Cairo,p.127;al-Makrizi,Histoired’Egypte;and.Revaisse,“EssaiSurL’Histoire.”7.SSECO.Amoreextensivereportoftheproceedingsmaybefoundonourwebsite,

www.1434.tv.SeealsoIbnTaghriBirdi,AbiI-Mahasin“AHistoryofEgypt1383–1469,”trans.WilliamPopper(BerkleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1958)p.86.8.R.L.Hobson,“ChinesePorcelainfromFustat”BurlingtonMagazine

forConnoisseurs61,no.354.AphotographofapieceofblueandwhiteporcelainofZhuDi’sreignfoundatFustatisshownonour1434website.9.Aldridge,Cairo.Thechapterentitled“Saladin’sCairo,”fromwhichthisquoteistaken,isasumptuouslywritten

descriptionshowingAldridgeattheheightofhispowers.10.JacquesBerges,quotedinBraudel,HistoryofCivilisations,p.66.

Chapter7:ToVeniceofNiccolòdaConti

1.“GeographyoftheMediterranean”Thefirsttwo

paragraphsofthischapterareaparaphraseofthecelebratedFrenchhistorianandpoliticianFernandBraudel’smarvelousworkTheMediterraneanintheTimeofPhilipII.Ihavereferredtothismasterpiecetimeandagain,forinmyviewBraudelis

perhapsthegreatestEuropeanhistorian,capableofsummarizingavastarrayofdisparatefactsintoacoherentandreadablewhole.2.Norwich,Venice:TheGreatness;Hibbert,BiographyofaCity;Lorenzetti,VeniceandItsLagoon;Brion,MasqueofItaly.See

alsoVeniceandtheIslands(London:1956),p.22.3.Ibid.4.Iamindebtedtoanumberofwriterswhoarehouseholdnames.Norwich,Veniceisaclassic.Norwich,inhisownwords,isan“unashamedpopulariser”—agreatachievement.

Thosewhodenigratepopularizershavenoideahowdifficultpopularizingis.AnotherpopularizerwhoisalsoeruditeandwhowritesinacharmingstyleisJanMorris.MydescriptionsoflifeonVenetiangalleysandofharborswithintheVenetianEmpirearetaken

largelyfromherVenetianEmpire.5.DescriptionsoftheVenetianEmpireMorris,VenetianEmpire,hascolorfuldescriptionsnotonlyoftheVenetianintheeasternMediterraneanbutalsooflifeaboardVenetiangalleys.Shebringstolifethetoughandskillful

tradersandseamenwhomadeVenice.Ihaveextensivelyparaphrasedherbookfromp.135onward.AlsoNorwich,Venice,pp.39–41.6.Croatans—seeThompson,Friar’sMapatpages171–1747.SeeEuropeanJournalofHuman

Genetics,II,p.535–542,entitles“YchromosomalheritageofCroatianpopulationanditsislandisolates,LavorkaBara,MarijanaPeriiandcolleagues.TheDNAreportsreferredtoisonourwebsite,www.gavinmenzies.net.8.Morris,Venetian

Empire,p.107;Brion,MaskofItaly,pp.86,91;andAlazard,Venise,p.73.9.Morris,VenetianEmpire,pp.160–61.SeealsoJ.A.Cuddon,Jugoslavia:TheCompanionGuide(London:1968)pp.140–41.10.Brion,aMaskofItaly,pp.80–83;and

Braudel,WheelsofCommerce,pp.99–168.11.LucaPaccioli,“Summadearithmetica,geometria,proportionietproportionalita,”inBrion,MaskofItaly,p.91;Alazard,Venise,pp.72–73;andBraudel,WheelsofCommerce,pp.

141–68and390–424.12.Brion,MasqueofItaly,p.83;andHibbert,Biography,pp.36–48.13.Hibbert,Biography,pp.36–40.14.Brion,MasqueofItaly,p.83.SeealsoMasLatric,Commerceetexpeditionsmilitaire

CollectiondesDocumentsinedits,vol.3(Paris:1880).15.Hutton,VeniceandVenetia,pp.30–41.Electa(authorsEugeniaBianchi,NadiaRighi,andMariaCristinaTerzaghi)hasproducedabeautifullyillustratedguide,PiazzaSanMarco

andMuseums,fromwhichIhaveextensivelyquoted.63showstheworldmapinthemaproomoftheDoges’Palace.SeedescriptionsinHibbert,Biography,pp.57–58.16.Brion,MasqueofItaly,withadifferenttranslation,p.84;Norwich,VeniceSee

alsoPeterLauritzen,Venice(NewYork1978),p.87.17.F.M.Rogers,TheTravelsofanInfante,DomPedroofPortugal(Cambridge,Mass.:arvardUniversityPress,1961),pp.45–48,325.18.Hall,EmpiresoftheMonsoon,pp.88,124.

19.Hutton,VeniceandVenetia,pp.261,127.(VittorePisano).Olschki,p.101.20.Olschki,“AsiaticExoticism,”p.105,n.69.21.Origo,“DomesticEnemy.”

(SubsidiaryNotesforChapter7)

a)Pisanello’sDrawingsinVeniceandFlorence1419–1438

AntoniodiBartolomeoPisano,(laterknownasPisanello),wasbornprobablyinVeronabefore1395.HewaspaintingmuralsintheDoges’Palacebefore1419inassociationwithorinsuccessiontoGentiledeFabriano.In1432hewaspaintinginRomeatSaint

JohnLateran,andbetween1432and1438hepaintedinFlorence.HealsopaintedinMantuafortheGonzagas,inFerrarafortheEstefamily,andfortheCatholicChurchinVerona.HemademedalsfortheHolyRomanEmperorSigismundofLuxembourgandfortheByzantineemperorJohnVIIIPalaeologus(whoattendedtheCouncilofFlorencein1438).Pisanelloisnotedfor

thepowerofhissketchesfromreallife.Hewasoneofthegreatestexponentsofdrawingofalltime—intheviewofsomeexpertsalmostofthecaliberofLeonardodaVinci.Manyconsiderthequalityofhisdrawingsexceedsthatofhispaintings.b)TheMongolianGeneral

TheLouvrekeepsaboxofcommentsforeachofPisanello’ssketches.Ihave

readthecommentsofvariousexpertswhohaveattemptedanexplanationofwhereandwhenPisanellosawtheMongoliangeneralorwhetherhesawanothersketchorportraitfromwhichhecopied.Thevariousopinionsarecollatedandrefutedonebyoneby“D”inafive-pageopinionentitled“Pisanello:Quatretêtesd’hommescoiffésd’unbonnet,deprofileoudetrois

quarts,”whichincludesabibliographyofthetwelveexperts.IassumeDwasanexpertworkingattheLouvre;hisorheropinionisonourwebsite.Asmaybeseen,DdoesnotconsiderthattheMongolgeneralwaspartoftheentourageoftheByzantineorHolyRomanEmperorandisunabletoofferasolutionastowherePisanellosawhim.Dalsoadvancesanopiniononthe

secondMongol,whom,asherightlysays,hasaretroussénose.c)Pisanello’sMandarinHat

Onthe1434website’sextendednotes(chap.7)isaportraitofawealthyChineseinahat(BulletinoftheMetropolitanMuseumofArt15(Jan.1920),asreportedinJSTOR).Hewearsatypicalmandarinhat—blackwithflapsatthesideandfront(the

frontflapcanonlybeclearlyseenbyviewingtheoriginal).Thesehatsareverydistinctive,showninmanyChinesepaintingsoftheMingdynastyandreproducedonthePBSdocumentary1421.TheywerenotwornbyanyotherpeoplesthanChinese,asfarasIamaware.Sodespitetheretroussénose,inmyopinionthefigurebeneaththeMongolgeneralcanonlybeamandarin.

d)Pisanello’sDragon-CarryingShip

Thisdragonhasthreeclaws.InChinaintheMingdynasty,five-claweddragonswerefortheemperor’suse;theimperialfamilyandcourtiersweregrantedfourclawsorfewer.Thisdrawing,therefore,accordswithadragonornamentownedbyaChinesecourtier.e)Pisanello’sDrawingof

“Macchinaidraulica”(Deganhart147)

AsfarasIamaware,thisisthefirstEuropeandrawingofapistonpump—precedingTaccolaandLeonardo.Inthe1430sthepistonpumpwasunknowninEuropebuthadbeeninuseinChinafortwohundredyears.Pisanello’sdrawingalsoshowsabucketpumpcalledinItalytartari.f)Pisanello’sDrawingsof

GunswithTripleBarrels(Deganhart139)

Triple-barreledgunswereunknowninItalywhenPisanellomadethissketchbutwereinuseinChina(seechap.19).

Pisanello’sDecoratedGunBarrels(140)

TheseaccordwithFrancescodiGiorgio’s,

drawntwodecadeslater.

Pisanello’sPortraitofaWoundedSoldier(133)

ThisisaMongol.

Pisanello’sPaintingoftheMongolGeneral

Notehisrichsilkclothes—mere“Archers”wouldnothavewornthese.

OtherPisanelloDrawings,NotYetAnalyzedbytheAuthor

WaterBuffaloes:Louvre,inv2409

Tartarpalletpumpandwaterwheels:Louvre,2284,2285

ColdDesertCamels:Louvre,inv2476

ShipwithCarvedHull:Louvre,inv2282to2288

Chapter8:PaoloToscanelli’sFlorence

1.IstronglysuspectthatBrunelleschiandToscanellialsomettheChineseambassadorandChinesemathematiciansandastronomersinZhu

Di’sreignbetween1408and1413.ChineserecordsshowZhuDi’semissariesdidtraveltoRomeandFlorenceinthatperiod,butIhavebeenunabletofindanyItalianrecordsinsupportortogivecorroborativeevidence.Papalrecordsatthistime

wereinacompletemessbecauseoftheschism.TheVaticanlibraryhasnorecordofEugeniusIVrecordswhileinexileinFlorenceandFerrara.IhavebeenunabletofindrecordsoftheAvignonpapacyandhavenotsearchedrecordsoftheSpanishpope.My

guessisthatiftherecordseventuallyturnup,theywillbeamongthoseoftheCouncilofConstance(1415–1418),whenthetriplepapacycametoanendandMartinVbecamesolepope.Brunelleschicouldhaveobtainedhisknowledgeofspherical

trigonometryfromtheArabsandofreversiblehoistsandpinholecamerasfromtheRomans—butallthisandarticulatedbargesand“Chinese”methodsofimprovingmortaratthesametime?2.IhavereadmanybooksontheRenaissance,asmay

beexpected.Somearebrilliantlywritten.Myfavorites,fromwhichIhavequotedextensively,are:Plumb,TheHorizonBookoftheRenaissance(seepp.14–19forItalyafterthefallofRome);Hibbert,RiseandFall(seepp.32–39foreconomicgrowth

andemergenceoftheMedici’s);Hollingsworth,Patronage(seepp.48–55forCosimode’Medici’spatronageofRenaissancescholarsandinparticulartheSanLorenzosacristy);Bruckner,RenaissanceFlorence(seepp.1–6forFlorence’s

economicdevelopment,notablytheRiverArno,pp.42–43fortheroleofslavesineconomicdevelopment;andpp.216–18forearlycommunicationamongsocialgroups);Carmichael,PlagueandthePoor(seepp.122–26forcontroloftheplague

bymeansofprintededicts);andJardine,WorldlyGoods(forspreadingRenaissanceideas).Thenexttwoparagraphsaresummariesandextensivequotesfromtheseauthors.Theirdescriptionsareextraordinarilyvividandsorevealingthatinmy

viewitwouldbeawasteofeveryone’stimeformetotryandimproveonthem.3.Plumb,HorizonBookoftheRenaissance,jacketcopy.4.ThisparagraphisasummaryofPlumb’smagnificentbook,withmanydirectquotes.Plumb,

itseemstome,hasbrilliantlyhighlightedthereasonsfordivisionsofEuropeafterthefallofRome.HorizonBookoftheRenaissance.5.BernardBerenson,EssaysintheStudyofSienesePainting.6.LeonardOlschki,“AsiaticExoticism.”7.Ibid.,p.105

8.Hibbert,RiseandFall;Plumb,HorizonBookoftheRenaissance;Hollingsworth,Patronage;Bruckner,RenaissanceFlorence.9.Origo,MerchantofPrato.10.RiseandFall;andHibbert,Hollingsworth,

Patronage.11.TimothyJ.McGee,“DinnerMusicfortheFlorentineSignoria,1350–1450,Speculum,74,no.1(Jan.1999):95,ViewableonJSTOR.12.RiseandFall;andHibbert,Hollingsworth,Patronage,pp.48–55.

13.Hollingsworth,Patronage,p.50.14.Brown,“LaetenturCaeli.”15.Beck,“LeonaBattistaAlberti.”ToscanellicometaryobservationsalsoinG.Celoria,SulleosservazionidecometeFattedaPaulodalPozziToscanelli(Milan:1921).

Chapter9:ToscanelliMeetstheChineseAmbassador

1.Markham,JournalsofChristopherColumbusTheoverwhelmingmajorityofhistoriansconsidertheletterstoCanonMartinsandChristopher

Columbustobegenuine.In1905theFrenchhistorianHenriVignaudmadeanattempttosaythattheywereforgedbutasfarasIknow,nootherscholarhassupportedVignaud.Recentstudiesdescribedinchapter12showthatToscanelli’swritingonhiscometary

observationsisthesameastheletters.Moreover,everystatementinToscanelli’sletterscanbesubstantiated—forthereasonsinchapter11.IfToscanelli’sletterswereforgeries,thenWaldseemüller’s“GreenGlobe,”andmapof1507wouldbeaswell.Ahostof

academicsdownthecenturiesandacrossEuropewouldhavetobepartytotheforgery.ThemiddlepartofToscanelli’slettertoCanonMartinshasbeenfoundbyHarrisseintheBibliotecaColombinainSeville.ThisisacopymadebyColumbushimselfof

theletterfromToscanellitoCanonMartins.2.Johnson,ThePapacy,pp.18,100–3,106,115–19,125.3.GLorenzetti,VeniceandItsLagoon,pp.623–58,(mapat660):Palaces15,32,35,40,42,43,66,and84(numbersasshownonmap).

4.Sameasnote15.ThesewordswerefrequentlyinterchangeableinmedievalEurope.6.Seedetailednotesforchapter13thatsummarisethecooperationbetweenToscanelli,Alberti,NicholasofCusa,andRegiomontanus.ForUzielli,SeeZinner,

Regiomontanus,p.59.7.Ibid.8.MrA.G.SelfandF.H.H.GuillemardSeenotes6to12forchapter109.IhaveseenSchöner’s1520globeinthebasementoftheGermanHistoricalMuseum,Nuremberg,courtesy

ofthecurator.Itisnotonpublicdisplay,unlikeBehaim’s1492globe,alsointhatmuseum.

Chapter10:Columbus’sandMagellan’sWorldMaps

1.Vignaud,ToscanelliandColumbus,pp.322,

323.2.Ibid.3.“InthetimeofEugenius.”4.Zinner,Regiomontanus,reportingUzielli,p.59.5.Pigafetta,Magellan’sVoyage,p.58;andPigafettaandMiller,StraitsofMagellan.6.Pigafetta,and

1421,pp.169–77.ii—Magellan/KingofSpainContractMarch22nd,158—“Magellan’sterrifyingcircumnavigationoftheglobe—Overtheedgeoftheworld”Bergreen,HarperPerennial,NewYork,2004,p.34.7.Pigafetta,

Magellan’sVoyage,p.56.8.Ibid.,p.49;Guillemard,FerdinandMagellan,p.189;andBergreen,OvertheEdge,p.32:“[Magellan]intendedtogobyCapeSt.MarywhichwecallRiodelaPlata,andfromthencetofollowthe

coastuntilhehittheStrait.”9.PigafettaandMiller,StraitsofMagellan;Griffin,Portsmouth,1884,p.7;andMenzles,1421,169–177.10.Galvão,Tratado;andAntonioCordeyro,HistoriaInsula(Lisbon:1717),quotedinH.Harrisse,The

DiscoveryofNorthAmerica,(1892),p.51.11.Pigafetta,Magellan’sVoyage,pp.49,50,57;Menzies,1421,pp.169–177;andGuillemard,FerdinandMagellan,p.189.12.Guillemard,FerdinandMagellan,p.191.I

amindebtedtoMr.A.G.SelfforintroducingmetoGuillemard’sbook.13.“Huncinmiduterreiamquadripartiteconuscitet;sunttresprimepartescontinentesquartaestinsulacuomniquaquemarecircudatacinspiciat,”MartinWaldseemüller,

Cosmographiaeintroductio.14.Orejonetal.,PleitosColumbinos,8vols.andSchoenrich,LegacyofColumbus.15.IamindebtedtoGregCoelho,whobroughtthistomyattentiononMarch20,2003.Originalagreements,April17and30,1492.The

decreeconfirmingthefavorsisintheArchivoGeneraldeIndias,Seville.ConfirmationcameinthecapitulationsofBurgos,April23and30,1497.16.Menzles,1421,pp.425–427;andFernández-Armesto,Columbus,p.75.17.TheTimesAtlasofWorld

Exploration,p.41.Availableonwww.1434.tv.18.Fernández-Armesto,Columbus,p.76.19.MarcelDestombes,UnecarleinteressantdesÉtudesColombiennesconservéaModena(1952),andDavies,“Behaim,

Martellus.”SeealsoAoVietor,“APre-ColumbianMapoftheWorldc.1489,”ImagoMundi18:p.458.20.CorrespondencebetweenDr.AurelioAghemoandMarcellaMenzies.Insummer2006onwww.1434.tv.21.Zinner,Regiomontanus.

22.Schöner’s1520globeisintheGermanNationalMuseum,Nuremberg,whereitmaybeviewedcourtesyofthecurator.Itisnotonpublicdisplay.TheBehaimglobeof1492(whichdoesnotshowtheAmericas)isonpublicdisplaythere.

