169999877 Fundamental Rights(1)

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Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles ofState Policy

andFundamental Duties

The Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles of State Policyand Fundamental Dutiesaresections of theConstitution of Indiathat prescribe the fundamental obligations of the State to itscitizens and the duties of the citizens to the State.[note 1]These sections comprise a constitutionalbill of rightsfor government policyma!ing and the behaviour and conduct of citizens. Thesesections are considered vital elements of the constitution, "hich "as developed bet"een 1#$%and 1#$# by the Constituent &ssembly of India.

The Fundamental Rights are defined as the basic human rightsof all citizens. These rights,defined in 'art III of the Constitution, apply irrespective of race, place of birth, religion, caste,creed or gender. They are enforceable by the courts, sub(ect to specific restrictions.

The Directive Principles of State Policy are guidelines for the framing of la"s by thegovernment. These provisions, set out in 'art I) of the Constitution, are not enforceable by thecourts, but the principles on "hich they are based are fundamental guidelines for governance thatthe State is e*pected to apply in framing and passing la"s.

TheFundamental Dutiesare defined as the moral obligations of all citizens to help promote aspirit of patriotism and to uphold the unity of India. These duties, set out in 'art I)+& of theConstitution, concern individuals and the nation. i!e the -irective 'rinciples, they are notlegally enforceable.

Contents

[hide]

1 History 2 Fundamental Rights

o 2.1 Right to Equality

o 2.2 Right to Freedom

o 2.3 Right against Exploitation

o 2.4 Right to Freedom o Religion

o 2.! "ultural and Edu#ational Rights

1$r.%a&riel 'ariadoss, (sst.)ro.in *o#ial +or, )mu, -allam *o#ial Engineering'aterials
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o 2./ Right to "onstitutional Remedies

3 $ire#ti0e )rin#iples o *tate )oli#y

4 Fundamental $uties

! "riti#ism and analysis

/ Relationship &et+een the Fundamental Rights, $ire#ti0e )rin#iples andFundamental $uties

*ee also

otes

Footnotes

15 Reeren#es

11 Further reading

12 External lins

History

See also: Indian independence movementand Constituent Assembly of India

The undamental /ights and -irective 'rinciples had their origins in the Indian independencemovement, "hich strove to achieve the values of liberty and social "elfare as the goals of anindependent Indian state.[1] The development of constitutional rights in India "as inspired by

historical documents such as 0nglands 2ill of /ights, the 3nited States 2ill of /ights andrances -eclaration of the /ights of 4an.[5]The demand for civil liberties formed an importantpart of the Indian independence movement, "ith one of the ob(ectives of the Indian 6ationalCongress7I6C8 being to end discrimination bet"een the 2ritish rulers and their Indian sub(ects.This demand "as e*plicitly mentioned in resolutions adopted by the I6C bet"een 1#1% and1#1#.[9]The demands articulated in these resolutions included granting to Indians the rights toe:uality before la", free speech, trial by (uries composed at least half of Indian members,political po"er, and e:ual terms for bearing arms as 2ritish citizens.[$]

The e*periences of the irst ;orld ;ar, the unsatisfactory 4ontagueChelmsford reforms of1#1#, and the rise to prominence of 4. ]The Common"ealth of India 2ill, drafted by &nnie 2easantin 1#5>, specificallyincluded demands for seven fundamental rights + individual liberty, freedom of conscience, freee*pression of opinion, freedom of assembly, nondiscrimination on the ground of se*, freeelementary education and free use of public spaces. [?] In 1#5%, the I6C resolved to set up acommittee to draft a @S"ara( Constitution@ for India based on a declaration of rights that "ouldprovide safeguards against oppression. The 11member committee, led by 4otilal 6ehru, "as

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Right_to_Constitutional_Remedieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Directive_Principles_of_State_Policyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Fundamental_Dutieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Criticism_and_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Relationship_between_the_Fundamental_Rights.2C_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Dutieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Relationship_between_the_Fundamental_Rights.2C_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Dutieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Footnoteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Further_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_independence_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Congresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Congresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montague-Chelmsford_reformshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._K._Gandhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Beasanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_consciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_assemblyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motilal_Nehruhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Right_to_Constitutional_Remedieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Directive_Principles_of_State_Policyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Fundamental_Dutieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Criticism_and_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Relationship_between_the_Fundamental_Rights.2C_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Dutieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Relationship_between_the_Fundamental_Rights.2C_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Dutieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Footnoteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#Further_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_independence_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Congresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Congresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montague-Chelmsford_reformshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._K._Gandhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Beasanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_consciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_assemblyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motilal_Nehru


