Public Interest Litigation

Environmental Science Unit -1

ENVIRONMENT is derived from the word Environner which mean encircle orsurround . Environmental Studies deals with every issue that affects an organism.

So, ENVIRONMENT refers to surroundings which vary from place to place and continent depending upon Physiography, Topography, Climate and the available Natural resources.

Since the beginning of the culture, the natural resources such as Soil, Land, Water etc are being over-exploited causing the environment gets polluted or degraded.

This has resulted in multi dimensional environmental crisis like soil erosion, landslides and in turn have created soil pollution, air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution etc.IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT:

Environment is concerned with day to day interaction with the surroundings with which human being is closely associated.

Environmental Science is related to many branches of Sciences

Environment is concerned with the importance of wild life and its protection.

Environmental Science explains the significant role of biodiversity in establishing ecological balance.

Environmental Science gives information relating to Population growth, Population explosion and impact on Population growth ..

Environmental Science also gives information about water conservation, watershed management and the importance of water.Biodiversity: the existence of a large number of different kinds of animals and plants which make a balanced environment or the totality of all species and ecosystems in a region.Introduction to Environmental Science

Environmental science is a multidisciplinary academic field that integrates physical and biological sciences, (including but not limited to ecology, physics, chemistry, zoology, mineralogy, oceanology, limnology, soil science, geology, atmospheric science, and geography) to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental science provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems

Environmental science came alive as a substantive, active field of scientific investigation in the 1960s and 1970s driven by (a) the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to analyze complex environmental problems, (b) the arrival of substantive environmental laws requiring specific environmental protocols of investigation and (c) the growing public awareness of a need for action in addressing environmental problems.

Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. It is essentially a multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural world and human impacts on its integrity. It is an applied science as its seeks practical answers to making human civilization sustainable on the earths finite resources.

Environment and its Components

Environment:The environment encompasses virtually everything that surrounds an organism in a holistic ecological approach.

Out of all the nine planets, meteorites, and satellites in our solar system, the earth is the only planet known to support life. Life on earth experiences different types of surroundings. These surroundings may be living or non-living. Each living organism constantly interacts with its surroundings and adapts to it. These surroundings are our environment. The physical environment, which consists of soil, air, water, sunlight among others, provides favourable conditions for the existence and growth of different life forms. Living beings constitute the biological environment.

Both the physical and the biological environments closely interact with each other to form a stable self perpetuating system. Everything that influences an organism and its living processes from outside is collectively known as environment. The living component of the environment is known as the biotic component and the non-living component (things) as the abiotic component. Hence, the term environment can be defined as the sum total of living and non-living components, their influences and events surrounding an organism.

No organism can live without interacting with the environment. Animals depend on green plants for food and oxygen, whereas plants depend on animals for pollination of flowers and dispersal of seed or fruit. Therefore, for the survival of human civilization, the protection of its environment is very important.Some fundamental principles have to be followed:

i. Maintenance of biodiversity.

ii. Maintenance of all gaseous and material cycles and interdependence of living organisms among themselves and with abiotic environments.

iii. Maintenance of ecological order and natural balance, which depend on the food chain relationship, sustainable productivity and biotic interaction.

These principles were known to early human beings, who lived in harmony with nature. However, in the course of evolution, man has developed a new type of environment, the man-made environment. A large chunk of the imbalance in nature is caused by this man-made environment. This man-made imbalance has forced us to put restraints on the use of natural resources.

1.3.1 Segments of the Environment

Our environment can be broadly classified into natural and man-made environment.

Natural Environment Each living organism has a specific surrounding with which it interacts and to which it is adapted. This surrounding is its natural environment. The natural environment can be broadly classified into two categories.

The non-living or abiotic component, which includes:

Climatic factors such as solar radiation, temperature, wind, water current, and rainfall.

Physical factors such as light, air, pressure and geomagnetism.

Clinical factors such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, acidity, salinity, availability of inorganic nutrients and so on.

Living or biotic factorssuch as microbes, plants, animals and all living organisms and their organic by-products.

Man-made EnvironmentWith the development of science and technology, human beings have begun to alter the environment to suit their requirements. This has led to the evolution of a man-made environment. Hence, the environment which earlier comprised just air, land, and waternow also includes crop fields, urban areas, industrial space, vehicles, power plants, telecommunications, and much more.

The basic needs of human beings are shelter, followed by potable water and sanitation. The houses of people in the city are made of brick and cement and not of mud with a thatched roof. The resources for urban housing are transported from rural areas in cars, buses, trucks and trains, which consume a large amount of energy and pollute the atmosphere. The ever-increasing demand for comfort has resulted in the migration of people from villages to urban areas. Urban areas, on the other hand, are unable to meet the demands of basic civic amenities. As a result, they are becoming hovels of dirt, disease and crime. This has resulted in the paradox of concrete skyscrapers coexisting with slums and the atmosphere being polluted with exhaust from traffic, factories and domestic smoke.

Example, Park, Man-made Environment

Social EnvironmentHuman beings are social animals. This is why the socio-cultural environment plays an important role in their lives. The social environment is formed by the network of social institutions, which include political, religious and economic institutions. Family is one of the basic institutions of the social environment. It is here that human beings perform various activities, including socialization of children, and the transference of cultural heritage and morals from one generation to the next. Groups of families form communities which are classified according to their occupation, religious faith, and other parameters.Natural resources

Natural resourcesoccur naturally withinenvironmentsthat exist relatively undisturbed by humanity, in anaturalform. Natural resources are derived from the environment. Some of them are essential for our survival while most are used for satisfying our wants. Natural resources may be further classified in different ways.

There are various methods of categorizing natural resources, these include source of origin, stage of development, and by their renewability.

1. On the basis of Origin:

(i) Biotic These are obtained from thebiosphere(living and organic material), such asforestsandanimals, and the materials that can be obtained from them.Fossil fuelssuch ascoalandpetroleumare also included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic matter.

(ii) Abiotic These are those that come from non-living, non-organic material. Examples of abiotic resources includeland, freshwater,airand heavy metals includingoressuch asgold,iron,copper,silver, etc.

2. On the bases of their stage of development:

(i) Potential resources Potential resources are those that exist in a region and may be used in the future. For examplepetroleumoccurs with sedimentary rocks in various regions, but until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource.

(ii) Actual resources Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of an actual resource, such aswood processingdepends upon the technology available and the cost involved.(iii) Reserve resources The part of an actual resource which can be developed profitably in the future is called a reserve resource.

(iv)Stock resources Stock resources are those that have been surveyed but cannot be used by organisms due to lack of technology. For example: hydrogen.

3. On the bases of Renewability:

(i) Renewable resources Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these resources, like sunlight, air, wind, etc., are continuously available and their quantity is not noticeably affected by human consumption.

(ii) Non-renewable resources Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment. Minerals are the most common resource included in this category. By the human perspective, resources are non-renewable when their rate of consumption exceeds the rate of replenishment/recovery; a good example of this are fossil fuels, which are in this category because their rate of formation is extremely slow (potentially millions of years), meaning they are considered non-renewable.

4. On the basis of their Distribution:

(i) National Resources - National resources are those resources that are available within the national boundaries of a country. In this respect, a few examples would be the minerals and lands available in profusion in the country.

(ii) Multinational Resources - Multinational resources are those that are shared by more than one country between two geographical boundaries. Rivers, migratory animals and lakes are definite examples.

(iii) International Resources - These resources are shared by all nations and are provided in bounty to all the countries in the earth. Oceans, air, solar energy and precipitation are a few examples of international resources.