23.J.J.O’ConnorandE.F.Robertson,“JohannMullerRegiomontanus,”website,google“JohannMullerRegiomontanus.”24.In1656EmperorFerdinandIIIofAustriapurchasedtheLibraryofGeorgeFugger,whichincludedSchöner’slibrary.

TheemperorgavethecollectiontotheHofbibliothekinVienna,whereitremains.ThecollectioncontainsachartofstarsonlyvisibleintheSouthernHemisphere,publishedbeforeMagellan’scircumnavigation.25.Zinner,

Regiomontanus,pp.109–39,211–37,242–44.Lostworksintradelistpp.115–17.Zinner(Regiomontanus)Folio2,Leipzig1938,pp.89–103.26.Guillemard,FerdinandMagellan.27.Pinzónwasreallytheorganizer

ofColumbus’s1492expedition.SeeBedini,ColumbusEncyclopedia,vol.2.S.V.“AriasPerezPinzón.”TheHistoryCo-operative.SevillePinzón’seldestsontestifiedthatin1492afriendofhisfather,employedintheVaticanLibrary,hadgivenhimacopyofadocumentshowing

thatJapancouldbereachedbysailingwestwardacrosstheAtlantic.Impressed,PinzónshowedColumbustheVaticandocumentandpersuadedColumbustovisittheCatholicsovreignsonceagain.Thistimehewassuccessfulinobtainingtheir

backing.

Chapter11:TheWorldMapsofJohannesSchöner,MartinWaldseemüller,andAdmiralZhengHe

1.ThisshowstheAmericasasWaldseemuellerdrewthemonaflatpieceofpaperwhichhecopiedfromaglobe.

2.AtthisstageIhadnoevidenceWaldseemüllerhadcopiedfromaglobe,althoughmyexperimentshadshownhemusthavedone.3.Theexhibitionwastocelebratethe500thanniversaryofthepublicationofWaldseemüller’s1507map.Please

seethe1434website,www.1434.tv,forareproductionofWaldseemüller’sworldmapandforDr.Ronsin’sdescriptioninFrenchofhowWaldseemüllerobtainedit.

Chapter12:Toscanelli’sNewAstronomy

1.TheCatholicEncyclopedia,S.V.“China:ForeignRelations,”http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03663b.htm.Seealso1434website,www.1434.tv.2.TaiPengWang,“ZhengHe’sDelegation.”3.Ibid.4.Ibid.SeealsoZhengXingLang,

ZhongxiJiaotongChiliaoHuibian(CollectedhistoricalsourcesofthehistorybetweenChinaandtheWest),vol.1,chap.6,pp.331etseq.)5.Pinturicchiopaintingcanbeseenonthe1434website,www.1434.tv.AgeoftheRenaissance.BorgiaApartments

ofthePalazziPontifici,intheVatican.6.TaiPengWang,(V)“ZhengHe’sDelegation.”7.TaiPengWang,“ZhengHe,WangDayvan.”TaiproducesevidencethatYuannavigatorshadmasteredastronavigationsufficientlytocross

oceans.SeeGongZhen,XiyangBanguoZhi(Notesonbarbariancountriesinthewesternseas)(Beijing:Zhounghuabookshop,).SeealsoXiFeiLong,YankXi,TangXiren,eds.ZhongguoJishuShi,JiaotongCluan(ThehistoryofChinesescienceand

technology),vol.onTransportation(Beijing:SciencePublisher,2004),pp.395–96;andW.ScotMortonandCharltonM.Lewis,China:ItsHistoryandCulture(NewYork:McGraw-Hill,2005),p.128.8.JaneJervis,“Toscanelli’sCometary

Observations:SomeNewEvidence”AnnaliDelInstitutoeMuseoDiStoriaDellaScienzaDiFirenzeII(1997).9.RightAscension—itssignificance,aChinesemethodnotArabicnorBabylonianmethodofcelestialcoordinates.10.Gadol,Leon

BattistaAlberti:p.196.SeeZinner,Regiomontanus,p.58.

Chapter13:TheFlorentineMathematicians:Toscanelli,Alberti,NicholasofCusa,andRegiomontanus

1.Zinner,Regiomontanus,pp.29,41,52–59,64–65.

2.Ibid.,pp.44,48,71,73–78,83,104,214–515;TheS.V.“Suggest.”3.ComparewithRegiomontanus,“DeTriangulis,”inZinner,Regiomontonus.p.55–60.4.Zinner,Regiomontenus,pp.44,48,71–73,78,83,104,214–515.

5.Zinner,Regiomontanus,p.125;andTheCatholicEncyclopedia,S.V.“NicholasofCusa.”6.ErnstZinner.Ihaveextensivelyquotedfromhismajesticwork,Regiomontanus.WhereZinner’sopiniondiffersfromotherexperts,Ihave

usedZinner’s.MyonlydisagreementwithZinneriswithhisopinionofwhichprecedentRegiomontanusrelieduponforhisephemeristables.ZinnerdidnotknowofGuoShoujing’swork;ifhehadhe,inmyview,wouldhavecometotheinevitableconclusion

thatRegiomontanusfollowedGuoShoujing.Regiomontanus’sprincipalworksmentionedinchapter13arediscussedinZinnerasfollows:almanacs:pp.8–12,21–37,40,85,104–9,112–25,141–49,153;calendars:pp.42,50,112–42(seealsoe-mailsbetween

BodleianLibraryatOxfordUniversityandauthor,onwww.1434.tv);compass:pp.16–20;Detranigulis:pp.51–65;ephemeristables:pp.108–28,(seealsoe-mailsbetweenBodleianLibraryatOxfordUniversityandauthor,onwww.1434.tv);

EpitomeofPtolomy:pp.2,29,41–52,59;instruments:pp.135–36,180–84;maps:pp.113–16,148;obliquityofecliptic:pp.23,25,38,48,53–69.SeealsoJohannesRegiomontanusCalendarPrintedinVeniceofAug.1482,on1434websiteUniversityof

Glasgow,1999.7.Zinner,Regiomontanus,pp.1–30,32,36–56,76–78.8.Ibid.,pp.24,36,58–60,72–77.9.Ibid.,pp.117–25.10.Ibid.,pp.121–25.11.Ibid.,pp.98,115,133,137,158,212,244,246.12.Ibid.,pp.95and

301.Seealsopp.131–34,135(clock);p.136(armillarysphere,pp.137–38,mirrors,compass;andp.115,torquetum.13.Ibid.,pp.112,113,301.SeealsoErnstZinner,“TheMapsofRegiomontanus,”ImagoMundi,4(1947):31–32.

14.Zinner,Regiomontanus,p.40.15.Ibid.,p.42.16.Ibid.,p.183.17.Ibid.,p.64.18.Ibid.,pp.365,370;andUlrichLibbrecht,ChineseMathematics,1973p.247.19.SeeLibbrechtforhisdiscussiononCurtzecontribution

atp.247.SeeNeedhamS19,p.40fortheShu-shuChiu-changandtheevolutionofChinesemathematicsfromtheSungdynastythroughtotheYuan.20.Ch’inChiu-ShaoLibbrecht,ChineseMathematics,pp.247–48.21.Needham,

ScienceandCivilisation,vol.19,pp.10,40,42,120,141,472,577.22.Ibid.,vol.30.PhotobykindpermissionofthePepysLibrary,MagdaleneCollege,CambridgeUniversity.23.Zinner,Regiomontanus,p.117.ForCopernicus,

seep.119.OtherversionsofRegiomontonus’stablescanbeviewedinthecopiesheldbytheRoyalAstronomicalSociety,London,andtheJohnRylandsUniversity,Manchester.PhotobykindpermissionoftheBritishLibrary.

24.Davies,“Behain,Martellus.”25.Menzies,1421,pp.430–31.26.Zinner,Regiomontanus,pp.119–23.27.Bedini,ColumbusEncyclopedia,p.436;andibid.,p.120.28.Zinner,Regiomontonus,p.

123.29.Ibid.,pp.119–25.30.Ibid.,p.123.31.Lambert,“Abstract.”32.G.W.Littlehales,“TheDeclineofLunarDistances,”AmericanGeographySocietyBulletin,4,no.2(1909):84.Viewable

onJSTOR.33.Lambert,“Abstract.”34.PhillipsandEncarta.35.Zinner,Regiomontonus,p.181.36.Needham,ScienceandCivilisation,vol.19,pp.49–50,109,110,and370–378.SeealsoYongleDadian

(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress),chap.16,pp.343,344.

Chapter14:AlbertiandLeonardodaVinci

1.Gadol,LeonBattistaAlberti,introduction.2.Ibid.,pp.67and196.

3.See“SelectedWorksofLeonBattistaAlberti”inbibliography.4.Zinner,Regiomontanus,pp.24,36,58–60,67–68,72–77,130–34,265;andGadol,LeonBattistaAlberti,p.196.LetterofFeb1464in‘VitadiLBAlbertiatp373

5.Santinello’sparallelsareexploredinmoredetailonthe1434website,chapters13,18and21.6.Gadol,LeonBattistaAlberti,p.155.

Chapter15:LeonardodaVinciandChineseInventions

1.Temple,GeniusofChina,p.192.2.Peers,Warlords,ofChina,p.149.3.Deng,AncientChineseInventions,p.104.4.Ibid.,pp.113–14.5.Ibid.,p.112.6.Seech.16forLeonardocopyingTaccola,whodrewin1438aChinesehelicopter.

7.Temple,Genius,p.175.8.Ibid.,p.177.9.Ibid.,p.243.10.Taddei,Leonardo’sMachines,p.118.11.Temple,Genius,p.59.

Chapter16:Leonardo,diGiorgio,TaccolaandAlberti

1.White,“Parachute,”pp.462–67.2.Reti,“FrancescodiGiorgioMartini’sTreatise,”p.287.3.Francesco,Trattato.CopiesBibliotecaNazionaleFlorenceandBibliotecaCommunaleSiena4.Reti,“HelicoptersandWhirligigs”;

Leonardo,“Parachute”;Jackson,“Dragonflies”;andGablehouse,“HelicoptersandAutogiros.”5.SeeGuidebooksonSiena6.PragerandScaglia,MarianoTaccola.7.PleasealsorefertoModernGuide

Book“Siena”Romas,Sienap.154.8.SigismundFacedUprisingsInBohemiafollowingJanHussMurderin1419(FollowingCouncilofConstance)9.PragerandScaglia,“MarianoTaccola.”10.Ibid.;andGalluzzi,Artof

Invention,p.118.11.PragerandScaglia,MarianoTaccola.Galluzzi,ArtofInvention,p.35.12.Galluzzi,ArtofInvention,pp.36–37.13.PragerandScaglia,MarianoTaccola;andibid.,pp.37–38.14.PragerandScaglia,Mariano

Taccola,p.93;andGalluzzi,ArtofInvention,p.87.DiGiorgioadaptsTaccola—Examples

i)DiGiorgio’sfountain(MsAsh4IR)andTaccola’ssurprisefountain(MsPAL767p.21)ii)Taccola’shoistsforMills(III,36R)

anddiGiorgio’sMills(TrattatoIMsAsh361for37v)iii)Taccola’sanddiGiorgio’sunderwaterswimmerswithbreathing(CodLatMon288800fol78RandMSPAL767BNCFp.9)iv)FloatingRidersonHorseback(TaccolaII90V)di

GiorgioMSII.I.141(BNCF)follow196vv)Paddlewheelboats—TaccolaMsLat7239fol87r:diGiorgioMs197b21(BML)fol45vvi)Devicesformeasuringdistances—TaccolaMsPal766fol52R:diGiorgioMsAsh361fol29R

vii)DrawingsofTrebuchetMs197.b.21(BML)fol3V(diGiorgio)andcodlatMon197IIfol59V(Taccola)viii)UndergroundMiningcausingtownstocollapse—diGiorgioMsAsh361fol50R;TaccolaCodexlatMon28800fol.48ix)Transportable

cranediGiorgioMs197b.21fol11VTaccolaMsPAL766forZORx)Weightdrivenwheels—TaccolaCodelatMon197IIfol57R:diGiorgioMs197b21Fol71Vxi)WatermillstransformingverticalpowertohorizontalTaccolaMsPal766

Fol39R:diGiorgioMsSal148for34Vxii)OxdrawnpumpsTaccolaMsLat7239p.32diGiorgioMSII.1.141fol97V

15.K.T.Wu,andWuKuang-Ch’ing,“MingPrintingandPrinters,”HarvardJournalofAsiatieStudies7,no.3(Feb.1943):203–60.

16.SeeNeedham,ScienceandCivilisation,vols.19and27.17.TaccolaMSLatBNPfol50R18.FrancescoDiGiorgioMSII1.141fol97v19.Needham,ScienceandCivilisation,vol.27,figs.602–27,table56.

20.NungShu,ch.19,pp.5bb–6aandNS183.21.MSLatUrbinas1757Fol118R22.Cartswithsteeringgear—Codicetto23.Reversiblehoists—deIngeneisIII36RTaccola,DeIngeneis,book2,96v.24.MsAsh361F

37V25.MsGettyGEMfolR26.Galluzzi,ArtofInvention,pp.42–43.27.Ibid.,p.44.28.361Fol46v29.Galluzzi,ArtofInvention,p.11.30.Ibid.,p.11.31.Jackson,“Dragonflies,”pp.1–4;Gablehouse,Helicoptersand

Autogiros,pp.1–3;andWhite,“HelicoptersandWhirligigs.”

Chapter17:Silk&Rice

1.NungShu;andNeedham,ScienceandCivilization,vol.27,p.104.2.Martial,quotedinThorley,pp.71–80.3.Thorley,“Silk

TradeBetweenChinaandtheRomanEmpireatItsHeightCirca.A.D.90–130”GreeceandRome,2ndSeries,Vol.18,No.1(1971)p.71–80.SeeBibliography.4.Temple,“Genius,”p.120,ill.88.5.Molà,“SilkIndustry,”pp.261and218,220.

6.Hobson,EasternOrigins,pp.128,342;andKuhn,“ScienceV.”7.Molà,“SilkIndustry,”p.261.8.“Braudel,WheelsofCommerce,”Fontana,1985,pp.405–408.9.Needham,ScienceandCivilisation,vol.28,pp.225and340.10.MsAsh361

(BMLF)fol6V11.Shapiro,“SuctionPump,”p.571.12.Needham,ScienceandCivilisation,vol.27,p.144.13.Molà,“SilkIndustry,”pp.218–46.14.Hibbert,HouseofMedici,p.63.15.Ibid.,p.63.

16.Ibid.,Hibbert,p.89

Chapter18:GrandCanals,ChinaandLombardy

1.EmperorYang—Suidynasty.AncientChina,”p.66.2.LonelyPlanetp.378.3.NownamedXian.“AncientChina”pp.63–75.Ancient

China-ChineseCivilisationfromtheorigintotheTangdynastyBarnes&NobleN.Y.2006.4.QuotedinLonelyPlanetpp.378–79.5.Temple,Genius,pp.196–97.6.Needham,ScienceandCivilisation,vol.28;andibid.,p.197.7.Needham,ScienceandCivilization,ch.

28,pp.358–76.8.BarbarossaCaptureofMilanFrederickI(1123–1190)conqueredMilanin1161.9.Taccola’sLockGateTaccola,Deingeneis,vol.4;andParsons,Engineers,pp.367–373.10.Parsons,Engineers,p.373.11.Ibid.

12.Ibid.,p.376.13.Parsons,Engineers.DescriptionsTrattatodeiPondip.373;Alberti,pp.374–75;Bartola,pp.358–376.14.Ibid.,pp.372–81;Needham,ScienceandCivilisation,vol.28,pp.377–80.15.Needham,

ScienceandCivilisation,vol.28,pp.358–76.16.Parsons,Engineers,pp.374–75.17.SeeMantuaL.SantoniMantua1989,p.36etseq18.Dixon,Venice,Vicenza,p.112.etseq19.Ibid.

Chapter19:FirearmsandSteel

1.Spencer,“Filarete’sDescription”;andWertime,“AsianInfluences”andAgeofSteel.2.Ibid.3.Spencer,“Filarete’sDescription.”4.Ibid.

5.Ibid.6.BresciaandBergamoaretownsinnorthernItaly.7.Wertime,“AsianInfluences,”p.397.8.Butters,TriumphofVulcan.9.Needham,ScienceandCivilisation,vol.30.pt.II10.GeniusofChina,pp.224–228.11.Goodrich,L.

Carrington,andFêngChia-Shêng.“TheEarlyDevelopmentofFirearmsinChina.”Isis36,no.2(Jan.1946):114–23.ViewableonJSTOR.12.Temple,Genius,p.230.13.Ibid.,p.234.14.CitedinNeedham,ScienceandCivilisation,vol.

30,pt.II.15.Temple,Genius,p.237.16.GoodrichandFeng,“EarlyDevelopment.”17.Eichstadt,Bellifortis;Thorndike,“UnidentifiedWork,”p.42.18.Thorndike,“UnidentifiedWork,”p.42.

19.Ibid.,p.37.20.Ibid.,p.38.21.Needham,ScienceandCivilisation,vol.30,pt.II,p.51.22.AStuartWeller“FrancescodiGiorgioMartini1439–1501”UniversityofChicagoPress,ChicagoIll1943atp.74.

23.Ibid.24.Referto1434websiteunder“cannon.”25.ChienTzuLeiPhao.26.HuoLungChung,pt.1,ch.2,pp.2,2a,10a.27.Ibid.,p.16a28.MS5,IV.5(BCS)c.5R.