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constituted in 1#5A. Its report made a number of recommendations, including proposingguaranteed fundamental rights to all Indians. These rights resembled those of the &mericanConstitution and those adopted by post"ar 0uropean countries, and several of them "ereadopted from the 1#5> 2ill. Several of these provisions "ere later replicated in various parts ofthe Indian Constitution, including the undamental /ights and -irective 'rinciples.[%]

In 1#91, the Indian 6ational Congress,at its . The report, apart from stressing onprotecting the rights of minorities, also sought to prescribe a @standard of conduct for thelegislatures, government and the courts@.[1D]

-uring the final stages of the 2ritish /a(, the 1#$? Cabinet 4ission to India proposed aConstituent &ssembly to draft a Constitution for India as part of the process of transfer of po"er.[11]The Constituent &ssembly of India, composed of indirectly elected representatives from the2ritish provinces and 'rincely states, commenced its proceedings in -ecember 1#$?, andcompleted drafting the Constitution of India by 6ovember 1#$#. [15]&ccording to the Cabinet4ission plan, the &ssembly "as to have an &dvisory Committee to advise it on the nature ande*tent of fundamental rights, protection of minorities and administration of tribal areas.

&ccordingly, the &dvisory Committee "as constituted in anuary 1#$% "ith ?$ members, andfrom among these a t"elvemember subcommittee on undamental /ights "as appointed underthe chairmanship of .2.


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The undamental /ights, embodied in 'art III of the Constitution, guarantee civil rights to allIndians, and prevent the State from encroaching on individual liberty "hile simultaneouslyplacing upon it an obligation to protect the citizens rights from encroachment by society.[1#]

Seven fundamental rights "ere originally provided by the Constitution + right to e:uality, rightto freedom, right against e*ploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational

rights, right to property and right to constitutional remedies.[5D]

Eo"ever, the right to property"as removed from 'art III of the Constitution by the $$th &mendmentin 1#%A.[51][note 5]

The purpose of the undamental /ights is to preserve individual liberty and democraticprinciples based on e:uality of all members of society.[55]They act as limitations on the po"ersof the legislature and e*ecutive, under &rticle 19, [note 9]and in case of any violation of these rightsthe Supreme Court of Indiaand the Eigh Courts of the stateshave the po"er to declare suchlegislative or e*ecutive action as unconstitutional and void.[59] These rights are largelyenforceable against the State, "hich as per the "ide definition provided in &rticle 15, includesnot only the legislative and e*ecutive "ings of the federal and state governments, but also localadministrative authorities and other agencies and institutions "hich discharge public functions or

are of a governmental character.

[5$]

Eo"ever, there are certain rights + such as those in &rticles1>, 1%, 1A, 59, 5$ + that are also available against private individuals. [5>] urther, certainundamental /ights + including those under &rticles 1$, 5D, 51, 5> + apply to persons of anynationality upon Indian soil, "hile others + such as those under &rticles 1>, 1?, 1#, 9D + areapplicable only to citizens of India.[5?][5%]The undamental /ights are not absolute and aresub(ect to reasonable restrictions as necessary for the protection of public interest. [5$] In theKesavananda Bharati v. State of Keralacase in 1#%9,[note $] the Supreme Court, overruling aprevious decision of 1#?%, held that the undamental /ights could be amended, sub(ect to(udicial revie" in case such an amendment violated thebasic structureof the Constitution.[5A]Theundamental /ights can be enhanced, removed or other"ise altered through a constitutionalamendment, passed by a t"othirds ma(ority of each Eouse of 'arliament.[5#]The imposition of a

state of emergency may lead to a temporary suspension any of the undamental /ights,e*cluding &rticles 5D and 51, by order of the 'resident. [9D]The 'resident may, by order, suspendthe right to constitutional remedies as "ell, thereby barring citizens from approaching theSupreme Court for the enforcement of any of the undamental /ights, e*cept &rticles 5D and 51,during the period of the emergency.[91] 'arliament may also restrict the application of theundamental /ights to members of the Indian &rmed orcesand the police, in order to ensureproper discharge of their duties and the maintenance of discipline, by a la" made under &rticle99.[95]

Right to Equality

The /ight to 0:uality is one of the chief guarantees of the Constitution. It is embodied in&rticles 1$+1?, "hich collectively encompass the general principles of e:uality before la" andnondiscrimination,[99] and &rticles 1%+1A "hich collectively further the philosophy of sociale:uality.[9$]&rticle 1$ guarantees e:uality before la" as "ell as e:ual protection of the la" to allpersons "ithin the territory of India.[note >]This includes the e:ual sub(ection of all persons to theauthority of la", as "ell as e:ual treatment of persons in similar circumstances. [9>]The latterpermits the State to classify persons for legitimate purposes, provided there is a reasonable basisfor the same, meaning that the classification is re:uired to be nonarbitrary, based on a method of

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intelligible differentiation among those sought to be classified, as "ell as have a rational relationto the ob(ect sought to be achieved by the classification. [9?]