How to economized the problem of natural resources in the process of economic development?

There are two fundamental facts that constitute the economising problem. Societys material wants, that is, the material wants of its citizens and institutions, are virtually unlimited, or insatiable and another is Economic resources which means of producing goods and servicesare limited or scarce.

1. Unlimited wants

At any given time, the individuals and institutions that constitute society have innumerable material wants unfulfilled. Some of these material wantsfood, clothing and shelterhave biological roots. The social and cultural environment in which we live influence our material wants as well. As a group, our material wants are unlimited and are incapable of ever being completely satisfied.

2. Scarce resources

All the natural, human and manufactured resources that go into the production of goods and services which require innumerable types of labour; and land and mineral resources of all kinds

If our resources are scarce, we cannot satisfy all of societys material wants.

Society wishes to use its limited resources efficiently; that is, it wants to obtain the maximum amount of desired goods and services producible with its available resources. To achieve this, it must achieve both full employment and full production. Economics is a science of efficiencyefficiency in the use of scarce resources.

a. Full employment

Full employment means that all available resources should be employed: no workers

should be involuntarily out of work; no capital equipment or arable land should sit idle. For example, legislation and custom provide that children and the very aged should not be employed. Further, it is desirable for productivity to allow land to lie fallow periodically. Along with this, some resources will need to be conserved for the future.

b. Full production

The employment of all available resources is, however, insufficient to achieve efficiency. Full production means that all employed resources should be used to make the most valued contributions to output. If we fail to achieve full production, economists say that our resources are underemployed.

Full production implies that two kinds of efficiencyallocative and productive efficiency are achieved.

i. Allocative efficiency means that resources are devoted to the combination of goods and services most wanted by society. For example, society wants CDs rather than records. The most desired combination of goods and services is known as optimum product mix.

ii. Productive efficiency occurs when the least costly production techniques are used to produce the desired goods and service.

Environment of the EarthThe environment of the earth has been studied with various modern and scientific instruments, such as satellites, rockets, and balloons. The results indicate that the environment of our planet comprises mainly of three segments. These are:

i. Air or atmosphere

ii. Water or hydrosphere

iii. Land or lithosphere

Atmosphere:The earths atmosphere is an envelope of gases extending up to 2000 feet above the ground level. The gases include nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, traces of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, sulphur and hydrocarbon, and very little amount of water vapour. The concentration of these gases decreases with an increase in altitude. The bulk of these gases are present within the atmospheric band that stretches up to 5 km above the earth.

The atmosphere protects the earths biosphere by absorbing a major portion of the electromagnetic radiation and most of the cosmic rays. The atmosphere also absorbs infra-red radiation and thereby maintains the temperature of the earth at life sustaining levels. It also helps nature in maintaining its balance through different biochemical cycles, namely the oxygen cycle, nitrogen cycle, carbon cycle, and hydrological cycle.

However, scientific advancements of the modern man are polluting this protective blanket by dumping waste materials like carbon emissions and smoke into the atmosphere.

Layers of the atmosphere:The earths atmosphere is broadly divided into five regions:

Troposphere:The lower portion of the atmosphere is called troposphere. It contains 70 per cent of the atmospheres mass. The density of the troposphere decreases with altitude. The air near ground level is heated by the radiation from the earth, but the temperature decreases uniformly with altitude. This decrease of temperature with altitude is known as lapse rate. The cold layer (56C) at the top of the troposphere, which shows a temperature inversion, that is, a negative to positive lapse rate, is known as tropopause. The global energy flow, resulting from the difference in heating and cooling rates between the equator and the poles, makes the troposphere a turbulent region.

Stratosphere:Above the troposphere, the quiescent layer with a positive lapse rate is known as the stratosphere. Very little water vapour is found here. The ozone molecule, present in the layer, absorbs the Suns ultraviolet radiation, and decomposes into oxygen molecules and an oxygen atom. When these particles combine, energy is released as heat radiation which causes a positive lapse rate.

The stratosphere not only shields life on earth from the injurious effects of the Suns ultraviolet rays, it also supplies heat for separating the quiescent stratosphere from the turbulent troposphere. The stratopause separates the stratosphere from the mesosphere.

Mesosphere:In the mesosphere, the lapse rate is negative again due to low levels of ozone that absorbs ultraviolet radiation. The mesopause separates the mesosphere from the thermosphere.

Thermosphere:In thermosphere, the positive lapse rate raises the temperature to a maximum of about 1200C. Hence, atmospheric gases such as oxygen and nitric oxide split into atoms, which absorb solar radiation in the far ultraviolet region and then undergo ionization. That is why this layer is called ionosphere.

Exosphere:The uppermost layer of the atmosphere is called the exosphere. This extends up to a height of about 1600 km and gives way to interplanetary space. It is extremely rarefied. The upper layers of the atmosphere are continuously pressing down on the lower ones. Hence, the density of the lower layers is higher and it decreases as we move upwards.

Having described the layers of the atmosphere, now we shall deal with the hydrosphere which forms the second of the three main segments of the earths environment.

Hydrosphere:All types of water resources, namely the oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, ponds, polar ice caps, streams, glaciers, ground water, and water vapour are collectively known as the hydrosphere. Water being the elixir of life, all ancient civilizations were linked to major sources of water, be it the Egyptian Civilization along the River Nile, the Indus Valley Civilization along the River Indus, or the Mesopotamian Civilization between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

The hydrosphere is an important part of the earths surface. About 70 per cent of the earths surface is covered with water. The northern hemisphere is dominated by land surface, while the southern hemisphere is almost entirely occupied by water bodies (oceans).

Water is the most essential component of life for all living organisms. The hydrosphere is of immense importance to mankind. It maintains the availability of fresh water to the biosphere through the hydrological cycle. A major component of the hydrological cycle is the ocean. The oceans are great reservoirs of water and they also regulate carbon dioxide. The oceans can absorb more carbon dioxide than the atmosphere. Oceans are also the storehouses of vast resources, such as, water, salt, minerals, and food. The oceans are the largest sinks (pollutant receptor) of the planet. Thus, the role of the hydrosphere is critical to the sustenance of life on the earth. This is underlined by the fact that life on the earth originated under marine conditions.

Lithosphere:The lithosphere is the outermost mantle of the rocks constituting the earths crust. Rocks are subjected to continuous physical, chemical and biological (attack by lichens) weathering. Plants grow and decay on the soil covering the rocks. Soil is the major component of the lithosphere. The organic matter in soil is decomposed by micro-organisms, thus forming biomass. This biomass is mixed with the soil fauna. The major components of soil are air, water, minerals, and inorganic matter obtained from weathering of the parent rock. Organic matter of soil comprises plant biomass that is in various stages of decay. It also includes a high population of bacteria, fungi and animals such as nematodes, micro arthropods, termites and earthworms. Soil plays a vital role in supplying nutrients to the plant kingdom. The nutrient supply power of soil is a measure of its fertility, while the productivity of the soil is a function of crop and animal biomass per unit area. Thus, the yield of crop depends solely on soil and crop management strategies. Therefore, this dynamic balance between the soil and the crop needs to be preserved to maintain the interrelationship between the two.

The lithosphere has a thickness ranging from 64 to 96 km. The uppermost part of the lithosphere (the earths crust) is rich in silica (Si) and aluminium (Al) and is therefore, known as the SiAl layer. The continents belong to the SiAl layer and are made up of granite rocks.