Chapter20:Printing

1.Ottley,andHumphreys,History.2.Needham,ScienceandCivilisation,vol.32,pp.100–75;andDengAncientChineseInventions,pp.21–23.3.Needham,ScienceandCivilisation,vol.32,pp.100–175,esp.p.172.ForYongleDadianseep.174,n.c.Seealso

Wu,“Development.”4.Hessel,Haarlem,andHumphreys,History,p.55.5.“TheCaseofRivalClaimants,”p.170.6.Bibs.7,8,and9.7.BlaiseAgüerasyArcasandPaulNeedhamReportedonGoogle.APHA/GrolierClublecturebyPaul

NeedhamandBlaiseLECTURE:AguerasyArcas—(organisationofBookCollectors)January2001.NewYork.PAPER:AgüerayArcas,Blaise;PaulNeedham(November2002).“Computationalanalytical

bibliography”.ProceedingsBibliopolisConferenceThefuturehistoryofthebook,TheHague(Netherlands):KoninklijkeBibliotheek.8.Ottley,Inquiry,p.47;andTermanza,“Lettere,”vol.5p.321.9.“EarlyVenetian

Printing,”exhibition,KingsCollege,London,Dec.2006.10.Carmichael,PlagueandthePoor,pp.124–26.

Chapter21:China’sContributiontotheRenaissance

1.Zinner,Regiomontanus,pp.112–13.

2.LiuManchums,evidenceatNanjingConferenceDec2002.3.Ibid.4.VilliersandEarle,Albuquerque,pp.29–65;andinAntoniodeBilhaoPato,CartasdeAfonsedeAlbuquerqueSeguidesdedowmentosqueas

elucidam,vol.1,letter9(April1512):pp.29–65.TranslationandresearchbyEManuelStock.5.OBrasilinvarPortulanodosecxv(BrasilonaMapofFifteenthCentury)6.Thorndike,“UnidentifiedWork,”p.42.7.Cortesão,“Pre-

ColumbianDiscovery,”p.39.8.Thompson,Friar’sMap,pp.171–74.9.Fiske,John.TheDiscoveryofAmerica—WithSomeAccountofAncientAmericaandtheSpanishConquest(twovolumes).Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1892.Reprinted

1920.10.Thompson,Friar’sMap,“VeniceGoesWest,”p.171.Sinovic,1991,p.155.11.DuchessofMedina-Sidonia’scollectionofColumbusrecord,inherLibraryatSanlucardeBarrameda.

12.Ruggero,Marino,CristoforoColombo:L’ultimodeiTemplari.Milan:Sperling,KupferEditori,2005.13.RoyalGeographicalSocietyJournalDavies,“Behaim,MartellusandColumbus,”143,pt.3:451–59.14.Encyclopedia

Britannica,New“TheCopernicanRevolution.”S.V.“Copernicus,Nicolaus,”andalsoZinner,Regiomontanus,p.183.15.Ibid.,Zinner,p.183.16.Ibid.17.Thisisbeingcorrectedinthelatestedition.

18.ErnstZinner,Regiomontanus,pp.184–185.19.Swerdlow,“Derivation.”20.“Derivation.”21.Ibid.22.SeeGouShoujing’sthird-degreemethodofinterpolationinAslaksenandNgSayTiong,“Calendars,

Interpolation.”23.Siderius.SeeNewEncyclopediaBrittanica24.NewEncyclopediaBrittanica,15thed.,S.V.1994“Galilei,Galileo.”25.Mui,Dong,andZhou,“AncientChinese.”26.Gadol,LeonBattistaAlberti.

27.SorensonandRaish,Pre-ColumbianContact;andJohannesenandSorenson,Biology28.Thompson,Friar’sMap;andletterstoauthor2003–2007

Chapter22:TragedyontheHighSeas:ZhengHe’sFleetsDestroyedbyaTsunami

ThischapterreliesheavilyontheworkofProfessorTedBryantandDr.DallasAbbottandcolleagues;pleaserefertotheAcknowledgmentssection.

1.LegendofthebearclimbingoutofawreckedshiponClatsopBeach.ThisisChinookfolklore,recountedtousbyCatherineHerrold

Troeh.2.ThelegendiscorroboratedbyasimilaroneoftheCrowpeople,toldtousbyFrankFitch.3.Zatta’smapappearsonour1434websiteasdodrawingsofChinesepeoplemadeduringRussianexpeditionscarriedoutbeforeVancouverorCook.

4.Thesefiguresareexplainedinmoredetailinchapter2.5.Thiscorrespondencewasin2002.6.Therelevantpartofthisisreportedonthe1434website7.Keddie,Grant,“ContributionstoHumanHistory,”publishedbyRoyalBritishColumbia

Museum,No.3,March19,1990.8.FurtherdetailsoftheWashingtonpottersmaybefoundonour1434website9.ProfessorMariannaFernandezCoboandcolleagues(seeBibliography)10.ProfessorGabrielNovickandcolleagues(seeBibliography)

11.DiegoRibero’schartof1529canbeseenonour1434website.ItcontainsaccuratemappingdetailsofplacesfromSouthAmericatoIndonesia,whichin1529hadnotbeen“discovered”byEuropeansandwereunknowntothem.12.Rostowerski,Maria—“Historyof

theIncaRealm”,CambridgeUniversityPress,199913.MacedoJustoCáceres“Pre-HispanicCulturesofPeru,”PeruvianNationalMuseum,Lima,Peru,1985.Coppercoins—theseweretheshapeofsmallaxes.Seeour1434websitefor

thesectiononcoinage.

Chapter23:TheConquistadores’Inheritance:OurLadyofVictory

ThischapterreliesheavilyonaseriesoflecturesonMedievalSpaingivenbyDr.ChristopherPollardatDillingtonHousenearTaunton,Somerset,whichthe

authorwasprivilegedtoattendin1999.Pleaserefertotheacknowledgmentssection.

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A.BibligraphyforChapters1–5inclusive

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TaiPengWangresearchpapers,availableonwww.gavinmenzies.net.

———.“ATaleofGlobalisationinAncientAsia”

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Nanhaitrade).InXueshaQuanzhou(Quanzhoustudies),byCaiYaoPing,ZhangMing,andWuYuanPeng.CentralHistoricalTextPublisher,2003,pp.144–45.

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GoldenPeachesofSamarkand:AstudyofTangExotics.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1991.

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“WhatwastheroutetakenbytheChinesedelegationtoFlorencein1433andwhatmightthatbe?”and“ZhengHeandhisEnvoysvisitsto

Cairoin1414and1433”

TaiPengWang’sMainPointsRelevanttoChapters2,3,5:

1.HongBaowasinstructedbyZhengHeonNovember18,1432,toleadhisfleetstoCalicut.2.OnarrivalHongBaolearnedCalicutwasabouttosendits

ownfleettoMecca.HongBaoimmediatelysentseveninterpreterofficialstojointheCalicutfleet.ZhengHe’sfleetsarrivedinHormuzonJanuary16,1433,andsetsailforChinaonApril9,1433.3.ZhengHehadbeenorderedtoannouncethe

imperialedictoftheXuanDeemperortoMaijia(Mecca),Qianlida(Baghdad),Wusili(Egypt),Mulanpi(Morocco),andLumi(Florence).4.EgyptandMoroccohadalreadyreceivedtheimperialedictbuthadfailedtosendtributetoMingChina.SeeYanCongjian’s

firsthandaccountofthevisitto“Fulin”kingdom—thePapalCourt.5.TheChineseweretradingwithinthesystemcreatedintheYuandynastymorethanacenturyearlier.6.TianfangistheMamlukempire—Egypt,Syria,Yemen,Arabia,

Libya,andCyprus.7.TheChineseusedArabicpilotsintheGulfarea:IrenaKnehtl,“TheFleetoftheDragoninYemeniWaters.”TheYemenTimes874,vol.13(5Sept.7–Sept.2005).8.FrankincensewasthemostvaluableproductpurchasedbytheChinese:ibid.

9.ZhengHevisitsAihdab.YuanshiLuncong.“TheRelationBetweenSudanandChinaBetweentheTangandtheEndoftheYuan.InEssaysonYuanHistory,vol.7,pp.200–6.10.KarimiinQuanzhou:ZhuFanZhiZhuPu.InZhaoRuqua,Profilesof

ForeignBarbarianCountries(HongKong:HongKongUniversityCenterofAsianStudies,2000),p.175.11.Karimimerchantsbehavior:QihaiYangtan(Settingsailinthesevenseas),(HongKong:Zhounghua,HK,1990)p.123,andBaiShouYi

MinzhuZhongJiaoLunji(BaiShouYi’sessaysinminoritiesandtheirreligions)(Beijing:BeijingTeacherTrainingUniversity,1992),pp.365,376.12.Arabicmonsooncalendar:Firstcomposedin1271byRasulidrulersofYemen.SeePaulLunde,“The

NavigatorAhmadIbnMajid.”13.EgyptthetargetofZhengHevisits:AnatoleAndro(ChaoC.Chien),The1421Heresy:AnInvestigationintotheMingChineseMaritimeSurveyoftheWorld(Pasadena,Calif.:,2005),p.32.R.StephenHumphreys,“Egypt

intheWorldSystemoftheLateMiddleAges”CambridgeHistoryofEgypt,vol.1IslamicEgypt640–1517(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1998).14.EgyptvisitedbuthasnotreturnedtributetoChina:MosiliisFustat.

MisrisCairo.JientouisAlexandra.LiAnshan,FeizhouHuqqiaohuarenShi:AHistoryofOverseasChineseinAfrica(Beijing:in“Africanstudiesreview,”vol44,April2001,2000).15.MisrisCairo:JanetL.Abu-Lughod,Cairo:1001YearsoftheCity

Victorius(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,197),pp.1–30.16.CairointheYuanDynasty:ShangYanBing,YuanMarineMerchantsandOverseasVoyagesinNinzuShiYanju(Beijing:MinjuShiYanj2002),p.190.17.Reciprocalvisits

betweenChinaandEgypt:TeobaldiFilesi,ChinaandAfricaintheMiddleAge,”trans.D.Morison(London;FranCass,1972),p.89,and“MerchantsAsDiplomaticRelations,”EternalEgyptwebsite.18.YuanadoptIslamicastronomy:YanCongjian,Shuyu

ZhouziLu.19.InterpretingbetweenEgyptian,Persian,andChinese:ProfessorLiuYingSheng,ACompendiumofYuanHistory,vol.10(Beijing:ChinaRadioandTVPublishingHouse,2005),p.30.

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Chapter7

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Venice:theGreatnessandFallandVenice:theRisetoEmpire;Hibbert’sVenice:BiographyofaCity;Lorenzetti’sVeniceandItsLagoon,thebibleofVenice;andVenice:theMasqueofItalybyBrion.ThesefourknowVenicelikethebackoftheirhand,anditwouldbeimpertinentofmetoattempttoimproveontheirrichdescriptions.Ihavequotedextensivelyfromthem.

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Riviere-Sestier,M.“VeniceandtheIslands.”London:GeorgeG.Harrap&Company1956.

Thompson,GuinnarPhD.

“TheFriarsMAPofAncientAmerica1360AD.”WA:PubLauraLeeProductions,1996.

D.BibliographyforChapters8and9

Beck,James.“LeonBattistaAlbertiandtheNightSkyatSanLorenzo.”ArtibusetHistoriae10,no.19(1989):9–35.

Brown,PatriciaFortini.

“LaetenturCaeli:TheCouncilofFlorenceandtheAstronomicalFrescointheOldSacristy.”JournaloftheWarburgandCourtauldInstitute44(1981):176ff.

Bruckner,GeneA.RenaissanceFlorence.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1969.

Carmichael,AnnG.Plague

andPoorinRenaissanceFlorence.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1986.

Hibbert,Christopher.TheHouseofMedici:ItsRiseandFall1420–1440.London:PenguinBooks,1974.

Hollingsworth,Mary.PatronageinRenaissanceItaly.London:JohnMurray,1994.

Jardine,Lisa.WorldlyGoods:ANewHistoryoftheRenaissance.London:Macmillan,1996.

Olschki,Leonardo.“AsiaticExoticisminItalianArtoftheEarlyRenaissance.”ArtBulletin26,no.2(June1994).

Origo,Iris.TheMerchantofPrato:DailyLifeinaMedievalItalianCity.

London:PenguinBooks,1963.

Plumb,J.H.TheHorizonBookoftheRenaissance.London:Collins,1961.

TaiPengWang.“ZhengHe’sDelegationtothePapalCourtofFlorence.”Thisresearchpaperwasthestimulusforthisbook.Itisavailable,withanextensivebibliography,onourwebsite.Themainpoints

areasfollows:

1. FewknowofToscanelli’sletterstothekingofPortugalandChristopherColumbus,lettersthatreportToscanellimeetingtheChineseambassador.C.R.Markham,trans.,TheJournalsofChristopherColumbusVignaud

HenriHakluytSocietyO.viii).AlsoVignaud“ToscanelliandColumbus”

2. Inthe1430s,ChinadescribedFlorence(seatofthepapacy1434–38)asFulinorFarang.YuLizi,“FulinJiAishiShengdiDiwangBianzheng”(ThecorrectlocationsofFulincountriesand

thebirthplaceofAiShiduringYuanChina),HaijioshiYanjiu(Maritimehistoricalstudies)Quanzhou:(1990–1992):51.

3. DiplomaticexchangesbetweenthepapacyandMingChinahadstartedwithHongWuin1371.SeeZhangXingLang:Zhougxi

JiaotongShiliaoHuibian(CollectedhistoricalsourcesofthehistoryofcontactsbetweenChinaandtheWest),vol.1pp.315.

4. TherearemanyChinesedescriptionsofthepapacyinHongWuandZhuDi’sreign.SeeZhangXingLang,p.331,andYan

CongjianShuyuZhouziLu,atvol.2.AlsoMingshiWaiguaZhuan(ProfilesofforeigncountriesintheMinghistory).

5. ThepapacypaidtributetoChinaduringZhuDi’sreign.MingShiWaiguaZhuan,vol.5,p.47.

6. LumiwasRomein

earlyMingdescriptions.ThenameoriginatedintheSongdynasty,(inwithZhaoChinese)Ruqua,whousedthenameLumeiinhisbookZhufanZhi:DescriptionsofVariousBarbarians(HongKong:UniversityofHongKongPress,2000),pp.231–32.Alsosee

(forcloth)JohnRigbyHall,Renaissance(NewYork;1965),p.78.

7. ThepopesentnumerousdelegationstoChinaduringtheearlyMing.ForWilliamofPrato,seeFangHao,ZhongxiJiatongShi(AhistoryofcontactsbetweenChinaand

Europe),vol.3(Taipei:1953),pp.211–17.FollowingWilliamofPrato,tencardinalswereappointed,oneaslate1426.ZhangGuogangandWuLiwei,MengyuanShidaiXifangZaiHuaZongJiaoXiuhui(ThechurchinYuanChina),inHaijiaoShiYanjiu

(Maritimehistorystudies)(Quanzhou:2003):62.

8. WangTaiPeng,“ZhengHe,WangDayvanandZhengYijun:SomeInsights.”AsianCulture,(Singapore,June2004):pp.54–62.SeealsoW.ScottMortonandCharltonM.Lewis,China,ItsHistoryandCulture

(NewYork:McGraw-Hill,2005),p.128.Inhispaper,TaiPengWangproducesevidencethatYuannavigatorshadmasteredastronavigationsufficientlytocrossoceans.SeeGongZhen,XiyangBanguoZhi(Notesonbarbarian

countriesinthewesternseas),Beijing:Zhounghuabookshop.SeealsoXiFeiLong,YangXi,TangXiren,eds.,ZhongguoJishuShi,JiaotongCh’uan(ThehistoryofChinesescienceandtechnology),vol.ontransportation(Beijing:SciencePublisher,2004),pp.

395–96.9. Itwouldhavebeen

naturalfortheChineseambassadortoissuetheDatongLicalendartothepapalcourt.TheDatongLicotainsastronomicalinformationthesameasthatintheShoushi.

10. JosephNeedhamhaspointedoutthatthe

ShoushiandotherChineseastronomicalcalendarswereastronomicaltreatises.JosephNeedham,ZhougguoGudaiKexue(ScienceintraditionalChina)(Shanghai:ShanghaiBookshop,2000),pp.146–47.

11. NicholasofCusahadpredatedCopernicus

insomerespects.JasperHopkins,“NicholasofCusa”inDictionaryoftheMiddleAges,ed.JosephR.Strayer(NewYork:CharlesScribnerandSons,1987),pp.122–25.SeealsoPaulRobertWalker,TheItalianRenaissance(NewYork:FactsonFile,1995),p.96.

12. SeealsoTaiPengWang,TheOriginofChineseKongsi(KualaLumpur:PerlandUKPublications,1994).

Vignaud,Henri.ToscanelliandColumbus.London:Sands,1902.

SlavesinFlorence

White,Lynn,J.“Tibet,India

andMalayaasSourcesofMedievalTechnology.”AmericanHistoricalReview65,no.3(April1960):515–26.ViewableatJSTOR.

Origo,Iris.“TheDomesticEnemy:TheEasternSlavesinTuscanyintheFourteenthandFifteenthCentury.”Speculum30(1955):321–66.

VincenzoLazzari.“DelTrafficoedellaCondizioni

degliSchiavi.”InVeneziaNeiTempideMezzoMiscellaneadiStoriaItaliana2(1862).

Romano,Denis.“TheRegulationofDomesticServiceinRenaissanceFlorence.”SixteenthCenturyJournal22,no.4(1991).

Man,R.Livi.“LaSciavituDomestica”(20Sept.1920):139–43.ViewableatJSTOR.

LeonardOlschki:“AsiaticExoticisminItalianArtoftheRenaissance.”TheArtBulletin,vol.26,no.24(June,1944),pp.95–106.

TaiPengWang,“1433ZhengHe’sDelegationtothePapalCourtofFlorence”

(2)Toscanelli’sobservationsofcomets—PatriciaFortiniBrown

(3)“LaetenturCaeli”PatriciaFortiniBrown

Johnson,Paul.ThePapacy.London:WeidenfeldandNicolson,1997.

Lorenzetti,Giulio.VeniceandItsLagoon.Rome:institutoPoligraFicoDellostato,1961.(Trs.J.Guthrie)

Markham,C.R.,trans.The

JournalofChristopherColumbus.London:HakluytSociety,1892.

Vignaud,Henri.ToscanelliandColumbus.London:Sands,1902.