&rticle 1> prohibits discrimination on the grounds only of religion, race, caste, se*, place ofbirth, or any of them. This right can be enforced against the State as "ell as private individuals,

"ith regard to free access to places of public entertainment or places of public resort maintainedpartly or "holly out of State funds.[9%]Eo"ever, the State is not precluded from ma!ing specialprovisions for "omen and children or any socially and educationally bac!"ard classes ofcitizens, including the Scheduled CastesandScheduled Tribes.This e*ception has been providedsince the classes of people mentioned therein are considered deprived and in need of specialprotection.[9A]&rticle 1? guarantees e:uality of opportunity in matters of public employment andprevents the State from discriminating against anyone in matters of employment on the groundsonly of religion, race, caste, se*, descent, place of birth, place of residence or any of them. Itcreates e*ceptions for the implementation of measures of affirmative actionfor the benefit of anybac!"ard class of citizens in order to ensure ade:uate representation in public service, as "ell asreservation of an office of any religious institution for a person professing that particular

religion.

[9#]

The practice of untouchabilityhas been declared an offence punishable by la" under &rticle 1%,and the 'rotection of Civil /ights &ct, 1#>> has been enacted by the 'arliament to further thisob(ective.[9$]&rticle 1A prohibits the State from conferring any titles other than military oracademic distinctions, and the citizens of India cannot accept titles from a foreign state. Thus,Indian aristocratic titles and titles of nobility conferred by the 2ritish have been abolished.Eo"ever, a"ards such as theBharat Ratnahave been held to be valid by the Supreme Court onthe ground that they are merely decorations and cannot be used by the recipient as a title.[$D][$1]

Right to Freedom

The /ight to reedom is covered in &rticles 1#+55, "ith the vie" of guaranteeing individualrights that "ere considered vital by the framers of the Constitution, and these &rticles alsoinclude certain restrictions that may be imposed by the State on individual liberty under specifiedconditions. &rticle 1# guarantees si* freedoms in the nature of civil rights, "hich are availableonly to citizens of India.[$5] These include the freedom of speech and e*pression, freedom ofassembly, freedom of association"ithout arms, freedom of movementthroughout the territory ofIndia,freedom to reside and settle in any part of the country of India and the freedom to practiceany profession. &ll these freedoms are sub(ect to reasonable restrictions that may imposed onthem by the State, listed under &rticle 1# itself. The grounds for imposing these restrictions varyaccording to the freedom sought to be restricted, and include national security, public order,

decency and morality, contempt of court, incitement to offences, and defamation. The State isalso empo"ered, in the interests of the general public to nationalise any trade, industry or serviceto the e*clusion of the citizens.[$9]

The freedoms guaranteed by &rticle 1# are further sought to be protected by &rticles 5D+55. [$$]

The scope of these articles, particularly "ith respect to the doctrine of due process, "as heavilydebated by the Constituent &ssembly. It "as argued, especially by 2enegal 6arsing /au, that theincorporation of such a clause "ould hamper social legislation and cause procedural difficulties

!$r.%a&riel 'ariadoss, (sst.)ro.in *o#ial +or, )mu, -allam *o#ial Engineering'aterials
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in maintaining order, and therefore it ought to be e*cluded from the Constitution altogether. [$>]

The Constituent &ssembly in 1#$A eventually omitted the phrase @due process@ in favour of@procedure established by la"@.[$?]&s a result, &rticle 51, "hich prevents the encroachment oflife or personal liberty by the State e*cept in accordance "ith the procedure established by la",[note ?]"as, until 1#%A, construed narro"ly as being restricted to e*ecutive action. Eo"ever, in

1#%A, the Supreme Court in the case of Maneka Gandhi v. nion of !ndia e*tended theprotection of &rticle 51 to legislative action, holding that any la" laying do"n a procedure mustbe (ust, fair and reasonable,[$%]and effectively reading due process into &rticle 51.[$A]In the samecase, the Supreme Court also ruled that @life@ under &rticle 51 meant more than a mere @animale*istence@F it "ould include the right to live "ith human dignity and all other aspects "hichmade life @meaningful, complete and "orth living@. [$#] Subse:uent (udicial interpretation hasbroadened the scope of &rticle 51 to include "ithin it a number of rights including those tolivelihood, clean environment, good health, speedy trial and humanitarian treatment "hileimprisoned.[>D]The right to education at elementary level has been made one of the undamental/ights under &rticle 51& by the A?th Constitutional amendment of 5DD5.[>1]