The zone next to the SiAl is rich in silica (Si) and magnesium (Mg). This layer is formed of basalt rocks and constitutes the ocean floors. The basalt rocks are heavier than the rocks formed by SiAl layer. Below the SiMg layer, the density of the layers increases with depth. Such differences in density cause the constituting layers to float, one over the other. The continents are basically large segments or plates of the earths crust floating on top of this heavier layer. These floating plates are responsible for the tectonic movement of the earths surface during an earthquake.

Below the lithosphere lies the mantle, which has a thickness of about 2400 km. The upper part of the mantle is known as the Asthenosphere, while the lower mantle is called the Mesosphere. The interior-most part of the earth is called the Core, which consists of minerals such as iron, nickel, cobalt mixed with sulphur, and silica. The thickness of the core extends to about 3500 km. The Core consists of the outer core and the inner core. The inner core appears to be solid, while the outer core is molten and metallic. The temperature of the core ranges between 5000 and 5500C.

The direct interaction between the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere for millions of years has made the earth suitable for life and has formed the biosphere.

Biosphere:Life on earth occupies a thin skin extending more than a few kilometres below and above its surface. This is commonly known as the biosphere. Both the biosphere and environment influence each other a lot. The oxygen and carbon dioxide levels of the atmosphere depend entirely on the plant kingdom. All the different biogeochemical cycles are essential for the continuous circulation of constituents necessary for supporting life. This is possible due to the interaction of the biosphere and the environment

It is in the biosphere that radiant energy is converted to chemical form (carbohydrates) through the process of photosynthesis. Only then does energy transfer take place from chemical to mechanical, and heat forms during cellular metabolism.

Thus, it is the biosphere which is responsible for large scale recycling of matter and energy. Even today, the existence of life on earth is closely dependent on the biosphere because it constitutes an essential life support system for all living beings.

BiodiversityBiodiversity is multiple resource based offering us a range of products, materials and services. Our survival and well being of man-kind is directly dependent on biodiversity. Biodiversity produces goods and services for the most fundamental of our needs clean air, fresh water, food, medicines and shelter. It also provides people

with recreational, psychological, emotional and spiritual enjoyment.

Biodiversity or biological diversity is a neologism and portmanteau word, from bio and diversity. It is the diversity of and in living nature. Diversity, at its heart, implies the number of different kinds of objects, such as species.

The term biological diversity, was coined by Thomas Lovejoy in 1980, while the word biodiversity itself, was coined by the entomologist E.O.Wilson in 1986, in a report for the first American Forum on biological diversity organized by the National Research Council (NRC) biological diversity is a measure of the relative diversity among organisms present in different ecosystems. Diversity in this definition includes diversity within species, among species, and comparative diversity among ecosystems.

LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

There are three levels of diversity viz. genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. In effect, these levels cannot be separated. Each is important, interacting with and influencing the others. A change at one level can cause changes at the other levels.

1 Genetic Diversity

Genetic diversity is the fundamental currency of diversity that is responsible for variation. This is the diversity of basic units of hereditary information which are passed down generations found within a species (e.g. different varieties of the same species). Genetic diversity underlies the variability (differences) among individuals of a given species. For example no two individuals even in the same family are identical, unless of course they are identical twins with the same genome (i.e. complete genetic makeup). This t is genetic diversity that allows a species to adapt to changing environmental conditions such as a lower rainfall, a higher temperature year round, etc.

2 Species Diversity

Species diversity means the differences between species (both domesticated and wild). It is the most visible component of biodiversity as implied by the word species which literally means outward or visible form. This is why we often tend to describe biological diversity in terms of the number of species in a particular area or at the global level.

There are different estimates of extant (i.e. currently existing) species on earth which range from about five to 100 million, but a figure of about 12.5 million is the most widely accepted. Of these, only about 1.7 million species have been described as yet.

Known species of flora and fauna in the world

4,500 species of mammals

10,000 species of birds

12,000 species of amphibians and reptiles

22,000 species of fish

400,000 species of invertebrates (excluding insects)

960,000 species of insects, approximately 600,000 of which are

Beetles

270,000 species of plants

70,000 species of fungi

4,000 species of bacteria

5,000 species of viruses

3 Ecosystem Diversity

Ecosystem diversity means the variation between different types of ecosystems. Different species of animals, plants and micro-organisms interact with each other and their physical environment (such as water or minerals). Groups of organisms and their nonliving environment, and the interactions between them, form functional dynamic and complex units that are termed ecosystems. These systems help maintain life

processes vital for organisms to survive on earth.

Different combinations of species and physical conditions (such as sunlight, climate, soil and water) and their varied interactions give rise to variation among ecosystems. For example, the physical conditions in a coral reef are very different to those in a tropical forest. Accordingly, the species in a coral reef differ from the species in a tropical forest.

Biodiversity is multiple resource based offering us a range of products, materials and services. Our survival and well being of man-kind is directly dependent on biodiversity. Biodiversity produces goods and services for the most fundamental of our needs clean air, fresh water, food, medicines and shelter

Conservation of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is essential for maintaining the ecological functions, including stabilizing of the water cycle, maintenance and replenishment of soil fertility, pollination and cross-fertilization of crops and other vegetation, protection against soil erosion and stability of food producing and other ecosystems. Conservation of biological diversity leads to conservation of essential ecological diversity to preserve the continuity of food chains.

Biodiversity provides the base for the livelihoods, cultures and economies of several hundred millions of people, including farmers, fisher folk, forest dwellers and artisans. It provides raw material for a diverse medicinal and health care systems.

The Earth Summit produced a plan of action on a number of issues (Agenda 21) including conservation of biodiversity during the 21st century.

There are several strategies which are adapted for conservation of Biodiversity.

Some of these are:

1. Legislation:

Formal policies and programmes for conservation and sustainable utilisation of

biodiversity resources dates back to several decades. The concept of environmental

protection is enshrined in the Indian constitution in articles 48a and 51a(g). Major

central acts relevant to biodiversity include:

Environment Protection Act, 1986

Fisheries Act, 1897

Forest Act, 1927

Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 and Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act 1991

.

2. In-situ ConservationConserving the animals and plants in their natural habitats is known as in situ conservation. The established natural habitats are:

National parks

Wildlife sanctuaries

Biosphere reserves

The first such initiative was the establishment of the Corbett National Park in 1936. National Parks are highly protected by law. No human habitation, private land holding or traditional human activity such as firewood collection or grazing is allowed within the park. Sanctuaries are also protected but certain types of activities are permitted within these areas. Biosphere Reserves are another category of protected areas. It aim at conserving the biological diversity and genetic integrity of plants, animals and microorganisms on their totality as part the natural ecosystem.

Under this, a large area is declared as a Biosphere Reserve where wildlife is protected, but local communities are allowed to continue to live and pursue traditional activities within the Reserve. The Government of India has set up seven biosphere reserves: Nokrek (Meghalaya), Nilgiri (Kamataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu), Namdapha (Arunachal Pradesh), Nanda Devi (Uttar Pradesh), Sundarbans (West Bengal), Great Nicobar (Andaman & Nicobar Islands), Gulf of Mannnar (Tamil Nadu).

A programme "Eco-development" for in-situ conservation of biological diversity involving local communities was initiated. It integrates the ecological and economic parameters for sustained conservation of ecosystems by involving local communities with maintenance of earmarked regions surrounding protected areas. Approximately, 4.2 % of the total geographical area of the country has been earmarked for extensive in-situ conservation of habitats and ecosystems. A

protected area network of 85 national parks and 448 wildlife sanctuaries has been created. The results of this network have been significant in restoring viable population of large mammals such as tiger, lion, rhinoceros, crocodiles and elephants.