Zinner,Ernst.Regiomontanus:HisLifeandWork.TranslatedbyEzraBrown.Leiden:Elsevier,1990.

E.BibliographyforChapters9–12

Bedini,SilvioA.TheChristopherColumbusEncyclopedia.2vols.NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1992.

Bergreen,Lawrence.OvertheEdgeoftheWorld:Megellan’sTerrifyingCircumnavigationoftheGlobe.NewYork:

HarperPerennial,2004.

Davies,Arthur.“Behaim.MartellusandColumbus.”GeographicalJournal143.

Fernández-Armesto,Felipé.Columbus.London:G.Duckworth,1996.

Galvão,Antonio.Tratadodosdiversosedesayadoscaminhos.Lisbon:1563.

Guillemard,F.H.H.TheLifeofFerdinandMagellan.London:G.Philip&Son,1890.

Menzies,Gavin.1421:TheYearChinaDiscoveredAmerica.NewYork:WilliamMorrow,2002.

Orejon,AntonioMuro,etal.,eds.PleitosColumbinos.8vols.Seville:TheHistoryCo-operative,1964–1984.

Pigafetta,Antonio.Magellan’sVoyage.TranslatedbyR.A.Skelton.NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress,1969.

———.Magellan’sVoyage.ANarrativeAccountoftheFirstVoyage.TranslatedandeditedbyR.A.Skelton.London:FolioSociety,1975.

Pigafetta,Antonio,Cdr.A.W.Millar.TheStraitsof

Magellan.Portsmouth:UKGriffin,1884.

Schoenrich,Otto.TheLegacyofColumbus:TheHistoricLitigationInvolvingHisDiscoveries,HisWill,HisFamilyandHisDescendants.(Jun)2vols.Glendale,Calif.:PubArthurHClark,1949.

Vignaud,Henry.ToscanelliandColumbus.London:Sands,1902.


MartinWaldseemüller

FarandawaythemostknowledgeablewriteronWaldseemüllerandhismapsisDr.AlbertRonsin,conservatoroftheBiliothèqueetMuséede

Saint-Dié-des-Vosges.Hisbest-knownworksrelatingtoWaldseemüller’s1507mapare:

———.“Lebaptêmeduquatrièmecontinene,Amérique.”Historia544(April1992).

———.“LacartographeàSaint-DiéaudebutduXVIsiècle.”InPatrimonieetcultureenLorraine.Metz

Serpenoise,1980.

———.“Lacontributionalsacienneaubaptêmedel’Amérique.”BulletindelaSociétéIndus-trielledeMulhouse2(1985).

———.“Découverteetbaptêmedel’Amérique.”EditedbyGeorgeslePape.Jarville,editionsdel’est1992.

———.“LaFortuned’unnom”:America.InLebaptêmedenouveaumondeàSaint-Diédes-Vosges.Grenoble:G.Millon,1991.

———.“L’imprimeriehumanisteàSaint-DiéauXVIesiècle.”In“MélangesKolb.”Wiesbaden:G.Pressler,1969.

Fischer,Joseph,andR.vonWeiser.TheOldestMapwith

theNameAmericaoftheYear1507andtheCartaMarinaoftheYear1516byM.Waldseemüller.London:H.Stevens1903.Fischerfoundthemap.

Harris,Elizabeth.“TheWaldseemüllerWorldMap:ATypographicAppraisal.”ImagoMundi37(1985).

Hébert,JohnR.TheMapThatNamedAmerica:Martin

Waldseemüller1507WorldMap.Washington,D.C.:LibraryofCongress.

JohnHessler:“WarpingWaldseemueller:APhenomenologicalandComputationalstudyofthe1507Worldmap.”Cartographia41(2006):pp.101–113.

Karrow,RobertW.MapmakersoftheSixteenth

CenturyandTheirMaps.Chicago:OrbisPress,1992.

Lestringant,Frank.MappingtheRenaissanceWorld.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1994.

Morison,SamuelEliot.AdmiraloftheOceanSea:ALifeofChristopherColumbus.Boston:1942.(DescribesColumbusbelievinghehadmet

Chinese.)

Rae,John.“OntheNamingofAmerica.”AmericanSpeech39,no.1(Feb.1964).ViewableonJSTOR.(Thisarticlearguesthat“America”wasnotthenamegivenbyWaldseemüllerbutwasgivenbyNativeAmericanswholivedinNicaragua.Theyused“AmerriqueMountains,”whichColumbusmisheard.

Randles,W.G.L.“South-EastAfricaasShownonSelectedPrintedMapsoftheSixteenthCentury.”ImagoMundi13(1956).ViewableonJSTOR.

RavensteinE.G.,“Waldseemüller’sGlobeof1507.”GeographicalJournal20,no.4.ViewableonJSTOR.

Shirley,RodneyW.The

MappingoftheWorld:EarlyPrintedWorldMaps1472–1700.London:HollandPress,1983.

Soulsby,BasilH.“TheFirstMapContainingtheNameAmerica.”GeographicalJournal19(1902).ViewableonJSTOR.

Stevenson,E.L.“MartinWaldseemüllerandtheEarlyLusitano-Germanic

CartographyoftheNewWorld.”BulletinoftheAmericanGeographicalSociety36.

Waldseemüller,Martin.Cosmographiaeintroductio.

AmerigoVespucci

Levillier,Roberto.“NewLightonVespucci’sThirdVoyage.”ImagoMundi11(1954).ViewableonJSTOR.

Markham,C.,ed.,Vespucci:TheLettersandOtherDocumentsIllustrativeofHisCareer.

Sarnow,E.andFrubenbach,K.“MundusNovus,”Strasbourg,1903,subtitle“EinBerichtAmerigoVespuccianLorenzodeMediciÜberSeineReiseNachBrasilienindenJahren1501/1502.”

Thacher,J.Boyd.TheContinentofAmerica:ItsDiscovery;It’sBaptism.NewYork:WilliamEvartsBenjamin,1896.

Part2—SchoenerJohannesSchöner

Cooke,CharlesH.,ed.JohanSchoner.London:HenryStevens,1888.

Correr,Ambassador

Francesco.LettertoSignoriaofVenice.July16,1508.InRaccoltaColumbiana,p.115.TheletterfollowedCorrer’sinterviewwithVespucci;VespuccihadnotfoundthestraitleadingfromtheAtlantictothePacific.

Nordenskiöld,A.E.“RemarkableGlobalMapoftheSixteenthCentury.”JournaloftheAmericanGeographySociety16(1884).

Nunn,GeorgeE.“TheLostGlobeGoresofJohannSchöner,1523–1524:AReview.”GeographicalReview17,no.3(July1927).ViewableonJSTOR.

Ronsin,Albert.“Découverteetbaptêmedel’Amérique.”EditedbyGeorgeslePope.Montreal:EditionsGeorgesLePape,1979.

———.Schöner,Johannes.

LuculentissimaQuoeda¯TerraTotiusDescriptio.Nuremberg,1515.DescribestheStraitofMagellan.

SettlementofSantaFe.[AgreementbetweenCatholicMonarchsandChristopherColumbus.]April17,1492.HeldatDirecciónGeneraldeArchivosyBibliotecas.CapitulacionesdelAlmiranteDonCristóbalColonySalvoConductosParaEl

DescubrimentodeNuevoMundo.Madrid,1970.

Gadol,Joan.LeonBattistaAlberti:UniversalManoftheRenaissance.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1969.

Wang,TaiPeng.

———.“ZhengHe’sDelegationtothePapalCourtofFlorence,1433.”Research

paper.Availableon1434website.

———.“ZhengHe,WangDayuanandZhengYijun:SomeInsights.”AsianCulture.Singapore,June2004:54–62.


Bedini,SilvioA.,ed.TheChristopherColumbusEncyclopedia.2vols.NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1992.

Davies,Arthur.“Behain,MartellusandColumbus.”RGS.GeographicalJournal,vol.143.

Lambert,William.“AbstractoftheCalculationstoAscertaintheLongitudeof

theCapitolintheCityofWashingtonfromGreenwichObservatory,inEngland.”TransactionsoftheAmericanHistoricalSociety.Newseries.Vol.1.ViewableonJSTOR.

Libbrecht,Ulrich.ChineseMathematicsintheThirteenthCentury.Cambridge,Mass:MITPress,1973.

Menzies,Gavin.1421:The

YearChinaDiscoveredAmerica.NewYork:WilliamMorrow,2002.

Needham,Joseph.ScienceandCivilisationinChina.Vols.30Section.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1950.

Zinner,Ernst.Regiomontanus:HisLifeandWork.TranslatedbyEzraBrown.Leiden:Elsevier,

1990.

F.BibliographyforChapters13–14

SelectedWorksofLeonBattistaAlberti:

Depictura,1435

Dellapittura,1436

Dereaedificatoria,1452

Destatua,ca.1446

DescriptiourbisRomae,1447

Ludimatematici,ca.1450

Decomponendriscifris,1467

Gadol,Joan.LeonBattistaAlberti:UniversalManoftheEarlyRenaissance.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1969.Therearemany

excellentbooksonAlberti.JoanGadol’siswrittenforpeoplewhoareneithermathematiciansnorknowledgeableabouttheuseofperspectiveorcryptanalysis.Shewritesinabeautiful,clearstyle,andIhaveusedherbookextensively.

Grayson,Cecil.“edBariLaterza”1973“OpereVolgari,VolTerzo:Trattati

D’arte,LudiRerumMathematicarum,GrammaticadellaLinguaToscana,Opuscol,Amatori,Lettere.”

Needham,Joseph.ScienceandCivilisationinChina.30vols.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1956.

Zinner,Ernst:Regiomontanus:HisLifeandWork.TranslatedbyEzra

Brown.Leiden:Elsevier,1990.

G.BibliographyforChapters15–16

PaoloGalluzzi.TheArtofInvention:LeonardoandtheRenaissanceEngineers(London:Giunti,1996).Thishasbecomethebibleforthe1421team.Galluzzi’sbookislavishlyillustrated,makingitverysimpletocompare

TaccolaandFrancesco’smachinesandseetheevolutionfromTaccolatoFrancescotoLeonardo.WehavestudiedGalluzzi’sbookswithgreatcare,thencomparedthedrawingswithChinesebooksexistingbefore1430.

Clark,Kenneth.LeonardodaVinci.Rev.ed.IntroductionbyMartinKemp.London:PenguinBooks,1993.

Cianchi,Marco.Leonardo’sMachines.Florence:BecocciEditore,1984.ThisisaveryclearandconcisesummaryproducedusingtheLeonardianLibraryofVinci.

“SurlespasdeLéonarddeVinci.”GonzagueSaintBris—PressesdelaRenaissance.Gonzague’sfamilytheSaintBrisownedthechâteauofClos-Lucéforthreecenturies.

Cooper,MargaretRice.TheInventionsofLeonardodaVinci.NewYork:Macmillan,1965.

DengYinke.AncientChineseInventions.HongKong:ChinaIntercontinentalPress,2005.

GaldiG.P.,Leonardo’sHelicopterandArchimedes’Screw:ThePrincipleofActionandReaction.

Florence:AccademiaLeonardodaVinci,1991.

Galluzzi,Paolo.Leonardo,EngineerandArchitect.Montreal,1987.

Hart,IvorB.TheWorldofLeonardodaVinci,ManofScience,EngineerandDreamerofFlight.London:Macdonald,1961.

Heydenreich,Ludwig,Bern

Dibner,andLadislaoReti.LeonardotheInventor.London:Hutchinson,1980.

“ParcLeonardodaVinci—ChâteauduClos-Lucé—Amboise”—BeauxArts(Leonardo’shome1516to1519,thelast3yearsofhislife)

Kemp,Martin.LeonardodaVinci:Experience,ExperimentandDesign.

London:V&APublishing,2006.Thisislavishlyillustratedandveryreadable.

Needham,Joseph.ScienceandCivilisationinChina.7vols.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1956–.

PedrettiCarlo,andAugustoMarinoni.CodexAtlanticus.Milan:Giunti,2000.

Pedretti,Carlo.

“L’elicottero.”InStudiVinciani.Geneva,StudiVinciani:1957.

Peers,Chris.WarlordsofChina700BCtoAD1662.

Reti,Ladislao.“HelicoptersandWhirligigs.”RaccoltaVinciana20(1964):331–38.

Rosheim,MarkElling.Leonardo’sLostRobots.Heidelberg:Springer,2006.

SaintBris-Clos-Lucé,Jean.“LeonardodaVinci’sFabulousMachinesatClos-LucéinAmboise,”BeauxArts,1995.

Taddei,Mario,andEdoardoZanon,eds.Leonardo’sMachines:DaVinci’sInventionsRevealed.TextbyDomenicoLaurenza.Cincinnati:DavidandCharles,2006.Thisprovidesaverycleararrayof

illustrationsfrompp.18–25.

Temple,Robert.TheGeniusofChina:3,000YearsofScience,Discovery&Invention.London:Prion,1998.

Wray,William.LeonardodaVinciinHisOwnWords.NewYork:GramercyBooks,2005.

Zollner,Frank,andJohannes

Nathan.LeonardodaVinci.Comprehensive,fullyillustratedcatalogue.Cologne,2003.

FrancescodiGiorgioMartini.Trattatodiarchitetura.PresentedinBibliotecaComunale,Siena(firstdraft);BibliotecaNazionaleSiena;andLaurenzianaLibrary,Florence(Leonardo’scopy).

H.Bibliographyfor

Chapters17–19

Gablehouse,Charles.HelicoptersandAutogiros.Philadelphia:J.B.Lippincott,1967.

Galluzzi,Paolo.TheArtofInvention:LeonardoandtheRenaissanceEngineers.Florence:Gunti,1996.

Jackson,Robert.TheDragonflies—TheStoryof

HelicoptersandAutogiros.ArthurBarker:London,1971.

LeonardodaVinci.CodexB(2173).NellIstitodiFranckI.ManoscrittieIdisegnidiLeonardodaVinci.Vol.5.Rome;andRealeCommissioneVinciana,1941.

Needham,Joseph.ScienceandCivilisationinChina.7vols.30section.Cambridge

UniversityPress,1956–.VolIV,Pt2.pp580–585.

Parsons,WilliamBarclay.EngineersandEngineeringintheRenaissance.TheWilliamsandWilkinsCompany:Baltimore,1939.

Prager,FrankD.,andGiustinaScaglia.MarianoTaccolaandHisbookDeIngeneis.Cambridge,Mass.:MITPress,1972.

Promis,Carlo,ed.VitadiFrancescodiGiorgioMartini.Turin,1841.

Reti,Ladislao.“FrancescodiGiorgioMartini’sTreatiseonEngineeringandItsPlagiarists.”TechnologyandCulture4,no.3(1963):287–93.JohnHopkinsUniversityPress.

———.“HelicoptersandWhirligigs.”Raccolta

Vinciana20(1964):331–38.

Singer,Charles.AHistoryofTechnology.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1954–58.vol.2.Taccola,MarianodiJacopoditto.

DeIngereisIandII(c.1430–1433)IIIandIVafter1434

DeMachinisafter1435inBibliotecaNazionaleCentrale,Florence.

Wellers,Stuart.FrancescodiGiorgioMartini1439–1501.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1943.p340.

White,Lynn,Jr.“InventionoftheParachute.”TechnologyandCulturev.9,no.3(July1968):462–67.UniversityofChicagoPress

———.MedievalTechnologyandSocialChange.Oxford:Oxford

UniversityPress,1962.p86–87

Braudel,Fernand.“TheMediterraneaninthetimeofPhilipII.”TranslatedbySianReynoldsFontana.London,1966.

Hibbert,Christopher.TheHouseofMedici:ItsRiseandFall,1420–1440.London:PenguinBooks,1974.

Hobson,John.TheEasternOriginsofWesternCivilization.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2006.

Molà,Luca.“TheSilkIndustryofRenaissanceVenice.”AmericanHistoricalReview106,no.3(June2001).ViewableonJSTOR.Thisgivesagoodchronologicaldescription,whichIhaveextensively

used.

Needham,Joseph.ScienceandCivilisationinChina.7vols.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1956–.

NungShu.—

Reti,Ladislao.“FrancescoDiGiorgioMartini’sTreatiseonEngineeringandItsPlagiarists.”TechnologyandCulture4,no.3(1963):287–

93.JohnHopkinsUniversityPress.Shapiro,Sheldon.“TheOriginoftheSuctionPump.”TechnologyandCulture5,no.4(Autumn1964):566–74.ViewableonJSTOR.JohnHopkinsUniversityPress


Thorley,John.“TheSilkTradeBetweenChinaandtheRomanEmpireatItsHeightCircaA.D90–130.”GreeceandRome.2ndseries,vol.18,no.1,(April1971):71–80.JSTOR.

Dixon,GeorgeCampbell.Venice,VicenzaandVerona.London:NicholasKaye,1959.

LonelyPlanet.‘China’A

TravelSurvivalGuide.Sydney:LonelyPlanet1988.

Needham,Joseph.ScienceandCivilisationinChina.Vol28.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1956–.

Parsons,WilliamBarclay.EngineersandEngineeringintheRenaissance.Rev.ed.IntroductionbyRobertS.Woodbury.Cambridge,Mass:MITPress,1968.

Thisistheacceptedbible.ItisveryusefulforRenaissanceengineersbutignoresanyChineseinput.ParsonsseestheRenaissanceasaquasi-religiouseventandLeonardoasademigod.HeignoresthequestionofhowsomanynewmachinesmanagedtoappearatthesametimeinItaly;andofhowdifferentartistsdrewthesameentirelynew

machinesindifferentpartsatthesametime—viz.thepumpsofTaccola,Alberti,Fontana,andPisanello.Thesubjectofcopyingfromearlierbooksisnotaddressed.HisexplanationofthedevelopmentofLombard’scanalsisexcellent.

Payne,Robert.TheCanalBuilders.NewYork:Macmillan,1959.

Temple,Robert.TheGeniusofChina:3,000YearsofScienceDiscovery&Invention.London:Prion,1998.