&rticle 5D provides protection from conviction for offences in certain respects, including therights againste* post facto la"s, double (eopardyand freedom from selfincrimination.[>5]&rticle55 provides specific rights to arrested and detained persons, in particular the rights to beinformed of the grounds of arrest, consult a la"yer of ones o"n choice, be produced before amagistrate "ithin 5$ hours of the arrest, and the freedom not to be detained beyond that period"ithout an order of the magistrate.[>9]The Constitution also authorises the State to ma!e la"sproviding forpreventive detention,sub(ect to certain other safeguards present in &rticle 55. [>$]

The provisions pertaining to preventive detention "ere discussed "ith s!epticism and misgivingsby the Constituent &ssembly, and "ere reluctantly approved after a fe" amendments in 1#$#.[>>]

&rticle 55 provides that "hen a person is detained under any la" of preventive detention, theState can detain such person "ithout trial for only three months, and any detention for a longer

period must be authorised by an &dvisory 2oard. The person being detained also has the right tobe informed about the grounds of detention, and be permitted to ma!e a representation against it,at the earliest opportunity.[>?]

Right against Exploitation

"hild la&orand Begaris prohi&ited under the Right against Exploitation.

The /ight against 0*ploitation, contained in &rticles 59+5$, lays do"n certain provisions toprevent e*ploitation of the "ea!er sections of the society by individuals or the State.[>%]&rticle59 provides prohibits human traffic!ing, ma!ing it an offence punishable by la", and alsoprohibitsforced labouror any act of compelling a person to "or! "ithout "ages "here he "as

legally entitled not to "or! or to receive remuneration for it. Eo"ever, it permits the State toimpose compulsory service for public purposes, including conscription andcommunity service.[>A][>#]The 2onded abour system 7&bolition8 &ct, 1#%?, has been enacted by 'arliament to giveeffect to this &rticle.[?D] &rticle 5$ prohibits the employment of children belo" the age of 1$years in factories, mines and other hazardous (obs. 'arliament has enacted the Child abour7'rohibition and /egulation8 &ct, 1#A?, providing regulations for the abolition of, and penaltiesfor employing, child labour, as "ell as provisions for rehabilitation of former child labourers.[?1]

/$r.%a&riel 'ariadoss, (sst.)ro.in *o#ial +or, )mu, -allam *o#ial Engineering'aterials
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damental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_traffickinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_labourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscriptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-65http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-66


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Right to Freedom of Religion

See also: Secularism in India

The /ight to reedom of /eligion, covered in &rticles 5>+5A, provides religious freedomto allcitizens and ensures a secular Statein India. &ccording to the Constitution, there is no official

State religion, and the State is re:uired to treat all religions impartially and neutrally.[?5]

&rticle5> guarantees all persons the freedom of conscience and the right to preach, practice andpropagate any religion of their choice. This right is, ho"ever, sub(ect to public order, moralityand health, and the po"er of the State to ta!e measures for social "elfare and reform. [?9] Theright to propagate, ho"ever, does not include the right to convertanother individual, since it"ould amount to an infringement of the others right to freedom of conscience. [?$]&rticle 5?guarantees allreligious denominationsand sects, sub(ect to public order, morality and health, tomanage their o"n affairs in matters of religion, set up institutions of their o"n for charitable orreligious purposes, and o"n, ac:uire and manage property in accordance "ith la". Theseprovisions do not derogate from the States po"er to ac:uire property belonging to a religiousdenomination.[?>] The State is also empo"ered to regulate any economic, political or other

secular activity associated "ith religious practice.[?5]

&rticle 5% guarantees that no person can becompelled to pay ta*es for the promotion of any particular religion or religious institution. [??]

&rticle 5A prohibits religious instructionin a "holly Statefunded educational institution, andeducational institutions receiving aid from the State cannot compel any of their members toreceive religious instruction or attend religious "orship "ithout their 7or their guardians8consent.[?5]

Cultural and Educational Rights

The Cultural and 0ducational rights, given in &rticles 5# and 9D, are measures to protect therights of cultural, linguistic and religious minorities, by enabling them to conserve their heritage

and protecting them against discrimination.[?%]

&rticle 5# grants any section of citizens having adistinct language, script culture of its o"n, the right to conserve and develop the same, and thussafeguards the rights of minorities by preventing the State from imposing any e*ternal culture onthem.[?%][?A]It also prohibits discrimination against any citizen for admission into any educationalinstitutions maintained or aided by the State, on the grounds only of religion, race, caste,language or any of them. Eo"ever, this is sub(ect to reservationof a reasonable number of seatsby the State for socially and educationally bac!"ard classes, as "ell as reservation of up to>D percent of seats in any educational institution run by a minority community for citizensbelonging to that community.[?#]