3. Ex-situ Conservation

Ex-situ conservation of plants and animals preserve/ or protect them away from their natural habitat. This could be in zoological parks and botanical gardens or through the forestry institutions and agricultural research centres. A lot of effort is under way to collect and preserve the genetic material of crops, animal, bird and fish species. This work is being done by institutions such as the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, the National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, etc. Reintroduction of an animal or plant into the habitat from where it has become extinct is another form of ex situ conservation. For example, the Gangetic gharial has been reintroduced in the rivers of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan where it had become extinct. Seed banks, botanical, horticultural and recreational gardens are important centres for ex situ conservation. Ex-situ conservation measures complement in-situ conservation.

Sustainable DevelopmentSustainable development today it is the most politicised catchword of international developmental conferences and programmes. Sustainable development has emerged out of the fears of depleting natural resources and a subsequent slowing or even closing down of much of the economic activities and production systems. It developed in the 1960s when people became aware of the detrimental effects of industrialization on the environment

Nature provides human societies and economies with a complex life support system, air, water, food and a suitable climate for survival. It also provides the physical resources that are necessary for the sustenance of economies. Nature has supported and maintained life on earth since times immemorial and should continue to do so in the future. This is known as the sustainability of nature or ecosystems or environment.

Sustainability

The term Sustainability has been defined variously, such as:

Sustainability refers to a process or state that can be maintained indefinitely.

Natural resources must be used in ways that do not create ecological debts by

overexploiting the carrying and productive capacity of the earth.

A minimum necessary condition for sustainability is the maintenance of the total

natural capital stock at or above the current level.

The economist Herman Daly has offered specifications for maintaining sustainability. He is of the opinion that:

Rates of use of renewable resources should not exceed regeneration rates.

Rates of use of non-renewable resources should not exceed rates of development

of renewable substitutes.

Rates of pollution emission should not exceed assimilative capacities of the

environment.

Development

The term Development means the social and economic improvement in a broad sense. It is needed to create opportunities, prosperity and choices for all inhabitants of the world and it must proceed in a way that leaves choices available for future generations also. It refers to a holistic growth of the human and natural environment towards autonomy and freedom. It indicates a growth pattern, which makes nations

more decisive in their internal and external environment.

Sustainable development

The concept of Sustainable development was envisaged to bring environmentalist ideas into the central theme of economic development policy. It sought to modify the kind of unsustainable development strategies that were being pursued Sustainable development combines the two terms of sustainability and development to indicate a pattern of growth, which strengthens both the national capabilities to care for their people in relation to their total relationship with the resources of the earth.

Objectives of sustainable development:

Sustainable development has some forward looking and broad based objectives, which transcend class, caste, language and regional barriers. These objectives are a charter for liberating ones economy from the clutches of exploitative mindset, which has depraved nations and defied their biomass wealth.

These objectives are:

1. To maintain the standards of living of the largest number of people with equity and justice. The consideration of Trans-boundary and cumulative impacts in decision-making has to be realised.

2. To conserve and protect earths natural resources from misuse and wasteful consumption. This demands respect for the land and its diversity as the foundation for healthy communities.3. To innovate new technology and scientific techniques, which work in unison with laws of nature and are not opposed to it. There needs to be a consideration of sharing the risks and benefits from developmental policies undertaken by different nations.4. To respect diversity and involve local and indigenous communities for a more grassroots oriented and relevant developmental policies. This would involve consideration of economic viability, culture and environmental values, as policies and programmes are developed.

5. To decentralise governance institutions and make them more resilient, transparent and accountable to people. They should have an open, inclusive and participative decision-making. 6. To plan international institutions, which recognise the requirements of poor nations and support them to achieve their growth targets without destroying their natural wealth and environment.7. To seek peaceful coexistence of all nations of the world because only peace can allow them space to innovate for the larger interests of humanity. This may demand honouring of treaties and fiduciary obligations and international agreements.Sustainable development is a value-based concept, which appeals to the universal themes of mutual existence and respect for others. It is a continually evolving process bringing together cultural, social, economic, environmental and political concerns.

Need of Sustainable Development due to :

Industrialisation

The Industrial Revolution began in England sometime after the middle of the 18th century and transformed Great Britain from a largely rural population making a living almost entirely from agriculture to a town-centred society engaged increasingly in factory manufacture. A series of inventions transformed the manufacture of cotton goods in England and gave rise to a new mode of production - the factory system. During the years from 1750 to 1830, other branches of industry effected comparable advances, and all these together, mutually reinforcing one another, made possible further gains on an ever widening front. The abundance and variety of innovations may be included under three principles:

1. The substitution of machines - rapid, regular, precise, tireless- for human skill and effort.

2. The substitution of inanimate for animate sources of power, in particular, the introduction of engines for converting heat into work, thereby opening to man a new and abundant supply of energy.

3. The use of new and far more abundant raw materials, in particular, the substitution of mineral for vegetable or animal substances.

The Industrial Revolution needed the resources, especially the raw materials, which were concentrated mainly in the now poor nations. While the resources were extracted from the Southern countries (presently the developing countries), the value addition was done mostly in the Northern countries (presently the developed countries), thus creating an economic imbalance.

Urbanisation

The relation of urbanisation with industrialisation is very close. The expansion of industrialisation has resulted in the expansion of cities. This has meant expansion into rural lands that grow food and nurture cattle and village forests and provide several forms of sustainable occupations to the communities in these areas. The spread of cities and industrial towns on one hand leads to the loss of agricultural land including forest resources and intense and unmanageable migration towards the cities on the other. The level of urbanisation in India has increased from 25.4 percent in 1970 to 33.6 percent in 1990 and is expected to rise to 57 percent by the year 2025.

Uncontrolled and unplanned expansion of towns and cities with large populations has overwhelmed transport, communication, water supply, sanitation and energy systems resulting in a growth of urban poor and unemployed population with precarious health problems. The impact of urbanisation is that the cities consume raw material ls from surrounding regions and generate waste and pollution. For example, fuel wood consumed in Delhi comes from the forests of Madhya Pradesh.

The migration of labours and entrepreneurial skills to the city, and industrial towns and commercialisation of the land in these rural areas may have positive outcomes in terms of employment, but it also results in the change of type of productive activities and even expulsion of farmers from their lands.

Inequities

The new indices, e.g., Human Development Index (HDI) developed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to study the quality of life have brought into focus the widening gap between the countries of the North and the South. On one hand, a wealthy minority of the worlds population is consuming at an unsustainably high level, causing disproportionate damage to global ecosystems, while protecting only their local environment. On the other hand, a poor, larger and rapidly-growing proportion of the worlds population is being forced by poverty to degrade the natural resource base on which it is directly dependent.

The developing countries with 77 percent of world population generate only 15 percent of world income. in the last decade that the number of poor is going to increase in the coming decades. This increase is largely related to the unfair developmental policies being pursued by international trading institutions. The key issues are how to add value to agriculture and cottage industries produce at the production site itself as also how to provide welfare funding to institutions catering to the poor children, destitute women and dalits who have remained marginalised and reduce the gap between the haves and the have-nots that is increasing in the process of economic globalisation.

Resource Utilisation

The four major resources of this earth, which are taken care of by every nation individually, as well as through international agreements are land, water, air and forests. The industrialised countries such as the G8 (United States [US], Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Italy, Canada and Russia), Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and European Union (EU) which have less than 23 percent of the world population have been consuming resources that are several times more than that being consumed by the whole of Asia, Latin America and Africa taken togetherStockholm Conference

The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (also known as the Stockholm Conference) was an international conference convened under United Nations auspices held in Stockholm, Sweden from June 5-16, 1972. It was the UN's first major conference on international environmental issues, and marked a turning point in the development of international environmental politics.

Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment

The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, having met at Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 1972,having considered the need for a common outlook and for common principles to inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the preservation and enhancement of the human environment,

Proclaims that:

1. Man is both creature and moulder of his environment, which gives him physical sustenance and affords him the opportunity for intellectual, moral, social and spiritual growth. In the long and tortuous evolution of the human race on this planet a stage has been reached when, through the rapid acceleration of science and technology, man has acquired the power to transform his environment in countless ways and on an unprecedented scale. Both aspects of man's environment, the natural and the man-made, are essential to his well-being and to the enjoyment of basic human rights the right to life itself.

2. The protection and improvement of the human environment is a major issue which affects the well-being of peoples and economic development throughout the world; it is the urgent desire of the peoples of the whole world and the duty of all Governments.

3. Man has constantly to sum up experience and go on discovering, inventing, creating and advancing. In our time, man's capability to transform his surroundings, if used wisely, can bring to all peoples the benefits of development and the opportunity to enhance the quality of life. Wrongly or heedlessly applied, the same power can do incalculable harm to human beings and the human environment. We see around us growing evidence of man-made harm in many regions of the earth: dangerous levels of pollution in water, air, earth and living beings; major and undesirable disturbances to the ecological balance of the biosphere; destruction and depletion of irreplaceable resources; and gross deficiencies, harmful to the physical, mental and social health of man, in the man-made environment, particularly in the living and working environment.

4. In the developing countries most of the environmental problems are caused by under-development. Millions continue to live far below the minimum levels required for a decent human existence, deprived of adequate food and clothing, shelter and education, health and sanitation. Therefore, the developing countries must direct their efforts to development, bearing in mind their priorities and the need to safeguard and improve the environment. For the same purpose, the industrialized countries should make efforts to reduce the gap themselves and the developing countries. In the industrialized countries, environmental problems are generally related to industrialization and technological development.

5. The natural growth of population continuously presents problems for the preservation of the environment, and adequate policies and measures should be adopted, as appropriate, to face these problems. Of all things in the world, people are the most precious. It is the people that propel social progress, create social wealth, develop science and technology and, through their hard work, continuously transform the human environment. Along with social progress and the advance of production, science and technology, the capability of man to improve the environment increases with each passing day.

6. A point has been reached in history when we must shape our actions throughout the world with a more prudent care for their environmental consequences. Through ignorance or indifference we can do massive and irreversible harm to the earthly environment on which our life and well being depend. Conversely, through fuller knowledge and wiser action, we can achieve for ourselves and our posterity a better life in an environment more in keeping with human needs and hopes.. To defend and improve the human environment for present and future generations has become an imperative goal for mankind-a goal to be pursued together with, and in harmony with, the established and fundamental goals of peace and of worldwide economic and social development.

7. To achieve this environmental goal will demand the acceptance of responsibility by citizens and communities and by enterprises and institutions at every level, all sharing equitably in common efforts. Individuals in all walks of life as well as organizations in many fields, by their values and the sum of their actions, will shape the world environment of the future.

Local and national governments will bear the greatest burden for large-scale environmental policy and action within their jurisdictions. International cooperation is also needed in order to raise resources to support the developing countries in carrying out their responsibilities in this field. A growing class of environmental problems, because they are regional or global in extent or because they affect the common international realm, will require extensive cooperation among nations and action by international organizations in the common interest.

The Conference calls upon Governments and peoples to exert common efforts for the preservation and improvement of the human environment, for the benefit of all the people and for their posterity.

The meeting agreed upon a Declaration containing 26 principles concerning the environment and development; an Action Plan with 109 recommendations, and a Resolution. Principles of the Stockholm Declaration:

Principle 1 : . Human rights must be asserted, apartheid and colonialism condemned

Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations. In this respect, policies promoting or perpetuating apartheid, racial segregation, discrimination, colonial and other forms of oppression and foreign domination stand condemned and must be eliminated.

Principle 2 : Natural resources must be safeguarded

The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and especially representative samples of natural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning or management, as appropriate.

Principle 3 : The Earths capacity to produce renewable resources must be maintained

The capacity of the earth to produce vital renewable resources must be maintained and, wherever practicable, restored or improved.

Principle 4 : Wildlife must be safeguarded

Man has a special responsibility to safeguard and wisely manage the heritage of wildlife and its habitat, which are now gravely imperilled by a combination of adverse factors. Nature conservation, including wildlife, must therefore receive importance in planning for economic development.

Principle 5 : Non-renewable resources must be shared and not exhausted

The non-renewable resources of the earth must be employed in such a way as to guard against the danger of their future exhaustion and to ensure that benefits from such employment are shared by all mankind.

Principle 6 : Pollution must not exceed the environments capacity to clean itself

The discharge of toxic substances or of other substances and the release of heat, in such quantities or concentrations as to exceed the capacity of the environment to render them harmless, must be halted in order to ensure that serious or irreversible damage is not inflicted upon ecosystems. The just struggle of the peoples of ill countries against pollution should be supported.

Principle 7 : Damaging oceanic pollution must be prevented

States shall take all possible steps to prevent pollution of the seas by substances that are liable to create hazards to human health, to harm living resources and marine life, to damage amenities or to interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea.

Principle 8 : Development is needed to improve the environment

Economic and social development is essential for ensuring a favorable living and working environment for man and for creating conditions on earth that are necessary for the improvement of the quality of life.

Principle 9 : Developing countries therefore need assistance

Environmental deficiencies generated by the conditions of under-development and natural disasters pose grave problems and can best be remedied by accelerated development through the transfer of substantial quantities of financial and technological assistance as a supplement to the domestic effort of the developing countries and such timely assistance as may be required.

Principle 10 : Developing countries need reasonable prices for exports to carry out environmental management

For the developing countries, stability of prices and adequate earnings for primary commodities and raw materials are essential to environmental management, since economic factors as well as ecological processes must be taken into account.

Principle 11 : . Environment policy must not hamper development

The environmental policies of all States should enhance and not adversely affect the present or future development potential of developing countries, nor should they hamper the attainment

of better living conditions for all, and appropriate steps should be taken by States and international organizations with a view to reaching agreement on meeting the possible national and international economic consequences resulting from the application of environmental measures.

Principle 12 : Developing countries need money to develop environmental safeguards

Resources should be made available to preserve and improve the environment, taking into account the circumstances and particular requirements of developing countries and any costs which may emanate- from their incorporating environmental safeguards into their development planning and the need for making available to them, upon their request, additional international technical and financial assistance for this purpose.

Principle 13 :. Integrated development planning is needed

In order to achieve a more rational management of resources and thus to improve the environment, States should adopt an integrated and coordinated approach to their development planning so as to ensure that development is compatible with the need to protect and improve environment for the benefit of their population.

Principle 14 : . Rational planning should resolve conflicts between environment and developmentRational planning constitutes an essential tool for reconciling any conflict between the needs of development and the need to protect and improve the environment.

Principle 15 : Human settlements must be planned to eliminate environmental problems

Planning must be applied to human settlements and urbanization with a view to avoiding adverse effects on the environment and obtaining maximum social, economic and environmental benefits for all. In this respect projects which arc designed for colonialist and racist domination must be abandoned.

Principle 16: Governments should plan their own appropriate population policies

Demographic policies which are without prejudice to basic human rights and which are deemed appropriate by Governments concerned should be applied in those regions where the rate of population growth or excessive population concentrations are likely to have adverse effects on the environment of the human environment and impede development.