Biringuccio,Vannoccio.Pirotechnia.TranslatedbyCyrilS.SmithandMarthaT.Gnudi.NewYork,1942.ViewableonarticleJSTOR.

Butters,Suzanne.TriumphofVulcan—Sculptors’Tools,

Porphyry,andthePrinceinDucalFlorence.Florence:LeoS.Olschki,1996.

“Porphyry,andthePrinceinDucalFlorence.”SixteenthCenturyJournal28,no.1(Spring1997):286–87.ViewableonJSTOR.

Clagett,Marshall.TheLifeandWorksofGiovanniFontana.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1976.

Fontana’sprincipalworksare:

Novacompositiohorologii(clocks)

Horologiumaqueum(waterclock)

Tractatusdepisce,caneevolvere(atreatiseonmeasurementofdepths,lengths,surfaceareas)

Bellicoruminstrumentorumlibercumfigurisetfictitiisliterisconscriptus(writtenincipher;

(seeAlberti,Compondendiscifris)

Secretumdethesauroexperimentorumyimaginationishominum

NotesonAlhazen

Tractatusdetrigonobalistario(Anextraordinarilydetailedhandbookofcalculatinglengthsanddistancesbytrigonometry;seeAlberti,Deartepictoria(ca.1440)andDespherasolida(ca.1440).

Liberdeomnibusrebusnaturalibus(thebookanalyzedbyLynnThorndikein“Unidentified

Work.”

Eichstadt,KonradKyservon.Bellifortis(Warfortifications).1405.Thisdescribesrockets.

Foley,Vernard,andWernerSoedel.“Leonardo’sContributionstoTheoreticalMechanics.”ScientificAmerican(1983):255.ViewableonJSTOR

Fontana,Giovannidi.Liberbellicoruminstrumentorum.Munich:BayerischeStaatsbibliothek,c.1420.

Goodrich,L.Carrington,andFêngChia-Shêng.“TheEarlyDevelopmentofFirearmsinChina.”Isis36,no.2(Jan.1946):114–23.ViewableonJSTOR.Thishasbeenofmajorvaluetoourresearchandmakesthefollowingspecificpoints:

TheWuChungTsungYao,compiledin1044byTsêngKung-Liang,discussesgunpowdermanufacture,bombs,trebuchets,andgrenadesfiredbygunpowder.Explodingarrowswereusedin1126.Mortarswereusedin1268.Exploding

cannonballswereinuseby1281.AlengthysectiononZhuDi’sweaponsmentionslandmines(“anestofwasps”).Everyunitof100menhad20shields,30bows,and40firearms.Everythreeyearsafter1380thebureauofmilitaryweaponsturnedout3,000

bronzeCh’ungmusketsand90,000bullets.Theexplodingweaponsafter1403weremanufacturedfromdriedcopperwithamixtureofrefinedandunrefined.Fuseswereinusefromthethirteenthcentury.Theearliestcannonsweredated1356,1357,and

1377.Flame-throwingdeviceswereusedfrom1000,andbulletssince1259.

LiuChi.HuoLungChing,(Firedrakeartillerymanual).

Part1.Needham,Joseph.Vol.V,Pt.7.MilitaryTechnology:TheGunpowderEpic.JosephNeedham,withthecollaborationofHoPing-

Yu[HoPeng-Yoke],LuGwei-djenandWangLing,1987.

ForLeonardo,crossbow,andgunpowder,seearsenicsulphidesaddedtogunpowder,p.51;trebuchets(LeonardoandTaccola),p.204;missiles,p.205;“eruption,”mortar,p.266;trebuchet,p.281;Seven-barreledRibaudequin(seePisanellosketches),p.322;

rocketlauncher,p.487;machinegun,p.164;mortars,p.165;handguns,p.580;aerialcars,p.571;poisonousprojectiles,p.353;rocketsandmissiles,p.516;riffling;p.411;breechblock,p.429.

Schubert,H.R.HistoryoftheBritishIronandSteelIndustryfrom450B.C.toA.D.1775.London:Routledge&KeganPaul,1957.

Spencer,JohnR.“Filarete’sDescriptionofaFifteenthCenturyItalianIronSmelteratFerriere.”TechnologyandCulture4,no.2(Spring1963):201–6.ViewableonJSTOR.


Thorndike,Lynn.“AnUnidentifiedWorkbyGiovannidiFontana:LiberdeOmnibusRebus.”LynnThorndike,Isis15,no.1(Feb.1931):31–46.ViewableonJSTOR.DescriptionofAmericaonp.37;Australia,p.38;IndianOcean,p.39;NiccolòdaConti,p.40;gunpowder,p.42.

A.StuartWeller,“FrancescodiGiorgioMartini1439–

1501”.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1943.

Wertime,TheodoreA.“AsianInfluencesonEuropeanMetallurgy.”TechnologyandCulture5,no.3(Summer1964):pp.391–97.ViewableonJSTOR.

———.TheComingoftheAgeofSteel.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1962.

White,LynnJr.“Tibet,IndiaandMalayaasSourcesofWesternMedievalTechnology.”AmericanHistoricalReview15,no.3(April1960):520.ViewableonJSTOR.

WuChungTsungYao.Songdynasty,ca.1044.

Allmand,Christopher.TheNewCambridgeMedievalHistory,Volume7,editedby

ChristopherAllmand.CambridgeUniversityPress,1998.

Bouchet,Henri.ThePrintedBook:ItsHistory,IllustrationandAdornmentFromtheDaysofGutenbergtothePresentTime.TranslationbyEdwardBigmore.NewYork:ScribnerandWelford,1887.

Carter,ThomasFrancis.TheInventionofPrintingin

ChinaandItsSpreadWestward.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1925.

Carmichael,AnnG.PlagueandthePoorinRenaissanceFlorence.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1986.

DengYinke.AncientChineseInventions.HongKong:ChinaIntercontinentalPress,

2005.

I.BibliographyforChapter20

Hessel,J.H.Haarlem,TheBirthplaceofPrinting.London:ElliotStockandCo.,1887.

Humphreys,H.N.AHistoryoftheArtofPrinting.London:BernardQuaritch,1868.

McMurtrie,Douglas.TheBook:TheStoryofPrintingandBookmaking.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1948.

MoranJames.PrintingPresses:HistoryandDevelopmentfromtheFifteenthCenturytoModernTimes.London:FaberandFaber,1973.

Ottley,WilliamYoung.An

InquiryintotheInventionofPrinting.London:JosephLilly,1863.

———.AnInquiryintotheOriginandEarlyHistoryofEngravinguponCopperandinWood.London:JohnandArthurArch,1816.

Needham,Joseph.ScienceandCivilisationinChina.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1955.Vol.

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Ruppel,A.,Gutenberg:SeinLebenandSeinwerk(HisLifeandHisWork),secondedition.Berlin:Mann,1947.

Singer,SamuelWeller.ResearchintotheHistoryofPlayingCards.OxfordUniversity:1816.

YoucanreadthewholebookonGooglefollowingthis

link:http://books.google.com/books?id=_WAOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage.

TheHaarlemLegendoftheInventionofPrintingbyCoster.TranslatedbyAVanderLinde.London:Blades,EastandBlades,1871.

Wu,K.T.“TheDevelopmentofPrintinginChina.”T’ienHsiaMonthly3(1936).

Wu,K.T.,andWuKuang-Ch’ing.“MingPrintingandPrinters.”HarvardJournalofAsiaticStudies7,no.3.(Feb.1943):203–60.ViewableonJSTOR.

J.BibliographyforChapter21

AntoniodeBilhaoPato,Raymondo,ed.CartasdeAlfonsodeAlbuquerqueSeguidesdedocumentosque

aselucidam.7vols.Lisbon:1884–1955.Vol.1,letter10(April1512),pp.29–65.TranslatedbyE.ManuelStock.

Aslaksen,Helmer,andNgSayTiong.“Calendars,Interpolation,GnomonsandArmillarySpheresintheWorkofGuoShoujing(1231–1314).”Article.DeptofMathematics,UniversityofSingpore2000–2001.

Cortesão,Jaime.“ThePre-ColumbianDiscoveryofAmerica.”GeographicalJournal89,no.1:39.Davies,Arthur.“Behaim,MartellusandColumbus.”RoyalGeographicalSocietyJournal143,pt.3:451–59.

Gadol,Joan.LeonBattistaAlberti:UniversalManoftheEarlyRenaissance.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1969.

Johannessen,Carl,andSorensonJohn.BiologyVerifiesAncientVoyages.(unpublished)

SorensonJohnL.andMartinH.RaishPre-ColumbiancontactwiththeAmericansacrosstheoceans,anannotatedbibliography,secondedition,2vols.Provo,Utah:ResearchPress,1996.

ProfessorLiuManchum.

Mui,Rosa,PaulDong,andZhouXinYan.“AncientChineseAstronomerGanDeDiscoveredJupiter’sSatellites2000YearsEarlierThanGalileo.”UnpublishedarticlesenttoauthorbyRosaMuionMay22,2003.

Sorenson,JohnL.,andMartinH.Raish.Pre-ColumbianContactwiththeAmericansAcrosstheOceans.Provo,Utah:

ResearchPress,1990.

Swerdlow,NoelM.“TheDerivationandFirstDraftofCopernicus’sPlanetaryTheory.”ProceedingsoftheAmericanPhilosophicalSociety117,no.6(31Dec.1973).ViewableonJSTOR.

Thompson,Gunnar,Ph.D.TheFriar’sMapofAncientAmerica,1360AD.Bellevue,WA:LauraLeeProductions,

1996.


AntoniodeBilhaoPato,Raymondo,ed.CartasdeAlfonsodeAlbuquerqueSeguidesdedocumentosqueaselucidam.7vols.Lisbon:1884–1955.Vol.1,letter10

(April1512),pp.29–65.TranslatedbyE.ManuelStock.

Aslaksen,Helmer,andNgSayTiong.“Calendars,Interpolation,GnomonsandArmillarySpheresintheWorkofGuoShoujing(1231–1314).”Article.DeptofMathematics,UniversityofSingpore,2000–2001.

Cortesão,Jaime.“ThePre-

ColumbianDiscoveryofAmerica.”GeographicalJournal89,no.1:39.

Davies,Arthur.“Behaim,MartellusandColumbus”RoyalGeographicalSocietyJournal143,pt.3:451–59.

Gadol,Joan.LeonBattistaAlberti:UniversalManoftheEarlyRenaissance.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1969.

Beals,KandSteele,H,UniversityofOregonAnthropologicalPaperNo.23,Oregon1981.

K.BibliographyforChapter22

Fernandez-Cobo,Marianna,andcolleagues.“StrainsofJCVirusinAmerind-speakersofNorthAmerica(Salish)andSouthAmerica(Guarani),Na-DenespeakersofNew

Mexico(Navajo)andmodernJapanesesuggestlinksthroughanAncestralAsianPopulation.”AmericanJournalofPhysicalAnthropology,118,154–168(2002)

Keddie,Grant.“ContributionstoHumanHistory,”No.3,RoyalBritishColumbiaMuseum,Vancouver,B.C.1990

Macedo,JustoCaceres.“Pre-HispanicCulturesofPeru”,PeruvianNaturalHistoryMuseum,Lima,Peru,1985

Novick,Gabrielandcolleagues.“Polymorphic-AluInsertionsandtheAsianoriginofNativeAmericanPopulations”in“HumanBiology”,Vol.70,No.1,1988Rostoworski,Maria.HistoryoftheIncaRealm.Cambridge:Cambridge

UniversityPress,1999.

PERMISSIONS

Iamgratefultothefollowingforpermittingmetoquotetheirwork:

Chapter1:HenryTsai,“PerpetualHappiness:TheMingEmperorYongle,”Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2001;

EdwardL.Dreyer,“ZhengHe:ChinaandtheoceansintheearlyMingDynasty,1405–1433,”onpage6andpage144,PearsonLongman,2006(www.ablongman.com).

Chapter2:HenryTsai,asabove;EdwardL.Dreyer,asabove;TaiPengWang;JosephNeedham,“ScienceandCivilisationinChina,”Vol.19,pp.49–50and109–

110(Vol.19)andVol.32pp.100–175,CambridgeUniversityPress,1954–;ProfessorAnthonyReid,“SouthEastAsiaintheAgeofCommerce1450–1680,”Vol.2,“ExpansionandCrisis”onpage39,YaleUniversityPress,1993;RichardHall“EmpiresoftheMonsoon—AHistoryoftheIndianOceananditsInvaders,”HarperCollins,1996.

Chapter3:ThatcherE.Deane,“InstrumentsandObservationsattheImperialAstronomicalBureauduringtheMingDynasty,”onpp.126–140,Osiris2ndseries,Vol.9,1994.JSTOR(UniversityofChicagoPress);JosephNeedham,asabove(SphericalTrigonometry),Vol.19pp.49–50and109–110,CambridgeUniversityPress,1954–;“AncientChinese

Inventions”ed.DengYinke,ChinaIntercontinentalPress;RosaMui,PaulDong,andZhouXinYam,“AncientChineseAstronomerGanDeDiscoveredJupiter’sSatellites2000YearsEarlierthanGalileo”;ProfessorHelmerAslaksenandNgSayTiong,“Calendars,Interpolation,GnomonsandArmillarySpheresintheWorkofGuoShouJing(1231–1314),”Departmentof

Mathematics,NationalUniversityofSingapore.

Chapter4:ProfessorRobertCribbs.

Chapter5:PaulLunde,“TheNavigatorAhmadIbnMajid”;RichardHall“EmpiresoftheMonsoon”atpp.88,128,asabove;IbnBattuta,“TheTravelsofIbnBattuta,”AD1325–1354pp.773,813,Trs.H.A.R.Gibb

andC.F.Beckingham,1994,HakluytSociety,London,1994.TheHakluytSocietywasestablishedin1846forthepurposeofprintingrareorunpublishedvoyagesandtravels.Forfurtherinformationpleaseseetheirwebsiteat:www.hakluyt.com;StanleyLanePool,“AHistoryofEgyptintheMiddleAges,”1894.

Chapter6:C.A.Redmount,“TheWadiTumilatandtheCanalofthePharaohs,”JournalofNearEasternStudies54,1995.JSTOR,UniversityofChicagoPress;StanleyLanePool,“AHistoryofEgyptintheMiddleAges,”asabove;JamesAldridge,“Cairo:BiographyofaCity,”Macmillan,1969,reproducedwithpermissionofPalgraveMacmillan;R.L.Hudson,

“ChinesePorcelainfromFustat,”TheBurlingtonMagazineforConnoisseursVol.61,No.354(Sept.1932),JSTOR—TheUniversityofChicago;FernandBrandel,“AHistoryofCivilisations,”Trs.RichardMayne,1995,reproducedbypermissionofPenguinBooksLtd.

Chapter7:FernandBrandel,“TheMediterraneaninthe

TimeofPhilipII,”reproducedbypermissionofPenguinBooksLtd.;JohnJuliusNorwich“AHistoryofVenice,”1983,reproducedbypermissionofPenguinBooksLtd.;FrancisM.Rogers,“ThetravelsoftheInfanteDomPedroofPortugal,”pp.46–49,256–266,325,Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,Copyright©1961bythePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege;

EuropeanJournalofHumanGenetics(2006)14(478–487);“Tibet,IndiaandMalayaasSourcesofWesternMedievalTechnology,”LynWhiteJr.,AmericanHistoricalReviewVol.65,No.3(1960)JSTOR;IrisOrigo,“TheMerchantofPrato:DailyLifeinamedievalItaliancity,”1992,reproducedbypermissionofPenguinBooksLtd.

Chapter8:LeonardOlschilli,“AsiaticExoticisminItalianArtoftheEarlyRenaissance,”TheArtBulletinVol.26,No.2(June1944)JSTOR;TimothyJ.McGee“DinnerMusicfortheFlorentineSignoria,1350–1450,”Speculumvol.14,no.1,Jan1999,JSTOR;MaryHollingsworth,“PatronageinRenaissanceItaly,”JohnMurray,1994;JamesBeck,“LeonBattistaAlbertiandthe

‘NightSky’atSanLorenzo,”ArtibusetHistoriae,Vol.10,No.19(1989)JSTOR;PatriciaFortiniBrown,“LaetenturCaeli:theJournalofFlorenceandtheAstronomicalFrescointheoldsociety,”JournaloftheWarburgandCourtauldInstitutes,Vol.44,1981,JSTOR.

Chapter9:ErnstZinner,“Regiomontanus:hislifeand

work,”Trs.E.Brown,Isis,Vol.83,No.4(Dec.,1992),pp.650–652,Amsterdam.

Chapter10:MarcelDestombesquotedbyProfessorArthurDavies,RoyalGeographicSocietyRecords,vol.143p.3;ErnstZinner“Regiomontanus:hislifeandwork,”Trs.E.Brown,asabove;“TheCatholicEncyclopedia”;YangLongShan,“Zhuyn

ZhouchuiLu”;JoanGadol,“LeonBattistaAlberti,UniversalManoftheEarlyRenaissance,”JSTOR,UniversityofChicagoPress,1969.

Chapter13:E.Zinner“Regiomontanus:hislifeandwork,”asabove.

Chapter14:JoanGadol,pp.155,159,asabove.

Chapter15:RobertTemple,“TheGeniusofChina:3,000YearsofScience,DiscoveryandInvention,”pp.243,259,animprintofCarltonPublishingGroup,20MortimerSt.,LondonW1T3SW;ChrisPeers,“WarlordsofChina700BCtoAD1662,”1998,ArmsandArmourPress,ImprintofCassellGroup,WellingtonHouse,125Strand,London;“AncientChineseInventions”

p.112,ChinaIntercontinentalPress;LynnWhite,Jr.,“TheInventionoftheParachute,”TechnologyandCulture9:3(1963),462–467.©SocietyfortheHistoryofTechnology.ReprintedwithpermissionofTheJohnHopkinsUniversityPress;Reti,Ladisloa,“FrancescodiGiorgioMartini’sTreatiseonEngineeringandItsPlagiarists,”TechnologyandCulture,4:3(1963),287.©

SocietyfortheHistoryofTechnology.ReprintedwithpermissionofTheJohnHopkinsUniversityPress;FrankD.PragerandGustinaScaglia,“MarianoTaccolaandhisbookdeIngeneis,”MITPress,1972;PaoloGalluzzi,“TheArtofInvention:LeonardoandtheRenaissanceEngineers.”