&rticle 9D confers upon all religious and linguistic minorities the right to set up and administer

educational institutions of their choice in order to preserve and develop their o"n culture, andprohibits the State, "hile granting aid, from discriminating against any institution on the basis ofthe fact that it is administered by a religious or cultural minority. [?A]The term @minority@, "hilenot defined in the Constitution, has been interpreted by the Supreme Court to mean anycommunity "hich numerically forms less than >DG of the population of the state in "hich itsee!s to avail the right under &rticle 9D. In order to claim the right, it is essential that theeducational institution must have been established as "ell as administered by a religious orlinguistic minority. urther, the right under &rticle 9D can be availed of even if the educational

$r.%a&riel 'ariadoss, (sst.)ro.in *o#ial +or, )mu, -allam *o#ial Engineering'aterials
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institution established does not confine itself to the teaching of the religion or language of theminority concerned, or a ma(ority of students in that institution do not belong to such minority.[%D]

This right is sub(ect to the po"er of the State to impose reasonable regulations regardingeducational standards, conditions of service of employees, fee structure, and the utilisation of anyaid granted by it.[%1]

Right to Constitutional Remedies

The /ight to Constitutional /emedies empo"ers citizens to approach the Supreme Court of Indiato see! enforcement, or protection against infringement, of their undamental /ights.[%5]&rticle95 provides a guaranteed remedy, in the form of a undamental /ight itself, for enforcement ofall the other undamental /ights, and the Supreme Court is designated as the protector of theserights by the Constitution.[%9]The Supreme Court has been empo"ered to issue "rits, namelyha"eas corpus,mandamus,prohi"ition, certiorariand #uo $arranto, for the enforcement of theundamental /ights, "hile the Eigh Courts have been empo"ered under &rticle 55? + "hich isnot a undamental /ight in itself + to issue these prerogative "ritseven in cases not involving

the violation of undamental /ights.[%$]

The Supreme Court has the (urisdiction to enforce theundamental /ights even against private bodies, and in case of any violation, a"ardcompensation as "ell to the affected individual. 0*ercise of (urisdiction by the Supreme Courtcan also be suo motu or on the basis of a public interest litigation.[%5]This right cannot besuspended, e*cept under the provisions of &rticle 9># "hen a state of emergency is declared. [%9]

Directive Principles of State Policy

Main article: Directive rinciples in India

The -irective 'rinciples of State 'olicy, embodied in 'art I) of the Constitution, are directions

given to the State to guide the establishment of an economic and social democracy, as proposedby the 'reamble.[%>]They set forth the humanitarianandsocialistinstructions that "ere the aim ofsocial revolution envisaged in India by the Constituent &ssembly.[%?]The State is e*pected to!eep these principles in mind "hile framing la"s and policies, even though they are non(usticiable in nature. The -irective 'rinciples may be classified under the follo"ing categoriesHideals that the State ought to strive to"ards achievingF directions for the e*ercise of legislativeand e*ecutive po"erF and rights of the citizens "hich the State must aim to"ards securing.[%>]

-espite being non(usticiable, the -irective 'rinciples act as a chec! on the StateF theorised as ayardstic! in the hands of the electorate and the opposition to measure the performance of agovernment at the time of an election.[%%]&rticle 9%, "hile stating that the -irective 'rinciples are

not enforceable in any court of la", declares them to be @fundamental to the governance of thecountry@ and imposes an obligation on the State to apply them in matters of legislation. [%A]Thus,they serve to emphasise the "elfare statemodel of the Constitution and emphasise the positiveduty of the State to promote the "elfare of the people by affirming social, economic and political(ustice, as "ell as to fight income ine:uality and ensure individual dignity, as mandated by&rticle 9A.[%#][AD]

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es_of_India#cite_note-85


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&rticle 9# lays do"n certain principles of policy to be follo"ed by the State, including providingan ade:uate means of livelihood for all citizens, e:ual pay for e:ual "or!for men and "omen,proper "or!ing conditions, reduction of the concentration of "ealth and means of productionfrom the hands of a fe", and distribution of community resources to @subserve the commongood@.[A1]These clauses highlight the Constututional ob(ectives of building an egalitariansocial

order and establishing a "elfare state, by bringing about a social revolution assisted by the State,and have been used to support the nationalisationof mineral resources as "ell as public utilities.[A5]urther, several legislations pertaining to agrarian reformand land tenurehave been enactedby the federal and state governments, in order to ensure e:uitable distribution of land resources.[A9]

&rticles $1+$9 mandate the State to endeavour to secure to all citizens the right to "or!, a living"age,social security,maternity relief, and a decent standard of living.[A$]These provisions aim atestablishing a socialist state as envisaged in the 'reamble. [A>] &rticle $9 also places upon theState the responsibility of promoting cottage industries, and the federal government has, infurtherance of this, established several 2oards for the promotion of !hadi, handlooms etc., in

coordination "ith the state governments.