Principle 17 : National institutions must plan development of states natural resources

Appropriate national institutions must be entrusted with the task of planning, managing or controlling the 9 environmental resources of States with a view to enhancing environmental quality.

Principle 18 : Science and technology must be used to improve the environment

Science and technology, as part of their contribution to economic and social development, must be applied to the identification, avoidance and control of environmental risks and the solution of environmental problems and for the common good of mankind.

Principle 19 : . Environmental education is essential

Education in environmental matters, for the younger generation as well as adults, giving due consideration to the underprivileged, is essential in order to broaden the basis for an enlightened opinion and responsible conduct by individuals, enterprises and communities in protecting and improving the environment in its full human dimension. It is also essential that mass media of communications avoid contributing to the deterioration of the environment, but, on the contrary, disseminates information of an educational nature on the need to project and improve the environment in order to enable mal to develop in every respect.

Principle 20 : Environmental research must be promoted, particularly in developing countries

Scientific research and development in the context of environmental problems, both national and multinational, must be promoted in all countries, especially the developing countries. In this connection, the free flow of up-to-date scientific information and transfer of experience must be supported and assisted, to facilitate the solution of environmental problems; environmental technologies should be made available to developing countries on terms which would encourage their wide dissemination without constituting an economic burden on the developing countries.

Principle 21 : States may exploit their resources as they wish but must not endanger others

States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.

Principle 22 : Compensation is due to states thus endangered

States shall cooperate to develop further the international law regarding liability and compensation for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage caused by activities within the jurisdiction or control of such States to areas beyond their jurisdiction.

Principle 23 : Each nation must establish its own standards

Without prejudice to such criteria as may be agreed upon by the international community, or to standards which will have to be determined nationally, it will be essential in all cases to consider the systems of values prevailing in each country, and the extent of the applicability of standards which are valid for the most advanced countries but which may be inappropriate and of unwarranted social cost for the developing countries.

Principle 24 : There must be cooperation on international issues

International matters concerning the protection and improvement of the environment should be handled in a cooperative spirit by all countries, big and small, on an equal footing.

Cooperation through multilateral or bilateral arrangements or other appropriate means is essential to effectively control, prevent, reduce and eliminate adverse environmental effects resulting from activities conducted in all spheres, in such a way that due account is taken of the sovereignty and interests of all States.

Principle 25 : International organizations should help to improve the environmentStates shall ensure that international organizations play a coordinated, efficient and dynamic role for the protection and improvement of the environment.

Principle 26 : Weapons of mass destruction must be eliminated.Man and his environment must be spared the effects of nuclear weapons and all other means of mass destruction. States must strive to reach prompt agreement, in the relevant international organs, on the elimination and complete destruction of such weapons.

One of the seminal issue that emerged from the conference is the recognition for poverty alleviation for protecting the environment. The Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in her seminal speech in the conference brought forward the connection between ecological management and poverty alleviation. It is to be noted that she was the only other speaker in the conference other than the hosting country prime minister.

Agenda 21

Agenda 21is a non-binding, voluntarily implemented action plan of theUnited Nations with regard tosustainable development. It is a product of theUN Conference on Environment and Development(UNCED) held inRio de Janeiro,Brazil, in 1992. It is an action agenda for the UN, other multilateral organizations, and individual governments around the world that can be executed at local, national, and global levels. The "21" in Agenda21 refers to the 21stCentury. It has been affirmed and modified at subsequent UNconferences.

It offers policies and programmes to achieve a sustainable balance between consumption, population and the Earths life-supporting capacity. It describes some of technologies and techniques that need to be developed to provide for human needs while carefully managing natural resources. Agenda 21 does not shun business. It says that sustainable development is the way to reverse both poverty and environmental destruction.The relationship between economic development and environmental degradation was the first placed on the International Agenda in 1972 at the UN conference on the human environment held in Stockholm. After the conference govt. set up the united nations environment programme UNEP which today continues to act as a global catalyst for action to protect the environment.

By 1983, when the UN setup the world commission on environment development, environmental degradation, which had been seen as a sideeffect of Industrial wealth with only a limited impact was understood to be a matter of survival for developing nations. The commission put forward the concept of sustainable development as an alternative approach to one simply based on economic growth.

The Rio declaration on environments sustainable development supports Agenda 21 by defining the rights and responsibilities of states regarding these issues among its principles:

1. That human beings are at the center of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitles to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.

2. That scientific uncertainty environmental degradation irreversible damage.

3. That state have a sovereign rights to exploit their own resources but not to cause damage to the environment of their state.

4. That eradicating poverty and reducing dispatches in worldwide standards of living are Indispensable for sustainable development.

5. That the full participation of the women is essential for achieving sustainable development.

6. That the developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit of the sustainable development in view of the pressuring societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command. Structure of Agenda 21:

Agenda21 is a 300-page document divided into 40chapters that have been grouped into 4sections: SectionI: Social and Economic Dimensionsis directed toward combatting poverty, especially indeveloping countries, changing consumption patterns, promoting health, achieving a more sustainable population, and sustainable settlement indecision making.

SectionII: Conservation and Management of Resources for DevelopmentIncludes atmospheric protection, combatingdeforestation, protecting fragile environments, conservation of biological diversity (biodiversity),control of pollutionand the management of biotechnology, andradioactive wastes.

SectionIII: Strengthening the Role of Major Groupsincludes the roles ofchildrenand youth,women,NGOs,local authorities, business and industry, and workers; and strengthening the role ofindigenous peoples, their communities, andfarmers.

SectionIV: Means of Implementation:implementationincludesscience,technology transfer,education,international institutions and financial mechanisms.

Agenda 21 calls on governments to adopt national strategies for sustainable development. These should be developed with wide participation, including non-government organizations and the public. Agenda 21 puts most of the responsibility for leading change on national governments, but says they need to work in a broad series of partnerships with international organizations, business, regional, state, provincial and local governments, non-governmental and citizens groups.

As Agenda 21 says, only a global partnership will ensure that all nations will have a safer and more prosperous future.

World Trade Organization (WTO)The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on January 1, 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries; it provides a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed by representatives of member governments. World Trade Organisation: Functions and Principles

Functions: The WTO sets rules for trade among nations. The WTO agreements, which emerge out of several rounds of negotiations, provide the legal ground-rules for international commence.

They are essentially contracts, binding governments to keep their trade policies within agreed limits. WTO also helps settle disputes related to trade. Most of the agreements, in the WTO system, often need interpretation. At times differences take place among the trading partners on the interpretation of the agreements.

Principles of the Trading System: As WTO sets the rules for trade; it has developed sets of agreed principles for this purpose. Indeed WTO agreements are based on certain fundamental principles. These may be described as follows:

Trade Without Discrimination. This principle has two aspects to it

i) Most Favoured Nation-MNF: Under WTO agreements no country can normally discriminate among its trading partners. When some special fovours are given, e.g., the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) treatment, the same favour is normally to be thrown to all the other WTO members. Even though it sounds like a contradiction, in essence it implies that each member treats all the other members as Most Favoured trading partners.

ii) National Treatment. This involves imported and locally-produced goods should be treated equally atleast after the foreign goods have entered the market. The same should apply to foreign and domestic services and to foreign and local trademarks, copyrights and patents (source: www.wto.org). To WTO, opening markets can be beneficial, but it also requires adjustment. The WTO agreements allow countries to introduce changes gradually through progressive liberalisation. Developing countries are usually given a longer turn to fulfill their obligation. Significantly the WTO agreement also desires the member governments to ensure that the business environment is stable and predictable.