Chapter17:JohnHobson,“TheEasternOriginsof

WesternCivilisation,”CambridgeUniversityPress,2004;JosephNeedham,“ScienceandCivilisationinChina,”Vol.28,p.225,asabove;SheldonShapiro,“TheOriginoftheSuctionPump,”TechnologyandCulture5,(1964),571.©SocietyfortheHistoryofTechnology.ReprintedwithpermissionofTheJohnHopkinsUniversityPress;ChristopherHibbert,“TheRiseandFallofthe

HouseofMedici,”1974,reproducedbypermissionofPenguinBooksLtd.

Chapter18:“TheGeniusofChina:3,000YearsofScience,DiscoveryandInvention,”RobertTemple,asabove;JosephNeedham,“ScienceandCivilisationinChina,”asabove;WilliamBarclayParsons,“EngineersandEngineeringintheRenaissance,”Baltimore,

1939.

Chapter19:JohnR.Spencer,“Filarete’sDescriptionofaFifteenthCenturyItalianIronSmelteratFerriere,”TechnologyandCulture4:2(1963),201–206.©SocietyfortheHistoryofTechnology,reprintedwithpermissionofTheJohnHopkinsUniversityPress;LynThorndyke,“AnUnidentifiedWorkby

Giovannida’Fontana:Liberdeomnibusrebusnaturalibus,”Isis,Vol.15,No.1,Tab.1031pp.31–46,JSTOR;Wertime,TheodoreA.,“TheComingofAgeofSteel,”TechnologyandCulture,5:3(1962),pp.391–397.©SocietyfortheHistoryofTechnology,reprintedwithpermissionofTheJohnHopkinsUniversityPress;RobertTemple,“TheGeniusofChina:3,000Years

ofScience,DiscoveryandInvention,”asabove;JosephNeedham,asabove;AllenStuartWellers,“FrancescodiGiorgioMartini,1439–1501,”Chicago,1943.

Chapter20:“AncientChineseInventions,”asabove;JosephNeedham,asabove.

Chapter21:Dr.GunnarThompson;ErnstZinner,as

above;NoelM.Swerdlow,“TheDerivationandFirstDraftofCopernicus’sPlanetaryTheory:ATranslationoftheCommentarioluswithCommentary,”ProceedingsoftheAmericanPhilosophicalSociety,Vol.117,No.6,SymposiumonCopernicus(Dec.31,1973),pp.423–512,JSTOR,UniversityofChicagoPress;NewEncyclopaedia

Britannica,15thedition,1994,EncyclopaediaBritannica,Inc.

PHOTOGRAPHCREDITS

Iamverygratefultothefollowingforpermittingmetoreproducethebeautifulillustrationsinthisbook:

InternalBlack-and-WhiteImages

WendiWatson:Ellipse

aroundthesundiagram;Latitudediagram;Longitudediagram;Positionofshipsdiagram;ShipABandpointCdiagram;Lunarmansion;Torquetumdiagram;Starmapdiagram.

TheGeneralCollectionofChineseClassicsofScienceandTechnology;TheNungShu;theChineseScienceandTechnologicalHistoryReview;TheFireDragon

Book:Chinesemeasuringheight;Chinesecannon;Chineserevolvingtypetableprinting;Chinesearticulatedsiegeladder;Chinesewaterpoweredhorizontalwheel;Chinesewaterwheelbucketpump;ChineseOxchainpump;Chinesehorsemill;Chineseverticalwaterwheel;Chinesechainpump;Chinesewaterpoweredmachine;Chineseloomandspinningmachine;Chineseirrigation;

Irrigationwheel;Chinesetilthammer;Chinesewaterpoweredbellow;Chinesecannonballsandpetards;DragonKite;Chinesetrebuchet;Chinesefirelance;Chinesearmoredship;Chinesemobilesiegeladder;Chinesemobileshield;Chinesecrossbow;Chineseanimalswithspears;Chineseanimalswithfire;Chinesefortress.

BibliotecaNacionaldeEspaña,Madrid:fromLeonardo’sMadridCodices:Leonardotoothgearedwheels,fol.15v;Leonardocranks,chaindrives,fol.35v;Leonardocrossbow,fol.51r;

BibliotecaAmbrosiana,Milano:fromLeonardo’sCodexAtlanticus:Leonardopaddleboat,fol.954r;Leonardoparachute,fol.1058v;Leonardocannon,fol.

154v;Leonardoprintingpress,fol358r-b;Leonardomachinegun,fol.56v.

BayerischeStaatsbibliothek,Munchen:Taccola’swaterpoweredbellows.CodexLatinusMonacensis197pt.II,fol.43v;Taccolafirelance.CodexLatinusMonacensis197pt.II,fol.75v;Taccolahorsewithspears.CodexLatinusMonacensis28800,

fol.67v;Taccoladogswithfire.CodexLatinusMonacensis197pt.II,fol.67r.

BibliotecaComunale,Siena:Italiancannonballsandpetards.Ms.D.IV,fol.48v;Italianarmoredboat.Ms.S.IV,fol.49r.

BibliotequeNationaledeFrance,Paris:Santinihorsemill.ManuscriptLat.7239,

fol.50r;PisanelloMongolsketches;AlbertiskyCanisMajor;PisanelloMongolface.

BibliotecaApostolicaVaticano:AnonymousSieneseparachute.Ms.Additional,fol.200v;DiGiorgiowaterpoweredhorizontalwheel.Ms.LatimusUrbinate1757,fol.138r

BibliotecaMediceaLeurenziana,Firenze:DiGiorgiomeasuringheight.Ms.Ashburnham361,fol.29r;DiGiorgiochainpump.Ms.Ashburnham361,fol.35r.

BibliotecaNazionaleCentraleFirenze:Taccolawaterwheelbucketpump.ManuscrittoPalatino767,p.11;Taccolaoxchainpump.ManuscrittoPalatino766,p.

19;Taccolaverticalwaterwheel.Ms.Palantino767,p.65;DiGiorgiomobilesiegeladder.Ms.II.I.141,fol.201r;DiGiorgiomobileshields.Ms.Palatino767,p.143.

BritishMuseum,London:AnonymousSieneseEngineer,flyingman.Ms.Additional34113,fol.189v;DiGiorgiotrebuchet.Ms.197,b.21,fol.3v.

CambridgeUniversityPress:Chinesetoothedgearwheels.Needhamvol.4,pt.2,sect.27,p.85;Cranks,chaindriveChina.Needhamvol.4,pt.2,sect.27,p.102;Chinesepaddleboat.Needhamp.431;Chineseflyingcar.Needhamp.572.

ColorInsertImages

Iammostgratefultothefollowingforallowingthe

reproductionoftheirphotographs:

Colorinsert1:ZhengHeinMalacca,2007,©IanHudson

Colorinsert1:1418/1763LiuGangmap,2007,©LiuGang

Colorinsert1:SummerPalace,Beijing,bronzefigureonmarble.©LibraryofCongress,Washington,D.C.;

SummerPalace,Beijing,1902.©LibraryofCongress,Washington,D.C.

Colorinsert1:TheForbiddenCity,Beijing,2007.©IanHudson

Colorinsert1:TheGreatWallofChinaatSimatai,2007.©IanHudson;Blueandwhiteporcelain.©PercivalDavidFoundation.

Colorinsert1:Chinesejunk,1906.©LibraryofCongress,Washington,D.C.;Camelsatsunset,2007.©IanHudson

Colorinsert1:RedSea,2007.©IanHudson;Cairo/Nilelithograph.©LibraryofCongress,Washington,D.C.

Colorinsert2:Venicepanorama,1900.©LibraryofCongress,Washington,D.C.

Colorinsert2:Venicemap,©Doge’sPalaceMuseum,Venice.

Colorinsert2:Schönerglobes,1515and1520;TheStraightsofMagellan.

Colorinsert2:©GavinMenzies,Waldseemüllermap,Americaswithnewlatitudesandlongitudes;MapshowingWaldseemüllerprojectedontoaglobe,ascorrectedby

GavinMenzies.

Colorinsert2:TheWaldsemüllermapof1507sidebysidewiththeWaldsemüller1506“GreenGlobe,”©BibliothequeNacionaledeFrance,Paris.

Colorinsert28:MapshowingCGA5aprojectedoverWaldsemüller.©BibliotecaEstense,Modena.

Colorinsert3:PopePiusII,Pinturicchio.

Colorinsert3:Florence;LeonardodaVinci(self)portrait.

Colorinsert3:Renaissancetimeline.WendiWatsonand©GavinMenzies

Colorinsert3:Needham’spostcard.©PepysianLibrary,MagdalenCollege;

1408Ephemeris.table,©PepysianLibrary,MagdalenCollege

Colorinsert3:Regiomontanus’Ephemeristable,©BritishLibrary;ArmillarysphereatBeijingObservatory.©GunnarThompson.

Colorinsert3:Submarinesurfacing,©GavinMenzies;Dr.S.L.LeeMedallion.©

Dr.S.L.Lee.

SEARCHABLETERMS

Note:Entriesinthisindex,carriedoververbatimfromtheprinteditionofthistitle,areunlikelytocorrespondtothepaginationofanygivene-bookreader.However,entriesinthisindex,andotherterms,maybeeasilylocatedbyusingthesearchfeatureof

youre-bookreader.

Pagereferencesinitalicsrefertoillustrations.

Abbott,Dallas,260,261Adamic,Louis,241–42Aden,40,44AeneasSylviusPiccolomini,133–34Africa

Arabsin,58Chineseto,4,41,43,48citrustreesin,252Florentineknowledgeof,97onmapsandglobes,66,106,107,

111,112,128,286Merinosheepfrom,282monsoonsand,39,40Portugueseexploitationof,104,111,115,121,287tsunamiin,277seealsoEgypt

Aghemo,Aurelio,106AgüerayArcas,Blaise,234Alarcón,Hernandode,280Al-AshrafBarsbay,54,56Al-AzharMosque,55,56,57,58Al-AzharUniversity,55–56Alberti,LeonBattista

Beckon,92–93,137Chineseknowledgeusedby,134,176,216,243,254DePicturaby,156,158–60,161,196,251

DereAedificatoriaby,161,213DescriptiourbisRomaeby,164–65,196DeStatuaby,156,159,161,196Latinfluencyof,124LeonardodaVinciand,155–65,176,196,212–13Ludimatematiciby,161,162–63Medicifamily’spatronageof,89,90onperspective,253Regiomontanusand,138,139,143,147SanLorenzodomepaintedby,91,92–93,137onsilkindustry,200Taccolaand,158,182,212,213Toscanelliand,93,137,138,139

Alberti,Lorenzo,155

Albuquerque,Alfonsode,239–40,242Aldebaran,36,37,153Aldridge,James,52AlexanderIII,pope,64AlexandertheGreat,48Alexandria,48,51,59,64,65,69,70,71,72,74,75,85,122,222Alfoim,Perode,240Alfonsinetables,142,143,145,150,151,152AlfonsoV,kingofPortugal,94,121,122al-Ghouri,caravanseriof,57AlonsoPinzón,Martín,xi,109alum,205AmadisofGaul,The,236America

cactusesfrom,68Columbusand,104–7,108–9,126

conquistadoresin,284–87Europeandiscoveryof,126,131Fontana’sknowledgeof,222,223,240,287onmapsandglobes,xii,70–71,111–14,118,128,129–31Portugueseexplorationof,287Saint-Dié’sroleinnaming,115,116–18Toscanelliand,xiv,96–100,104,107,109,126seealsoCentralAmerica;NewWorld;NorthAmerica;SouthAmerica

AncientChineseInventions(Deng),23,231Andes,111,112,270,272,274,275,276animals,47,183,191–92,193,194,

252,268seealsodogs;pigs;sheep

Antarctica,108,129,131,270Antilia,islandof,97,100,106,107,118,120,126,238Arabia,52ArabianSea,43Arab(s)

onAlexandertheGreat,48astro-navigation,17–19,40,154Cairobuiltby,50calendars,40cemeteryinChina,46eclipticcoordinatesystem,145,154,176frankincense,46gold,57–58interpreters,40medicine,237

ports,40sheepof,285ships,81trade,40,46,252seealsoIslam;Muslims

Aragon,asseafaringpower,64,286–87Archimedes,146,147,187architecture,Renaissance,160ArcticPole,94,112,119,122

seealsoNorthPoleArequipaUniversity,275Aristarchus,146Aristotle,51,57,139,154,159,176,243,247Armenia,Armenians,56,123ArtofInvention,The:LeonardoandtheRenaissanceEngineers(Galluzzi),184,195Aruqtai,5

Asia,128,132Aslaksen,Helmer,27astrolabe,145,154,156,164astronomy,astronomers,134–54

Arab,17–19,40,56,154Babylonian,29Chinese,32,32–34,35,120,125,137,139,140,243,250–51European,29–30,86,88,93knowledgetransferral,37–38,243–48,251–52,253–54Medicipatronageof,87,205seealsocalendar(s),Shoushiastronomical;specificastronomers

Atahualpa,273,275AtlanticOcean,121,222,286,287Augustus,197Australia

Asianpigsin,262

citrustreesin,252goldin,252Mahuikatsunamiin,260,261–62,276mapsof,xii,66Portugueseknowlegeof,240Venetianknowledgeof,222–23,240

Avars,69,70Avignon,87Azores,63,252Aztecs,279,287

Babylon,Babylonians,50,51,52,53Babylonianwriting,50Bach,JohannSebastian,236Baghdad,45BaiShouyi,48

Balboa,VascoNúñezde,xii,111,280–81,283Baldovinetti,Alesso,87balloons,hot-air,170,175BandaAtjeh,42

seealsoPulauRondobanking,bankers

Italian,58,72–73,74,87–88,89,155,157,205Karimas,40,46,54

Bara,Lovorka,69Barbarossa,HolyRomanemperor,210Bardifamily,74Barzizza,Gasparino,155battleship,water-wheeled,22BazaldeenKulamiKarimi,46bazookas,16Beals,HerbertK.,266Beck,James,92–93,137

Beijing,33,34,36,154,206,207Bell,Cedric,257–63,269Bellarmine,Cardinal,249Berenson,Bernard,86BertoladeNovale,212Bessarion,Cardinal,98Betelgeuse,36,37Bianchini,Francesco,147–48,154Bianco,Andrea,238,241,254BibliothèqueNationaledeFrance,118,127Bisagudo,PedroVaz,241BiSheng,125,231–32Bisticci,Vespasianoda,89Bitruji,al-,147Boas,Franz,264boat,paddle-wheel,167–68,169,175,183,185–86Bohemia,Martinof,xibooks,20–22,

57,81,89,157,158,187,200,222,235,236,237

seealsospecificbooksBoyle,Robert,24Bracciolini,Poggio,89Braudel,Fernand,201Brazil,xii,117,121,238,239,240,241,242,252,270,280bridges,95,96,113,114,120,124,125,174,175,208,275BritishLibrary,14,161,177,179,187–88,189BritishMuseum,153,177–78Brown,PatriciaFortini,90–91Brunelleschi,Filippo,83–84,88,136,155,156–57,182Bruni,Leonardo,88,158Bryant,EdwardA.“Ted,”259–60,261Bueri,Piccarda,93

Buñuel,Luis,279Burckhardt,Jakob,160,251Butters,Suzanne,219Byzantium,64–65,75,77,84,85,92,145

Cabral,PedroAlvarez,xii,240,242cactuses,American,68Caesar,Julius,197Cairo,49–59

Chinesetradewith,8,9,19,28,40,43,45,47–48,72–73,75asHormuz,47Indiantradewith,47Karimin,40,46,54Venetiantradewith,64,65,71,72,74,75,81seealsoBabylon

Cairo:BiographyofaCity(Aldridge),52–53calculus,27,37CalderóndelaBarca,Pedro,282calendar(s)

Gregorian,22–23,24Islamic,18,40monsoonsmarkedon,40ofRegiomantus,150Shoushiastronomical,22–28,35,41,81,93,134,135–36,140,154,159,235,243,248

Calicut,8,10,38,40,42,43–44,46,79,86,222CalixtusIII,pope,134CambridgeUniversity,PepysLibraryat,28,135–36cameraobscura,36,90,137,140,156Camões,Luisde,10

canals,45,48–49,52,70,130,131,206–9,210–14,253,276cannons,16,22,41,173,174,175,219,220,223,225–27,237,253,259Capac,Huayna,273CapeofGoodHope,78,79,128,140,144–45,151,239,240,243CaptivatingViewsoftheOcean’sShores,47Caribbean,105,106,107,130,242Cassini,GiovanniDomenico,139CatholicChurch,45,132–35,150,157–58,249

seealsoJesuits;PapalStates;specificchurches;specificclergy

CatholicEncyclopedia,The,132Caverio,Nicholas,118CentralAmerica,121,128,130,287ceramics,Chinese,46,53–54,57,65,

76,81,268seealsoporcelain

Chambers,Geoffrey,258–59ChangLeepigraphy,8ChaoHeng,220CharlesV,kingofSpain,103ChartresCathedral,197ChartsofZhengHe’sVoyages,The,42ChengHua,266ChenShuiyuan,18–19ChenXinLang,46Ch’iaoWei-Yo,125,207,208Chidynasty,171Chile,269–70,271,274,276,280Ch’inChiu-shao,16,161ChineseReligionsandNationalMinorities(BaiShouyi),48ChuLung-Pin,221Church,Sally,10,266