[A?]

&rticle 9#& re:uires the State to provide free legalaidto ensure that opportunities for securing (ustice are available to all citizens irrespective ofeconomic or other disabilities.[A%]&rticle $9& mandates the State to "or! to"ards securing theparticipation of "or!ers in the management of industries. [A>]The State, under &rticle $?, is alsomandated to promote the interests of and "or! for the economic uplift of the scheduled castesand scheduled tribesand protect them from discrimination and e*ploitation. Several enactments,including t"o Constitutional amendments, have been passed to give effect to this provision.[AA]

&rticle $$ encourages the State to secure a uniform civil codefor all citizens, by eliminatingdiscrepancies bet"een variouspersonal la"s currently in force in the country. Eo"ever, this hasremained a @dead letter@ despite numerous reminders from the Supreme Court to implement the

provision.

[A#]

&rticle $> originally mandated the State to provide free and compulsory educationto children bet"een the ages of si* and fourteen years,[#D]but after the A?th &mendment in 5DD5,this has been converted into a undamental /ight and replaced by an obligation upon the State tosecure childhood care to all children belo" the age of si*. [>1]&rticle $% commits the State to raisethe standard of living and improve public health, and prohibit the consumption of into*icatingdrin!s and drugs in(urious to health.[#1]&s a conse:uence, partial or totalprohibitionhas beenintroduced in several states, but financial constraints have prevented its fullfledged application.[#5]The State is also mandated by &rticle $A to organise agriculture and animal husbandry onmodern and scientific lines by improving breeds andprohibiting slaughter of cattle.[#9]&rticle$A& mandates the State toprotect the environmentand safeguard the forests and "ildlife of thecountry, "hile &rticle $# places an obligation upon the State to ensure the preservation ofmonuments and ob(ects of national importance. [#$]&rticle >D re:uires the State to ensure theseparation of (udiciary from e*ecutive in public services, in order to ensure (udicialindependence, and federal legislation has been enacted to achieve this ob(ective. [#>][#?]The State,according to &rticle >1, must also strive for the promotion of international peace and security,and 'arliament has been empo"ered under &rticle 5>9 to ma!e la"s giving effect tointernational treaties.[#%]

Fundamental Duties

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10/76

(ny a#t o disrespe#t to+ards the 6ndian ational Flagis illegal.

The undamental -uties of citizens "ere added to the Constitution by the $5nd &mendment in1#%?, upon the recommendations of the S"aran SinghCommittee that "as constituted by thegovernment earlier that year.[1A][#A] Briginally ten in number, the undamental -uties "ere

increased to eleven by the A?th &mendment in 5DD5, "hich added a duty on every parent orguardian to ensure that their child or "ard "as provided opportunities for education bet"een theages of si* and fourteen years.[>1]The other undamental -uties obligate all citizens to respectthe national symbols of India, including the Constitution, to cherish its heritage, preserve itscomposite cultureand assist in its defense.They also obligate all Indians to promote the spirit ofcommon brotherhood, protect the environment and public property, develop scientific temper,ab(ure violence, and strive to"ards e*cellence in all spheres of life. [##] Citizens are morallyobligated by the Constitution to perform these duties. Eo"ever, li!e the -irective 'rinciples,these are non(ustifiable, "ithout any legal sanction in case of their violation or noncompliance.[#A][1DD] There is reference to such duties in international instruments such as the 3niversal-eclaration of Euman /ights and International Covenant on Civil and 'olitical /ights, and

&rticle >1& brings the Indian Constitution into conformity "ith these treaties.[#A]

Criticism and analysis

e"er children are no" employed in hazardous environments, but their employment in nonhazardous (obs, prevalently as domestic help, violates the spirit of the constitution in the eyes ofmany critics and human rights advocates. 4ore than 1?.> million children are in employment. [1D1]

India "as ran!ed AA out of 1># countries in 5DD>, according to the degree to "hich corruptionisperceived to e*ist among public officials and politicians.[1D5]The year 1##D+1##1 "as declared asthe @ear of Social ustice@ in the memory of 2./. &mbed!ar.[1D9]The government provides freete*tboo!s to students belonging to scheduled castes and tribes pursuing medicine and

engineering courses. -uring 5DD5+5DD9, a sum of /s.$.%% crore 7$%.% million8 "as released forthis purpose.[1D$] In order to protect scheduled castes and tribes from discrimination, thegovernment enacted thePrevention of %trocities %ctin 1##>, prescribing severe punishments forsuch actions.[1D>]