Open Trade Policy and Fair Competition: WTO recognises that all countries, including the poorest, have assets human, industrial, natural, financial - which can be used for producing goods and services

both for the domestic and overseas markets. It also recognises that

bilateral trade policies, that allow the unrestricted flow of goods and

services, sharpen competition, motivate innovation and breed

success.

Encouraging Economic Reforms: Trade liberalisation is an important agenda of WTO. Over three quarters of WTO members are developing countries and countries in transition to market economies. Here all members have committed themselves to market access within a specified timeframe (we shall discuss this timeframeThere are several provisions in the WTO agreements dealing with environment. There is a reference to sustainable development as one of the general objectives to be served by the WTO in the Marrakech Agreement which established the WTO. There are provisions in the Agreement on Agriculture and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). However by far and away the most important provisions as far as environmental issues are concerned are Article XX of the GATT and the Agreements on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade.

1. Article XX of the GATT: Article XX specifies what activities are exempt from GATT rules. These exemptions give members very wide latitude to control trade to protect the environment. They include protection of national security, protection of morals, preservation of national cultural heritage. Of particular importance is the right to waive the rules in order to protect human, animal, plant, health and safety.

2. Preventing abuse the role of the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS): Such provision stated that decisions be based on science and a process of risk assessment introduced transparency into decision-making by creating a visible check on abuse of executive discretion. This not only protected the rights of members of the WTO, it also gave assurance to consumers that governments were not abusing their powers.

3. Preventing abuse II the role of the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT): The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT). It was designed to reduce the scope for countries to use technical standards as disguised barriers to trade. It obliges members to ensure that national treatment and non-discrimination apply when technical standards are adopted as mandatory regulations.

Sound regulation, standards and eco-labeling: There is large body of standards which aim to improve the quality of goods and services and provide information to consumers. Most of these are national standards and are set by national standard setting organizations. A set of international standards is produced by the International Standards Organization. Well-known quality standards developed by that organization include the ISO 9000 series (to improve quality in organizations) and ISO 14000 (to set quality standards to improve environmental management.). Eco-labelling systems are applied by commercial entities for the information of consumers, these are voluntary standards.

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) sets binding obligations on industrialised countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. The UNFCCC is an international environmental treaty with the goal of achieving the "stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system." The Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force on 16 February 2005. As of September 2011, 191 states have signed and ratified the protocol. The United States signed but did not ratify the Protocol and Canada withdrew from it in 2011. Other United Nations member states which did not ratify the protocol are Afghanistan, Andorra and South Sudan.

The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions .These reductions amount to an average of five per cent against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012.

The major distinction between the Protocol and the Convention is that while the Convention encouraged industrialised countries to stabilize GHG emissions, the Protocol commits them to do so.

Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. The detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh in 2001, and are called the Marrakesh Accords.

The Kyoto Protocol treaty was negotiated in December 1997 at the city of Kyoto, Japan and came into force February 16th, 2005.

"The Kyoto Protocol is a legally binding agreement under which industrialized countries will reduce their collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2% compared to the year 1990 (but note that, compared to the emissions levels that would be expected by 2010 without the Protocol, this target represents a 29% cut). The goal is to lower overall emissions from six greenhouse gases - carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, HFCs, and PFCs - calculated as an average over the five-year period of 2008-12. National targets range from 8% reductions for the European Union and some others to 7% for the US, 6% for Japan, 0% for Russia, and permitted increases of 8% for Australia and 10% for Iceland."

The view that human activities are likely responsible for most of the observed increase in global mean temperature ("global warming") since the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of current scientific thinking. Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue throughout the 21st century and beyond.

The range in temperature projections partly reflects different projections of future greenhouse gas emissions. Different projections contain different assumptions of future social and economic development (e.g., economic growth, population level, energy policies), which in turn affects projections of future greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.The range also reflects uncertainty in the response of the climate system to past and future GHG emissions

The main aim of the Kyoto Protocol is to contain emissions of the main anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions. The treaty follows the main principles agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework Convention. According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I Parties who have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas emissions limitations established for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period (20082012). These emissions limitation commitments are listed in Annex B of the Protocol.

The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would stop dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system." Even if Annex I Parties succeed in meeting their first-round commitments, much greater emission reductions will be required in future to stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations.

For each of the different anthropogenic GHGs, different levels of emissions reductions would be required to meet the objective of stabilizing atmospheric concentrations (see United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change#Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations). Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most important anthropogenic GHG. Stabilizing the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere would ultimately require the effective elimination of anthropogenic CO2 emissions.

Key Provisions

In accordance with the Kyoto Protocol, Contracting Parties from developed countries are committed to reducing their combined greenhouse gas emissions by at least 5 per cent from 1990 levels by the period 2008-2012. The targets cover the six main greenhouse gases, namely, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), along with some activities in the land-use change and forestry sector that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (carbon "sinks"). Each Contracting Party from developed countries is required to have made demonstrable progress in implementing its emission reduction commitments by 2005.

Implementation of the legally binding Protocol commitments promises to produce an historic reversal of the upward trend in emissions from developed countries.

The Kyoto Protocol also establishes three innovative mechanisms, known as joint implementation, emissions trading and the clean development mechanism, which are designed to help Contracting Parties included in Annex I of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to reduce the costs of meeting their emission targets. The clean development mechanism also aims to promote sustainable development in developing countries. The operational details of these mechanisms are now being fleshed out by the Contracting Parties.

The procedure for the communication and review of information is established in the Kyoto Protocol. Contracting Parties from developed countries are required to incorporate in their national communications the supplementary information necessary to demonstrate compliance with their commitments under the Protocol in accordance with guidelines to be developed. The information submitted shall be reviewed by expert review teams, pursuant to guidelines established by the Conference of the Parties, which is the supreme body that shall regularly review and promote effective implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol.

The Protocol provides that the Contracting Parties shall periodically review the Protocol in the light of the best available scientific information and assessment on climate change and its impacts. The first review will take place at the second session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Protocol. Further reviews shall take place at regular intervals and in a timely manner. A framework for a compliance system is required to be developed under the Protocol.

Market-based trading mechanisms provided under Kyoto Protocol:

Three mechanisms have been established under the Kyoto Protocol: ET, the clean development

mechanism (CDM) and joint implementation (JI).

1. Emissions trading

Emissions trading is established by Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol. Annex I Parties may participate in ET for the purposes of fulfilling their commitments under Article 3. ET is closely related to the accounting of assigned amounts under the Kyoto Protocol, the modalities of which are defined under the following Articles of the Kyoto Protocol:

(a) Article 3: paragraphs 7 and 8 deal with the establishment of assigned amounts;

(b) Article 3: paragraphs 10, 11 and 12 deal with the transfer and acquisition of some types of units;

(c) Article 7: paragraph 4 deals with the modalities for accounting assigned amounts.

A summary of decisions by the CMP relating to the above Articles is presented in the annex, table 1.

2. Clean development mechanism

The CDM is established by Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol to assist non-Annex I Parties in achieving sustainable development and in contributing to the ultimate objective of the Convention, and to assist Annex I Parties in achieving compliance with their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments under Article 3.

The CDM is supervised by the Executive Board which, inter alia, recommends modalities and procedures for the CDM to the CMP and performs operational functions under the authority and guidance of the CMP.

3.Joint implementation

Joint implementation is established by Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol to assist Annex I Parties in meeting their commitments under Article 3.