Cicero,235Cid,El,284Cipangu,96,97,100,113,114,118,120,126

seealsoJapancitrus,252CivilizationoftheRenaissanceinItaly,The(Burckhardt),160ClementIV,pope,123clocks,36–37,137,140,145Codicetto(diGeorgio),186,190coinage,57–58,133,262,265,267,274Coloma,John,105ColombiaRiver,Chinesesettlementson,268–69Columbus,Bartholomew,106,151Columbus,Christopher,xi,xii,xiv,38,67,89,96,97,98,99,100,101,104–5,108,109,122,126,129,130,136,139,

140,151–52,222,238,239,242,243,284comets,24,27,135,136–37,140,147,158,260–61,262,263–64ComingoftheAgeofSteel,The(Wertime),218Commines,Philippede,205compass,16,17,175CompromiseofCaspe,285,286Condulmer,Gabriele,96Confucius,125conquistadores,Spanish,253,278–88Contarinifamily,74Conti,Niccolòda,44,73,74,77,78,79,103,129ContributionstoHumanHistory,267Cook,Captain,xii,74,152,265Copernicus,Copernicantheory,27,243–48,249–50,251

copper,58,59,231,252,265,274coral,197Coramandel,40Corfu,65,70corn,21,52,85,189,214,253Correrfamily,74,96Corsali,Andrea,240Côrte-Real,Miguel,241Cortés,Hernan,280,284,286,287Cortesão,Jaime,241Cosmos(monk),132Cossa,Baldassare,87Coster,LaurensJanszoon,233–34Cotner,Dave,263,264,266cotton,21,199–200,252,272,275Crete,65,72,75,77Cribbs,Robert,34–35,37Croatia,64,65–69,72,241–42

seealsoDalmatia

Crossman,L.S.,266Crusades,64,75,85,115Cryfts,Johann,141cryptography,14,156,157,159,160,161,163,251currency,58,123,274currents,17,270–71Curtze,148CustomsandInstitutionsoftheOldCapital(Chou),221

Dalmatia,65–69,72,76,241–42

seealsoCroatiaDandiBandar,43Dandolo,Doge,64,75Dandolo,Mario,78Darius,50,51DarkAges,Europein,57

Datini,FrancescodiMarco,87Davies,Arthur,105–6,128Deane,ThatcherE.,19DeArchitettura(Vitruvias),187deChávez,Nuñode,280deChávezfamily,283DeIngeneis(Taccola),182–83,184,190–91DengYinke,23DePictura(Alberti),156,158–60,161,196,251DereAedificatoria(Alberti),161,213DereMilitari(Santini),223DescriptiourbisRomae(Alberti),164–65,196deSoto,Hernando,280,281DeStatua(Alberti),156,159,161,196Destombes,Marcel,105,107deValverde,FriarVicente,280

Diamond,HMS,75,81Dias,Bartolomeu,xii,128,140,144–45,151,240,243DíazdeVivar,Rodrigo,284diCambio,Arnolfo,181diGeorgioMartini,Francesco

oncanalsandlocks,158,212,213,253onChineseinventions,161,163,164,187,189–94,254LeonardodaVinciand,xiii-xiv,177,178–81,195–96,212,213,253pumpsdesignedby,202,203,204,211Taccolaand,xiv,182,184–87,211,212fromTuscany,157weaponsdesignedby,223–30

DiodorusSiculus,51

diVirga,Albertin,xii,66,73,74DNA,67,69–70,259,269,271,275Doges’Palacein,44,73,77,79,103,128,129,130dogs,20,269Donatello,156–57Dong,Paul,26,250Dragon’sTail,78,102,126DreamPoolEssays(ShenKua),209,231–32Dreyer,EdwardL.,5Dubrovnik,65DucciodiBuoninsegna,86Dunstable,John,236

earth

positionof,141,142,143,145,247,249,253

roundnessof,18,96,97trajectoryof,25–26,34–35,138,139,145,146–47,150,159,243,244–45,246

Easter,133,150,152EasternOriginsofWesternCivilization,The(Hobson),199eclipses

longitudeand,27,34,151–52lunar,34,135,143,151predictionof,24,27,135,144,150–52,251solar,135,151–52,153

EgyptArmeniainvadedby,123Chinesetradewith,xv,42,44–48,53–54,57civilizationof,271Jewsfrom,46,57

monsoonsandshippingschedule,40partofRomanEmpire,132pyramidsin,45,48,49seealsoCairo

EmpiresoftheMonsoon(Hall),44Enlightenment,the,57EpitomeastronomiaeCopernicanae(Kepler),248EpitomeoftheAlmagest,The(PeurbachandRegiomontanus),246,247EssaysintheStudyofSienesePainting(Berenson),86Euclid,163,187EugeniusIV,pope,78,89,92,93,95,96,97,101,108,119–20,123,134,155,158,161,182,204,212,243,251eunuchs,3,5,6,45Eutocius,147

Extremadura,Extremadurans,278–86

Fabriano,Gentileda,76FangBin,5Farang,132–33FeiizhouHualikoHuarem,48Ferdinand,kingofSpain,104–5,285Fernandes,Valentin,78,79Fernandez-Cobo,Mariana,269Fernando,Don,ofPortugal,78Ferrara,dukeof,201Ferrello,Bartolome,263,264Filarete,216,217,218,219Fiore,Jacobelódel,76FioredelaMar(ship),239,240firearms,173–74,219–30,237

seealsospecificfirearmsfireworks,221–22

flamethrowers,16,21,204,219,220–21,222flight,manned,170–72Florence,83–93

Chinesedelegationin,38,132,134–36,140,161,176,233Chinesefemaleslavesin,81,82Councilof,78–79,90–91,92,158PonteVecchioin,174pontificatein,70,93,96,124,155,161,204silkindustryin,200,201,204,205Venetianwealthand,157seealsospecificFlorentinos;specificsites

Florida,238,252,279,280Fontana,Giovannidi,222–23,224,227,240,254ForbiddenCity,3,4,5,14,124,233

FordBellLibrary,111Forlanni,Giovanni,73–74Foscari,Francesco,78,1981421(Menzies),xiii,101,102,128Frodsham,Charles,111Fulin,132–33Fustat,al-,50,51–52,53–54

seealsoCairo

Gadol,Joan,156,159,164–65,251GalileoGalilei,26,27,248–51Galluzzi,Paolo,184,186,187,191–92,193,194,195,196Galvão,Antonio,78,102,126,265Gama,Vascoda,10,223GanDe,26,250GarciádeParedes,Diego,280gems,94,95,96,119,125

GenghisKhan,55GeniusofChina,The(Temple),172,197,207–8Genoa,64,65,76,85,89,155,236geometry,159,160,236,251gifts,Chinese,19–28Giotto,86glass,197GlobeVert,118

seealsoGreenGlobe,of1506gnomon,23,27,36,137,140Goff,J.R.,260,261gold

intheAndes,274,275,280inAustralia,252Chinesetradein,57,120,124–25ascurrency,57–58,133,134inEgypt,55,57–58inFlorentinebuildings,90

inJapan,96,114,120,126inMaliandGuinea,58silverand,115inVenetianbuildings,75,76,77

Gómez,Esteban,xi,102GongZhen,17Gonzagasfamily,214grain,52GrandCanal

inChina,206–9inLombardy,210–11

Grayson,Cecil,160Greece,Greeks,xv–xvi,176,187,253,254GreenGlobe,of1506,118,121,122,125,126–27,128,129–30,131GregoryX,pope,123Griffin,Admiral,12,14Grotius,Hugo,265

Guadeloupe,106Guicciardini,Francesco,205Guillemard,F.H.H.,98–99guilt,Indiantestfor,44Gulf,Persian,40,41,43,47,239gunpowder,16,22,41,172,187,219–20,221–23,224–30,253GuoShoujing,18,23–24,25–26,27,30,33,35,37,125,147,150,154,163–64,244,245,248Gutenberg,Johannes,150,234GymnaseVosgien,117

HaiDaEr,18Hall,Richard,44Handynasty,8–9,16,27,167,169,197HanZhenghua,48Harrison,John,152,153

HarvardJournalofAsiaticStudies,188HarvatyeMariakyr,67,70–71Hayashida,Kenzo,12Heilbron,John,91helicopterrotor,170,175,180–81“HelicoptersandWhirligigs”(Reti),180–81Heliopolis,50,51HenryIII,kingofFrance,71HenrytheNavigator,287HenryTsai,4HenryV,kingofEngland,89Herodotus,50–51Hibbert,Christopher,205HimalayanMountains,39HistoriaMongalorum(PiandelCarpine),73Histories(Herodotus),50HistoryofEgyptintheMiddleAges,A

(Poole),51HistoryoftheIncaRealm(Rostworowski),273Hobson,John,199Holdaway,R.N.,258Hollingsworth,Mary,89,90HongBao,13,42,43,44,45,131HongWu,4,17,18,19,132–33,262Hooke,Robert,24,27Hormuz,47,48Hormuz,Straitof,41HouseofMedici,The:ItsRiseandFall(Hibbert),205HouXian,13HsuanTe,266seealsoXuanDe,emperorofChinaHuarache,Claudio,271–72Hubson,R.L.,53–54Hudson,Ian,164

HuiHsien,167HumboldtCurrent,270–71HuoLungChung,226,227Hvar,65,66,67,69,70,71,72

ibnAl-AsAmir,52IbnBattutah,45IbnKhusrau,Nasir,51IbnTagriBirdi,44ibnTulun,Ahmad,52Incas,253,271,273–76,278,279,280,287incense,58India

ambassadorsfrom,41Chinaknownas,99,113,121Chinesetradewith,40,46civilizationof,271

Karimwarehousesin,54onmapinVenice,77monsoonsin,39NileCanaltradewith,52shipsfrom,39–40

IndianOcean,28,36,37,39,40,42,67,104,128,145,223,240,277Indians,NorthAmerican,264–65,267,268,269–70

seealsoNativeAmericansInstituteandMuseumoftheHistoryofScience(IstitutoeMuseodiStoriadellaScienza),184,225InstituteofArchaeologicalStudies,U.S.,268“InventionoftheParachute,The”(White),177iron,22,216–19,221,222,226,227,231,232,237,252,257,258,265,267

Isabella,queenofSpain,104–5,285Islam,18–19,23,40,55–56,57,139,283,284,285,286,287,288

seealsoMuslimsItinerarium(WilliamofRubruck),73

JacobofAncona,73Jacob’sstaff,16,137,140Jamalad-Din,18,154James,Saint,284,286JangMin,15,17Japan,4,12,68,77,97,114,221,250,267,269JebelKhamish,43Jerusalem,64,115,238Jervis,Jane,136Jesuits,157–58,249,251,272Jews,14,46,57,73

JiegantouKingdom,48JiménezdeQuesada,Gonzalo,280JingdezhenKilns,19JingdoeXianzhi(JingdeCountyAnnals),232John,kingofEngland,285John,kingofPortugal,241JohnXXIII,pope,87JulioTellositemuseum,272junks,Chinese

constructionof,11–12crewof,14,20descriptionof,41,45–46femaleslaveson,20,45,46,68,70,81,82,86–87monsoonsand,39–40inRedSea–Nilecanal,48repairsto,11–12,41,71towingof,incanals,207

weaponson,41,45–46,220–21,222,224,227seealsoships,shipbuilding;wrecks,ofChinesejunks

Jupiter,26,27,146,149,150,151,249,250

KaiYuanZhanJing,250KaoYang,171Karim,Karimimerchants,40,46,54Keddie,Grant,267Kepler,Johannes,27,146,248Khufu,pharaoh,48Kinsai,95–96,97,100,113,118,120,122,125kite,168–69,224KoHung,170Koshiya,AbuHassan,18

KublaiKhan,10,12,23,123,207,221

LaetenturCaeli(Brown),90–91lakes,clear-water,32Lambert,William,153Lamont-DohertyEarthObservatory,260,261–62Lao-tzu,125Laplace,Pierre-Simon,26Larger,Benoit,116,117,127latitude

Arabconceptof,18Chinesecalculationof,24,29–38,42–43,142,145,147,154,176Columbus’scalculationof,151declinationtablesofthesuntodetermine,139descriptionandillustrationof,29,

30ephemeristablestodetermine,112,139,140,144–45,151,152,153,237,243errorsincalculationof,114,127onWaldseemüller’smapandGreenGlobe,111–12,122,127ofwreckedjunksinNewZealand,262

LaurenzianaCodex,179,180,211,212,213LaurenzianLibrary,179,204,211Lazari,V.,82LeLoi,3LeonardodaVinci,xiii–xiv,84,155,157,158–60,164,165,166–76,177,195–96,204,211,212,213,253LeonBattistaAlbertiandtheNightSkyatSanLorenzo(Beck),92–93

LiAnshan,48LibraryofCongress,110,128LiQi,15,17Lisbon,78,94,95,97,100,117,118,119,120,125LiuGang,8,9,47,129,272,273LiuHui,163LiuManchum,239Livorno,84LiXing,13Loaisa,FriarJerónimode,280locks,196,202,204,207–9,211–14,253Lombardy,210–13,214Lombe,John,199–200LongFei,266longitude

Arabconceptof,18Chinesecalculationof,24,27,29–

38,42–43,129,130,142,145,147,154,176Columbus’scalculationof,130,151–52,243descriptionandillustrationof,29,30eclipsesand,27,34,151–52ephemeristablestodetermine,112,140,144,146,150,151–53,237,243errorsincalculationof,37,127,130,152Jacob’sstafftodetermine,137onWaldseemüller’smapandGreenGlobe,111–12,122,124,127,129ofwreckedjunksinNewZealand,262

Lorenzetti,Ambrogio,86Lorenzetti,Giulio,73

Lovric,A.Z.,67–68,69,70LuBan,168–69Lucien,51Lud,Nicholas,117Lud,Vautrin,117Ludimatematici(Alberti),161,162–63,165Lumi,45,132,134

seealsoPapalStates;RomeLunde,Paul,40

Macedo,JustoCáceres,274machinesandmechanisms,20–21,166–96,197–98,199–204,213–14,217,218,253,266Machinis,De(Taccola),182,183,184Magellan,Ferdinand,xi–xii,xiv,98,101–4,108,110,111,112,126,129,

130,238,242Magellan,Straitof,78,99,101,102–3,112,122,126,129,130,131MaHa,18Mahdi,Al-,52MaHuan,43–44,79maize,252,275,276Makah,266,267Madkrizi,al-,52–53,57Malacca,11,40,41,239,240MalaccaStrait,39Malikan-Nasir,al-,Sultan,52Mamluks,45,46,53,54,58,59,72mandarins,3–5,6Mansur,AbuJa’faral-,52Mantegna,Andrea,214Mantua,76,85ManuelI,kingofPortugal,117Maoris,258–59,260

map(s),252,286Alberti’s,164–65Chinese,45,47,48,70–71,129,130,238–41,272,275coloredsymbolson,68Columbus,106–7Conti’sacquisitionof,44,79copiesof,235–36diVirga’s,66atDoges’Palace,73–74,77,103,128,129,130DomPedro’s,78German,withDalmatiannames,68Harris,128,272Leonardo’s,165LiuGang’s1418,273Mamlukauthoritieson,59MarcoPolo’s,128,129,130Martellus’s,127–28

Medicifamily’spatronageof,87,89,157,205PiriReis,xii,130–31Pizzigano’s1424,73,151Portuguese,101,102Regiomontanus’s,97–98,108,149,153–54,158RenéII’s,116Schöner’s,98,99–100,103–4,107,110,112–14,130,131ShanhaiYudiQuantu,130Toscanelli’s,94–96,97–98,104,119–26,147,158Waldseemüller’s1507,xi,xii,99,103,106–7,110–28,129,238,265world,9,29,89,116,238–41Zatta’s,265ZhuSiben’s,128seealsoGreenGlobe,of1506

MarianodiJacopo,178seealsoTaccola,MarianodiJacopo“theJackdaw”

Martellus,Henricus,127–28MartinezdeRoriz,Canon,104

seealsoMartins,CanonFernanMartinofBohemia,102Martins,CanonFernan,94–97,98,118–19,121,126,136,140MartinV,kingofAragon,285MartyrdomoftheFranciscanFriars,The(Lorenzetti),86Masaccio,156–57MaSaYiHei,18Maskelyne,Nevil,152–53Mästlin,Michael,248mathematics,16,125,142,145,147–49,176,250,251,253,254Matzen,Andrew,261

Mauro,Fra,73,89Maya,the,260,279,287Mayer,Simon,250MayorofZalamea,The(CalderóndelaBarca),282MaZheng,19McGee,TimothyJ.,88McMillan,Hamilton,242Mecca,23,44,45,46,47,52,56MechanicalProblems,The,187Medici,Cosimode’,89,90,205Medici,Giovannide’,87,88,93Medici,Lorenzode’,90,117Medicifamily,87–88,89–90,93,157,158,200,204–5,219,224medicine,ArabandChinese,237Medina-Sidonia,duchessof,240,242Mediterranean,xv,41,43,48,53,58,59,63,70,71,77,86,201

MengxiBitan(Shen),231mensa,88–89,158Menzies,Marcella,xiii,50,65,66,75,106,115,166,177,181,206,214,273MerchantofPredo,The(Origo),58Mesta,the,282–83Milan,89,166,201,210–11,212,214–15,236,253Mingdynasty,4,5,8,9,18,19,24,37,45,54,64,132–33,134,137,188,227,232–33,239,266MingShi-lu,5,10,45,47,48,266MingShiWaiguaZhuan,47Mirabilia(Sévérac),73mirrors,183Misr,50,51–52,53–54

seealsoCairoMithridatesII,197Mocenigo,Tommaso,76,198

Mongols,5,6,54–55,69,70,80,80,81–82,86–87,135,221,269

seealsoAvarsmonsoons,39,42moon,26,27,29–38,43,90–91,92,135,137,140,142,143,144,145,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,243,250Morocco,45Morrison,Tony,130mortars,16,174,221,222,223,253Mosili,47

seealsoCairoMuhammad,55Mui,Rosa,26,250Muiz,Caliph,51–52Müller,Johann,143

seealsoRegiomontanusMünchenCodex197,223Munoz,Inez,280

MuseoArqueológicoRafaelLarcoHerrera,271–72music,236,251muskets,219Muslims,18–19,23–24,44,45,124

seealsoIslam

Nanjing

astronomersin,35languageschoolin,124navigationfrom,6,33,36,37,39shipbuildingin,11ZhengHe2002conferenceat,239ZhuDi’svictoryat,4