The Minimum &ages %ctof 1#$A empo"ers government to fi* minimum "ages for people"or!ing across the economic spectrum.[1D?]The 'onsumer Protection %ctof 1#A? provides forthe better protection of consumers. The act is intended to provide simple, speedy and ine*pensiveredressal to the consumers grievances, a"ard relief and compensation "herever appropriate tothe consumer.[1D%]The(#ual Remuneration %ctof 1#%? provides for e:ual pay for e:ual "or! forboth men and "omen.[1DA] The Sampoorna Grameen Ro)gar *o+ana 73niversal /ural

0mployment 'rogramme8 "as launched in 5DD1 to attain the ob(ective of providing gainfulemployment for the rural poor. The programme "as implemented through the 'anchayati /a(institutions.[1D#]

& system of elected village councils, !no"n as 'anchayati /a( covers almost all states andterritories of India.[11D]Bnethird of the total number of seats have been reserved for "omen in'anchayats at every levelF and in the case of 2ihar, half the seats have been reserved for "omen.[111][115]The (udiciary has been separated from the e*ecutive @in all the states and territories e*cept

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swaran_Singhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-FD-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-Basu_465-103http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-86amact-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Armed_Forceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_temperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-Basu_131-104http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-Basu_465-103http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-pgA35-105http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-Basu_465-103http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-106http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_corruptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-107http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-107http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-108http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-pgA45-109http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-110http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_wagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-111http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-111http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consumer_Protection_Act&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-112http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-113http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampoorna_Grameen_Rozgar_Yojanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchayathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchayathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-114http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-114http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchayathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_and_territories_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_and_territories_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-115http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-115http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biharhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-116http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-117http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swaran_Singhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-FD-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-Basu_465-103http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-86amact-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Armed_Forceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_temperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-Basu_131-104http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-Basu_465-103http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-pgA35-105http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-Basu_465-103http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-106http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_corruptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-107http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-108http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-pgA45-109http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-110http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_wagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-111http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consumer_Protection_Act&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-112http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-113http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampoorna_Grameen_Rozgar_Yojanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchayathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchayathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-114http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchayathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_and_territories_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_and_territories_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-115http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biharhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-116http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India#cite_note-117


11/76

ammu and


12/76

2. ^8he right to property is still a "onstitutionally re#ognised right, &ut is no+#ontained outside the )art on Fundamental Rights, in (rti#le 355( +hi#hstatesune5DD> to the e*tent of any inconsistency.

nformation

The &ct specifies that citizens have a right toH

request any inormation 9as deined:. tae #opies o do#uments.

inspe#t do#uments, +ors and re#ords.

tae #ertiied samples o materials o +or.

o&tain inormation in orm o printouts, disettes, loppies, tapes, 0ideo#assettes =or in any other ele#troni# mode= or through printouts.

Process

3nder the &ct, all authorities covered must appoint their Public nformation Officer 7'IB8.&ny person may submit a re:uest to the 'IB for information in "riting. It is the 'IBs obligationto provide information to citizens of India "ho re:uest information under the &ct. If the re:uestpertains to another public authority 7in "hole or part8 it is the 'IBs responsibility totransferKfor"ard the concerned portions of the re:uest to a 'IB of the other "ithin > days. Inaddition, every public authority is re:uired to designate $ssistant Public nformation Officers7&'IBs8 to receive /TI re:uests and appeals for for"arding to the 'IBs of their public authority.The citizen ma!ing the re:uest is not obliged to disclose any information e*cept his name andcontact particulars.

The &ct specifies time limits for replying to the re:uest.

6 the request has &een made to the )6>, the reply is to &e gi0en +ithin !"dayso re#eipt.

6 the request has &een made to an ()6>, the reply is to &e gi0en +ithin !#dayso re#eipt.

6 the )6> transers the request to another pu&li# authority 9&etter #on#erned+ith the inormation requested:, the time allo+ed to reply is !" days &ut#omputed rom the day ater it is re#ei0ed &y the )6> o the transereeauthority.

1/$r.%a&riel 'ariadoss, (sst.)ro.in *o#ial +or, )mu, -allam *o#ial Engineering'aterials


17/76

6normation #on#erning #orruption and Human Rights 0iolations &y s#heduled*e#urity agen#ies 9those listed in the *e#ond *#hedule to the (#t: is to &epro0ided +ithin $# days &ut +ith the prior appro0al o the "entral6normation "ommission.