A host Party of an Article 6 project that meets all the eligibility requirements for participation may verify its own emission reductions by sources or enhancements of removals by sinks from JI projects and issue the resulting emission reduction units (so-called Track 1). If a Party does not meet those requirements, such verification takes place through the verification procedure under the Joint

Implementation Supervisory Committee (JISC) (so-called Track 2). The JISC operates under the authority and guidance of the CMP.

PUBLIC INTEREST LITIGATION (PIL)

Introduction:

Public Interest Litigation means a legal action initiated in a court of law regarding a matter which relates to or is connected with the interest of the public. Its purpose is to provide justice to the ordinary people. It has been devised for those people who are unable to approach the court on their own because of their deprived conditions, i.e., illiteracy, poverty, social and economic backwardness, lack of awareness.

The PIL can be filed by a third party if the constitutional rights of an individual or group of individuals are violated. In such case the individual or groups of individuals is not able to move court personally for justice because of poverty, helplessness, lack of awareness or socially and economically disadvantaged conditions. The petitioner of the PIL does not file it for personal gain or private profit. He/she does not file it for political or other oblique motivation.

The PlL can also be filed by a petitioner by writing a letter to the court. The jurisdiction of judgement relating to the letter-petitions is known as "epistolary jurisdiction". This term was first used by Justice V.R. lyer and Justice P.N. Bhagwati when they introduced the term "PIL".

Factors Giving Rise to PIL

The PIL started in India as a result of the feeling by some of the Supreme Court judges that mainly the rich and politically powerful people could take the help of court of law in India.

The ordinary people, illiterate, socially, educationally and economically disad9antaged could not approach the court of law. 'The high cost, complicated and slow legal procedure made it still more difficult for them to approach the court of law. It is assumed that PIL will contribute towards the radical changes in society, if it could help in enforcing the fundamental rights of weak and poor people.

Distinction between Public and Private Interest LitigationThe PIL is different from the conventional litigation. The petitioner in the PIL may be a third party, which is not personally involved in the dispute, while in the conventional petition the petitioner is one of the two parties involved in the dispute. The PIL deals with the issues of general interest, On the other hand, the conventional litigation deals with one of the parties in a dispute ; it is private interest litigation. The PIL is essentially co-operative or collaborative effort on the part of petitioner.Features of PIL

i) . In PIL the scope of the law suit is consciously shaped by the court and parties, rather than being limited by a specific past event.

ii) The party structure is sprawling and amorphous, rather than limited to individual adversaries.

iii) The fact inquiry resembles the kind of inquiry taken into current problems by legislative bodies, rather than a simple investigation of past historical events.

iv) Relief 1s often prospective, flexible and remedial having a broad impact on many persons, rather than limited to compensation for a past wrong given only to a party to the lawsuit.

v) The relief is often negotiated by the parties rather than imposed by the court.

vi) The judgement does not end the court's involvement but requires a continuing administiative judicial role.

vii) The judge plays an active role in organising and shaping the litigation and is not passive.

viii) The subject matter of the law suit is a 'grievance about public policy and is not a private suit.

Who is entitled to file a PIL?

The right of a person to file a suit or conduct a litigation in a court of law is known as 'Locus Standi'.

Types of PIL:

There are two types of PILs :

i) Representative Social Action and

ii) Citizen Social Action

Representative Social Action:

This is a form of PIL whereby any member of the public can seek judicial redressal for a legal wrong caused to a person or a determinate class of persons who by reason of poverty, or socially and economically disadvantaged position, is unable to approach the court. In such case, the petitioner is accorded locus standi to sue as the representative 'of other person or group.

The PIL cases like Hussainara Khatoon Vs. State of Bihar, (AIR 1979 SC I360 Sunil Batra Vs. Delhi Ad~nnA IR 1980 SC 1579, Mukti Morcha Vs. VOI (AIR 1984 SC 802), were cases of this nature, where the Court accorded locus standi to a person or seek judicial redressal on behalf of another person or class when such person or class was unable to do so, by themselves.

Citizen Social Action:

In a PIL, under this category a Petitioner sues not as a representative of a class, but as a member of the public to whom a public duty is owed. hence, the aim of this category of PIL is not to improve access to justice for the poor unlike a Representative Social Action, but to vindicate rights that are diffused among the public to be enforced, though no traditional individual right exists.

In a PIL, under this category a Petitioner sues not as a representative of a class, but as a lledressal of Consumer member of the public to whom a public duty is owed. hence, the aim of this category of PIL Grievances is not to improve access to justice for the poor unlike a Representative Social Action, but to vindicate rights'that are diffused among the public to be enforced, though no traditional individual right exists.

In S.P. Gupta's case (Air 1982 SC 149) which dealt with the transfer of judges, the Suprem Court upheld the Petitioners contention that there existed a public interest in assuring the freedom of the judiciary from political influence. The Court held that the potential injury was the loss of faith in the rule of law and a concurrent loss of confidence in democratic institutions of Government.Advantages

The first and foremost advantage of PIL is access to a National Forum of decision making and power by those who were until now voiceless and invisible.

The relaxation from long procedural formalities and thus, ensuring the poor people to have access to justice.

The relaxation of the rule of locus standi has resulted in representative action where a person or a group, with a sufficient interest in a particular cause, litigates on behalf of a large number of others who cannot afford the cost of litigation.

PlL has also given the court an opportunity to address important issues in areas like environmental protection, consumer protection etc., which affect a large number of people.

The acceptance of even letters and telegrams by the courts, as PILs, reduces the cost of such litigation and also encourages public spirited individuals and groups to bring to the notice of the court any situation which requires the Courts interference.

The appointing of commissions by the courts as fact finding bodies to check into the allegation made in the petition has established a new mode of proof. These commission reports have formed the basis of direction of the court in cases complaining of violation of rights.

The monitoring by the Court of the implementation of the directions at periodic intervals to ensure compliance, enable the vindication of rights in practice. The monitoring function has also often been vested in vigilance bodies with participation of Social Action Groups.

Disadvantages

There is always the possibility that the instrument of PIL may be misused by a person purportedly litigating in the public interest. The popularity of PIL, has resulted in a large number of such cases being filed which add to the already considerable backlog and which also require the court to spend a lot of time in dealing with issues which should more appropriately be dealt with by the executive or the legislature. Besides, considering the nature of the cases involved, the orders of the court are not easily enforceable, thereby requiring the petitioners to approach the court again for subsequent direction.FAMILY WELFAREIndia is the second most populous country in the world, sustaining 16.7 per cent of the world population on 2.4 per cent of the worlds surface area. Realising that high population growth is inevitable during the initial phases of demographic transition and the urgent need to accelerate the pace of the transition, India became the first country to formulate a National Family Planning Programme in 1952. The objective of the policy was reducing birth rate to the extent necessary to stabilise the population at a level consistent with requirement of national economy

NATIONAL FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAMME

India launched the National Family Welfare Programme in 1951 with the objective of "reducing the birth rate to the extent necessary to stabilize the population at a level consistent with the requirement of the National economy. The Family Welfare Programme in India is recognized as a priority area, and is being implemented as a 100% Centrally sponsored programme.

EVOLUTION OF FW PROGRAM

The approach under the programme during the First and Second Five Year Plans was mainly "Clinical" under which facilities for provision of services were created. However, on the basis of data brought out by the 1961 census, clinical approach adopted in the first two plans was replaced by "Extension and Education Approach" which envisaged expansion of services facilities along with spread of message of small family norm.

In the IV Plan (1969-74), high priority was accorded to the programme and it was proposed to reduce birth rate from 35 per thousand to 32 per thousand by the end of plan. 16.5 million