Narwhal,HMS,30,32,65NativeAmericans,71

seealsoIndians,NorthAmericanNaturalHistory(Pliny),51

NauticalAlmanac,152–53navigation

Arab,17–19,40,154author’sexperiencein,144Chinese,17,18,27–39,40–43,128,129,139–40,149–51,238,241,272ephemeristablesfor,43,98,112,140,144–48,149–53,164,187,237,243,244,245importanceofimprovedtechniquesfor,17,19,29,252inscriptionsoncharts,viifromNanjing,6,33,36,37,39Peruvian,274printingvaluablefor,235–36“StarryNight”softwarefor,90,150–51sundeclinationtablesfor,72,138–39,140,146–47,156,158,160,243

Venetian,72seealsospecificnavigationaltools;specificnavigators

“NavigatorAhmadIbnMajid,The”(Lunde),40NechoII,pharaoh,50,51Needham,Joseph,15,21,139,149,153,161,164,170,189–90,197,203–4,209,218,219,223,232–33,234NeiKulan,132–33Nelson,Horatio,41Newman,ThomasM.,266NewTheoryofPlanets,A(Peurbach),143–44Newton,SirIsaac,27,247,250NewWorld,140,144,152,157,237,241,243,252

seealsoAmerica;NorthAmerica;SouthAmerica

NewZealand,257–63,264,276NgSayTiong,27NicholasofCusa,88,121,126,134,141–42,143,145–46,154,155,158,163,243,245,248,251,254NicholasV,pope,158Nilometer,52NobleSpaniard,The(Maugham),281–82Nomdel’Amérique,Le(Ronsin),118NorthAmerica

Chineseexpeditionto,9,43Chinesehorsesin,252,277copperin,252Croatianexpeditionto,66–67,70–71,241–42mapsof,xii,73–74,77,112–13,128,129tsunamiin,266–69

seealsoAmerica;NewWorld;SouthAmerica

NorthPole,9,32,33,42seealsoArcticPole

Notay,pope,158NotebookonSeaBottomCurrents,17NotesontheBarbarians,9NotesontheBarbariansintheWesternOceans,47Novick,Gabriel,271NujunAzZahiraFiMulekMisrWalKahira,Al(TagriBirdi),44NungShu,20–21,175,188,189–94,195,197–98,201–2,209,211,212,213,216,232

oak,72observatories,23,137,145,260,261

Oliver,John,34Olschki,Leonardo,86–87OmarKhayyám,287Onslaught,HMS,12operas,88Oregon,Chinesepresence,263–65Orellana,Franciscode,280,281OrientalCeramicSocietyofFrance,53Origo,Iris,58,82OspedaleMaggiore(Filarete),216OttomanEmpire,Ottomans,69,70,92OzetteArchaeologicalProjectResearchReports,266–67

Pachacuti,276PacificOcean,110,111,112,113,121,122,128,129,130,131,238,242,270,277,281

PanBiao,11PapalStates,xv,45,87,132–33,134,205

seealsoCatholicChurch;Jesuits;specificpopes

parachute,169,170,175,177–79,196Parenti,Marco,98Parsons,William,212Pascal,Blaise,15–16Passaro,Berenzode,212Patagonia,xiii,67,101,130,131PaulIII,pope,245PaulusthePhysician,119

seealsoToscanelli,PaoloPayn,Marshall,34Pazzifamily,224pearls,20,21,96,114,120,122,125,126,133Peckar,StephenF.,261

Pedro,Dom,kingofPortugal,73,77,78,79,102,126Pelletier,Monique,127pepper,95,119,122,125Pepys,Samuel,24perfume,57,58Perii,Marijana,69Persia,Persians,47,57,197,219PersianGulf,41,43,47,239perspective,90,143,156–57,158,159–63,165,176,195–96,251,253Peru,252,269–70,271–76,280Peruzzifamily,74Peters,Winston,259PetertheGreat,czarofRussia,72Peurbach,143,144,145,156,246Philippines,68,102PiandelCarpine,Giovannida,73PieroAverlino,Antoniodi,216

seealsoFilaretePigafetta,Antonio,102pigs,215,262,268,278pine,11,72Pinturicchio,133,134Pisa,84,89,165,204,248Pisanello,Antonio,76,79–81,134,135,214,254PiusII,pope,133,134,205Pizarro,Francisco,253,272,273,274,275,278,280,281,287Pizarrofamily,278,280,282,283Pizzigano,Zuane,73,151planets,26,27,29–38,135,137,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,153–54,157,159,243,245,246,247,248,249,250,253

seealsoJupiterPlato,57

Pliny,51plumblines,16Polaris,26,30,32,33,35,36,37,42,43Pollux,43Polo,Bellela,129Polo,Marco,65,73,77,79,95,103,120,122–23,124–25,126,128,129,171–72,207Polo,Niccolò,73,95,120,123polynyas,32PoncedeLeón,Juan,238Poole,StanleyLane,46–47,51porcelain,40,44,52,53–54,81,266,267Pordenone,Odoricof,73Portugal,Portuguese,104,115,121,127,239,240,241,242–43,284,287potatoes,276

Powers,Major,265Prager,FrankD.,182,183Prazak,Charles,242“Pre-ColumbianDiscoveryofAmerica,The”(Cortesão),241PrehispanicCulturesofPeru(Machedo),274printing,125,145,174–75,188,231–37,252,253ProfilesofForeignCountries,134Promis,Carlo,180Ptolemy,51,132,139,141,142,143,145,147,153,154,159,164,176,243,244,247,249PuertoRico,106,126,151Pula,133PulauRondo,37,42

Qindynasty,48Qingdynasty,47Quanzhou,40,46,124,174

RabanSauma(Odoric),73Ramusio,Giambattista,73RaspaduraCanal,130Reconquista,the,281,282,284–85,286RecordsofJourneystotheWesternRegion,9RecordsonTributesfromWesternOceans,47Redmount,CarolA.,50RedSea,39–48,77,239RedSea–Nilecanal,45,48–59,70Regiomontanus,97–98,101,108,112,114,118,121,134,138,139,140,142–

54,156,157,158,160,161,163,164,165,238,243–48,251,254Reid,Anthony,11remaindertheorum,Chinese,147–49,161RenéII,dukeofLorraine,115,116,117,118Reti,Ladislao,179–81Revolutionibusorbiumcoelestieum,De(Copernicus),245,246Ribero,Diego,272,275rice,199,201–4,205,209,214,252,253,257,267Richard,Helene,127Ringman,Matthias,117Roberti,Ercole,76rockets,221,222,253Rodrigues,Francisco,239RodriguezCabrillo,Juan,263

Rogers,F.M.,77,78–79RomanEmpire,Romans,xv–xvi,85,132,176,187,201,253,254Rome,52,86,87,134,158,164,182,204,213Ronsin,Albert,115,117–18,127Roriz,Martinezde,94Rorqual,HMS,12,81RostworowskideDiezCanseco,María,273,274RoyalNavy,12,14,138,152Rubruck,Williamof,73Ruggiero,Marino,242Ruiz,Bartholome,274

sacrifice,ritual,275sailors,20SaintMark’sBasilica,64,75–76,77

Saladin,54–55Salvestrinifamily,181SanAntonio,xiSandaucourt,Jean-Basinde,117SanLorenzo,Churchof,89,90,91,92–93,137,159,160SantaMariadelFiore,Cathedralof,83–84,92–93,136,137–38,140,155,158Santiago,Orderof,284–85Santinello,Giovanni,158Santini,Paolo,223Scaglia,Gustina,182,183,186–87Scaglierifamily,214Schöner,Johannes,xii,98,99–100,101,103–4,107–8,109,110,112–14,121,131,165Schroeter,J.Fr.,152Scott,Captain,131

Self,A.G.,98Sesostris,51Sévérac,Jordande,73SevilleCathedral,151Sforza,Francesco,210–11,212Sforza,Galeazzo,201ShahRokh,5ShanHaiChingKuangChu,171ShanhaiYudiQuantu,128,129,130Shapiro,Sheldon,202–3Sheban,19sheep,278,282,285ShenKua,209,231,232ShihHsuPai,220–21ships,shipbuilding

Arab,81astrologersandgeomancerson,41Chinese,11–15,39–40,41–42,273–74

inChineseports,40,95,119designsof,183,236–37inFlorence,84fromIndia,39–40interpreterson,15,16,41locksfor,196,202,204,207–9,211–14,253Spanish,286inVenetianports,74–75weaponson,220–21,222,224,227seealsoboat,paddle-wheel;junks,Chinese;specificships

Shu-shuChiu-chang,16,148–49,161,162–63ShuXian,47ShuyuZhouziLu(Yan),18,133Sideriusnuncius[Starrymessenger](Galileo),249silk,40,44,46,52,57,65,73,74,76,

81,87,197–201,204–5,214,272,275SilkRoad,69silver

fromtheAndes,253,274,275,284inCairomarkets,55,57Chinesetradein,197ascurrency,19,133,134goldand,115inSaint-Dié,115

SimaQian,169Simocatta,Theophylactis,132sinetables,143,243–44SixtusV,pope,224slaves,female,20,45,46,68,70,81,82,86–87Soderini,GonfalierPier,117solarsystem,90–91,157,159,176,243,245

seealsospecificpartsofthesolar

systemSongdynasty,15,22,46,134,219,220SouthAmerica

Asianchickensin,252Croatianexpeditionto,67GuadelupeVirginimagein,284Incasin,287Magellan’sexpeditionto,101,130mapsof,77,103,107,108,110,111,112,113,114,127,128,129,238,242snailsfrom,252sweetpotatoesfrom,252wreckedChinesejunksin,269–77seealsoAmerica;NewWorld;NorthAmerica

SouthernCross,240SouthPole,131SouzaTavares,Francisde,78

Spain,Spanish,253,278–88Spencer,John,216–17Speyer,Johannevon,235SpiceIslands,130,239,240spices,57,58,65,74,94,95,97,119,120,122,125,240Spinifamily,87squares,15,16SriLanka,38,40,42“StarryNight”(software),90,150–51stars,27–28,29–38,42,43,90–91,92,93,108,135,137,140,142,144,145,146,157,243,247steel,14,214,216–19,223,227,252Steele,Harvey,266Stock,Manuel,240Strabo,51Strozzifamily,89Suidynasty,207,231

Sumatra,42sun,25–26,27,29–38,43,90–91,92,135,137–39,140,141,142,145,146–48,149,150,151,153–54,156,158,159,160,243,245,246,247,248,253sundials,145Sungdynasty,54,168,169,221,226surveying,16,149,157,159,163,164–65,183sweetpotatoes,252Swerdlow,NoelM.,245,246,247

Tabula(Regiomontanus),108Tabulaediretorium(Copernicus),244Taccola,MarianodiJacopo“theJackdaw,”181–87

Albertiand,158,212,213onChineseinventions,161,163,

164,189–94,202–3,204,209,211,216,222,223,224,226,227,254diGeorgioand,xiv,182,184–87,211,212LeonardodaVinciand,xiv,195–96,212

Tafur,Piero,44Taicangstele,9,13TaiPengWang,xiii,17,27–28,37,40,42,45,132TalksatFisherman’sRock(Shih),220–21Tamburlaine,54Tangdynasty,8,9,54,197,206,207,219,231TangXiren,37,42Ta-Yenrule,148–49,161Tazimerchant,46teak,11

telescope,145,249,250Tello,Julio,273Temple,Robert,207,221theft,57Thompson,Gunnar,66,128,129TianWenShu,18Tibet,77,82,207TierradelFuego,126,131,279time,Chinesecalculationof,36–37TimesAtlasofWorldExploration,The,xiitorquetum,34,140,142,143,145,154,158Toscanelli,Paolo,xiv,83,88,89,90,93,94–100,101,104,107,109,113,114,118–26,127,128,130,134,136–40,142,143,147,149,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,163,164,182,238,242,243,248,251,254

Trattatomanuscripts,179–80,181,193,195,203,204,211TravelsoftheInfante,DomPedroofPortugal,The(Rogers),77–78trebuchet,225triangles,right-angle,16trigonometry,15,16,18,26,136,143,147,158,163,183,244TsoChuan,167tsunami,259–68,269–70,276–77Tsunami:TheUnderratedHazard(Bryant),259–60TupacYupanqui,273,275,276Tuscany,20,82,86–87,157,200,224

seealsoFlorence

Uhle,Max,273UlughBegh,139

Uzielli,Gustavo,98,121,147

Valdivia,Pedrode,280Vancouver,George,265VancouverIsland,74,264–66,267,268–69Vecci,Giustizieri,235Veneziano,Antonio,76Venice,Venetians,77–82

Alexandriarouteto,69,70,71,72–73Chinesefemaleslavesin,68Chinesetradewith,38,73,242–43Croatiancoastcontrolledby,241–42DNAof,69,71EugeniusIVbornin,96Florenceand,86,198

galleysbuiltandmannedby,41,71–72Ottomannavydefeatedby,92patentlawin,200–201Piedmontand,215printingin,234–37silkindustryin,200–201,204spicetradewith,58wealthof,64–65,74–76,85,157seealsospecificsites;specificVenetians

Verona,76,79,80,198,199,200,214–15Vespucci,Amerigo,38,89,112,117–18,127,129,130,139,140,151,152,243Vicenza,76,198,200Vienna,AustrianNationalLibraryin,108

Viracocha,emperoroftheIncas,280Visconti,Filippo,210Viscontifamily,89Vitruvius,187

Waldseemüller,Martin,xi,xii,99,103,106–7,110–28,129,165,238,265Walther,Bernard,108WangChen,168,188,201WangGui,19WangHeng,13WangJinghong,xv,7,13,43WangQi,129WangZhen,232WashingtonPotters,268waterclock,Chinese,36–37waterlevels,16weapons,21,41,45–46,171–74,175,

182,187,219–30,237,253seealsospecificweapons

weavers,weaving,134,200Wertime,TheodoreA.,217–18wheat,52,201White,Lynn,82,177Whyte,Adele,258–59Wieser,FranzVon,66WollongongUniversity,260,261wool,86,87,200,275,280,282wrecks,ofChinesejunks,10

onAmericanwestcoast,263–64,266–70inAustralia,262–63inJapan,xiv,221machinesforlifting,xivinNewZealand,257,258,259–62inWesternCanada,263–65

Wu-chingTsung-yao,21,204,226

WuTi,197WuZheng,19WuZhong,13

XhengHe,123–24XiaYuanji,5XiFeilong,37,42XiLongfei,10Ximénes,Leonardo,138XiyuShu,18XiZezong,26,250XuanDe,emperorofChina,xiii,xv,6,7,8,14,19,20,22,24,41–42,45,81,124,235,265–66XuanzongShi-lu,7

YanCongjian,18,133

Yang,emperorofChina,207YangXi,37,42YangYao,22YangZhen,13Yen,Princeof,4

seealsoZhuDi,emperorofChinaYongle,4,17

seealsoZhuDi,emperorofChinaYongleDadian,14–16,164,233Yoshamya,Mitjel,67,68YouTon,47Yuandynasty,4,17,18,23,24,54,129,132,135,220,232,268Yuanshi-lu,24,135YuLizi,132YungLo,54,266

seealsoZhuDi,emperorofChina

Zaiton,95,119,122Zatta,Antonio,74,265ZhangDa,13ZhangXingGang,48Zhanzon,emperorofChina,220ZhaoRuqua,46,134ZhengAhLi,18ZhengHe

achievementsof,7–8,9–10asambassador,bearinggifts,19–20,24,27,28,238,241Americaexpedition,71,129–31,239Arabsand,40astronomicalknowledgeimpartedby,243Cairoexpedition,42,47,48,55,56,57,59,722002conferenceon,239

Contiand,44,79onDalmatiancoast,65,66,67,70deathof,43fleetdestroyedbyatsunami,257,258–77fleetpreparations,3–4,6,10–14,134Florenceexpedition,70,123–24,134–35,161,176,197,233inHormuz,48Indiajourney,42,43–44languageschoolestablishedby,124MaHuanhistorianof,43–44,79inMecca,47asaMuslim,18–19,45,56,124navigationalaidsof,17,18,27–28,37–38,40,42–43,128,129,139–40,149–51,238,241,272popeand,123–24,134–35,243

printingduringtimeof,40,187–88,233,235–36religioustoleranceobservedby,124routeof,42–43silkduringthetimeof,197sponsorshipof,xv,4,6,7,9–10tombof,80Veniceexpedition,70,71,75,81,209,222,223,235–36weaponsonshipsof,41,222,223YongleDadianand,15–16,164,233

ZhouMan,13ZhouXinYan,26,250ZhuDi,emperorofChina,xiii,3,4–5,14,15,17,19,24,45,47,54,80,124,132,133,134,232–33,265–66ZhufanZhi(Zhao),134ZhuGaozhi,5–6

ZhuLiang,13ZhuSiben,125,128ZhuZhanji,emperorofChina,6,41–42,135

seealsoXuanDe,emperorofChina

ZhuZhen,13Zinner,Ernst,98,149,150,153–54,243,244,245Zonghua,47Zuilkarnain,48

AbouttheAuthor

The author of 1421: The Year ChinaDiscovered America, GAVINMENZIES was born in England andlivedinChinafor twoyearsbefore theSecond World War. He joined theRoyal Navy in 1953 and served insubmarines from 1959 to 1970. SinceleavingtheRoyalNavy,hehasreturnedto China andAsiamany times, and inthecourseofhisresearch,hehasvisited120countries,morethan900museumsand libraries, and every major seaportof the late Middle Ages. Menzies is

marriedwithtwodaughtersandlivesinNorthLondon.

www.GavinMenzies.net

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