Ho+e0er, i lie or li&erty o any person is in0ol0ed, the )6> is expe#ted to

reply +ithin $% hours.

Since the information is to be paid for, the reply of the 'IB is necessarily limited to eitherdenying the re:uest 7in "hole or part8 andKor providing a computation of @further fees@. The timebet"een the reply of the 'IB and the time ta!en to deposit the further fees for information ise*cluded from the time allo"ed.

If information is not provided "ithin this period, it is treated as deemed refusal. /efusal "ith or"ithout reasons may be ground for appeal or complaint. urther, information not provided in thetimes prescribed is to be provided free of charge.

or Central -epartments as of 5DD?, there is a fee of /s. 1D for filing the re:uest, /s. 5 per pageof information and /s. > for each hour of inspection after the first hour. If the applicant is a2elo" 'overty Card holder, then no fee shall apply. Such 2' Card holders have to provide acopy of their 2' card along "ith their application to the 'ublic &uthority. States =overnmentand Eigh Courts fi* their o"n rules.

CIC, SCIC & PIO

Chief Information Commissioner 7CIC8 is the head of all the information officers. The StateInformation Commission "ill be selected by the State =overnment through a =azettenotification. It "ill have one State Chief Information Commissioner 7SCIC8 and not more than

1D State Information Commissioners 7SIC8 to be appointed by the =overnor.

&t the end of year CIC is re:uired to present a report "hich containsH 7a8 the number of re:uestsmade to each public authorityF 7b8 the number of decisions "here applicants "ere not givenpermission to access to the documents "hich they re:uest, the provisions of the &ct under "hichthese decisions "ere made and the number of times such provisions "ere filedF 7c8 details ofdisciplinary action ta!en against any officer in respect of the administration of the &ctF 7d8 theamount of charges collected by each public authority under the &ct

'IB shall deal "ith re:uests from persons see!ing information and "here the re:uest cannot bemade in "riting, to render reasonable assistance to the person to reduce the same in "riting.

hat is not open to disclosure-



18/76

The follo"ing is e*empt from disclosure [S.A8]

inormation, dis#losure o +hi#h +ould pre?udi#ially ae#t the so0ereignty andintegrity o 6ndia, the se#urity, @strategi#, s#ientii# or e#onomi#@ interests othe *tate, relation +ith oreign *tate or lead to in#itement o an oenseA

inormation +hi#h has &een expressly or&idden to &e pu&lished &y any #ourto la+ or tri&unal or the dis#losure o +hi#h may #onstitute #ontempt o #ourtA

inormation, the dis#losure o +hi#h +ould #ause a &rea#h o pri0ilege o)arliament or the *tate BegislatureA

inormation in#luding #ommer#ial #oniden#e, trade se#rets or intelle#tualproperty, the dis#losure o +hi#h +ould harm the #ompetiti0e position o athird party, unless the #ompetent authority is satisied that larger pu&li#interest +arrants the dis#losure o su#h inormationA

inormation a0aila&le to a person in his idu#iary relationship, unless the#ompetent authority is satisied that the larger pu&li# interest +arrants the

dis#losure o su#h inormationA

inormation re#ei0ed in #oniden#e rom oreign %o0ernmentA

inormation, the dis#losure o +hi#h +ould endanger the lie or physi#alsaety o any person or identiy the sour#e o inormation or assistan#e gi0enin #oniden#e or la+ enor#ement or se#urity purposesA

inormation +hi#h +ould impede the pro#ess o in0estigation or apprehensionor prose#ution o oendersA

#a&inet papers in#luding re#ords o deli&erations o the "oun#il o 'inisters,*e#retaries and other oi#ersA

inormation +hi#h relates to personal inormation the dis#losure o +hi#h hasno relationship to any pu&li# a#ti0ity or interest, or +hi#h +ould #auseun+arranted in0asion o the pri0a#y o the indi0idual 9&ut it is also pro0idedthat the inormation +hi#h #annot &e denied to the )arliament or a *tateBegislature shall not &e denied &y this exemption:A

ot+ithstanding any o the exemptions listed a&o0e, a pu&li# authority mayallo+ a##ess to inormation, i pu&li# interest in dis#losure out+eighs theharm to the prote#ted interests. 97< 8his pro0ision is qualiied &y the pro0isoto su&se#tion 1191: o the (#t +hi#h exempts dis#losure o @trade or#ommer#ial se#rets prote#ted &y la+@ under this #lause +hen read along +ith

91:9d::

Partial disclosure

the &ct

Date post:	17-Feb-2018
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169999877 Fundamental Rights(1)

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