LINGUISTICS

HISTORICAL

0001. Anstey, M. P. THE BIBLICAL HEBREW QATAL VERB: A FUNCTIONAL DIS-COURSE GRAMMAR ANALYSIS. Linguistics. 2009, 47(4):825–844.

Functional discourse grammar (FDG) is a theory with a rich descriptive apparatus, facilitat-ing the modeling of language data that takes into account the several tiers of interdependentinformation that are present in any utterance, namely, interpersonal, representational, syntactic,and expression. The explanatory component of FDG comes through complementary principlesof linguistic cause and effect, be they diachronic, synchronic, areal, typological, neurological,and so forth. It is this comprehensiveness that sets it apart from many other theories that tend topredicate- or syntax-centricity. FDG is used to analyze the Biblical Hebrew so-called qatalverb (QV), which is characterized by a high degree of multifunctionality. An FDG analysis ofseveral of its functions is provided and although this analysis is shown to be descriptivelyrobust it is also theoretically problematic in some respects. These broader problems in thedescription and explanation of QV according to the theory of FDG are considered.

0002. Caglioti, E. et al. A STOCHASTIC LOCAL SEARCH APPROACH TO LAN-GUAGE TREE RECONSTRUCTION. Diachronica. 2010, 27(2):341–358.

In this paper we introduce a novel stochastic local search algorithm to reconstruct phylogenetictrees. We focus in particular on the reconstruction of language trees based on the comparison of theSwadesh lists of the recently compiled ASJP database. Starting from a generic tree configuration,our scheme stochastically explores the space of possible trees driven by the minimization of apseudo-functional quantifying the violations of additivity of the distance matrix. As a consequencethe resulting tree can be annotated with the values of the violations on each internal branch. Thevalues of the deviations are strongly correlated with the stability of the internal edges; they are mea-sured with a novel bootstrap procedure and displayed on the tree as an additional annotation. As acase study we considered the reconstruction of the Indo-European language tree. The results arequite encouraging, highlighting a potential new avenue to investigate the role of the deviationsfrom additivity and check the reliability and consistency of the reconstructed trees.

0003. Coghill, E. THE GRAMMATICALIZATION OF PROSPECTIVE ASPECT IN AGROUP OF NEO-ARAMAIC DIALECTS. Diachronica. 2010, 27(3):359–410.

This paper examines the development of a future (more precisely ‘prospective’) auxiliary froma motion verb in a small group of Neo-Aramaic dialects spoken in Iraq. The long written record ofAramaic allows us to follow the grammaticalization process in some detail, and recent documen-tation of dialects has shown that various stages co-exist synchronically. The Neo-Aramaic casechallenges the theory that future auxiliaries from a verb ‘to go’ should derive from animperfective in languages which have one. The development of the auxiliary also involves thereanalysis of a present perfect as an immediate future: this apparently surprising development isexplained and possible parallels to it in other languages given. The prospective constructionexists alongside another future tense and the differences in form and function can be seen toreflect the different origins and ages of the two constructions. There are strong indications thatthe prospective construction has developed as a result of contact with a similar vernacular Arabicconstruction. The distribution and level of maturity of the construction in the different dialectscan be explained by an origin in a village close to the Arabic-speaking area, and thence diffusionto the neighbouring villages.

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0004. Croft, W. THE ORIGINS OF GRAMMATICALIZATION IN THE VERBALIZA-TION OF EXPERIENCE. Linguistics. 2010, 48(1):1–48.

The origins of language change, particularly grammatical change, appear to be unobservable.But the first step in language change, innovation, can be observed in the production of synchronicvariation in sound change. The same can be done for morphosyntactic change such asgrammaticalization by comparing alternative verbalizations of the same experience in a con-trolled situation. Examples of innovation in lexical semantic change and grammaticalization areexamined using the twenty parallel English narratives of the Pear Stories. Morphosyntactic varia-tion is pervasive in the Pear Stories narratives and the alternative verbalizations show thatmorphosyntactic change is drawn from a pool of synchronic variation. These results disconfirmthe traditional theory of morphosyntactic change, in which innovation is rare and special mecha-nisms are required to produce it. Instead, grammaticalization, and language change in general,originates in the variation inherent in the verbalization of experience.

0005. D�sveaux, E., and de Fornel, M. FROM OJIBWA TO DAKOTA: TOWARD ATYPOLOGY OF SEMANTIC TRANSFORMATIONS IN AMERICAN INDIAN LAN-GUAGES. Anthropological Linguistics. 2009, 51(2):95–128.

In this article we propose a radical new typological approach to the diversity of North Americanlanguages that is directly inspired by Claude Lévi-Strauss’s Mythologiques and his concept oftransformation. As with mythology, the semantic dimension of phenomena is crucial. A com-parison between the grammars of an Algonquian and a Siouan language will serve as a firstillustration of the logical transformations linking two language families that previously havebeen considered to be fundamentally distinct. A parallel appears between the results obtainedand those stemming from a comparison between the principal ritual manifestations of Siouxculture and Subarctic Algonquian culture.

0006. Grant, A. P. SWADESH’S LIFE AND PLACE IN LINGUISTICS. Diachronica.2010, 27(2):191–196.

A biography of American linguist Morris Harry Swadesh is presented. He was born onJanuary 22, 1909 in Holyoke, Massachusetts and studied at the University of Chicago,majoring in languages. He then enrolled at Yale under the linguist Edward Sapir. He con-ducted fieldworks and literacy project for the Mexican government and as a linguist underHenry Lee Smith at the Foreign Services Institute for the U.S. Army during World War II.His works on glottochronology and lexicostatistics are explored.

0007. Grant, A. P. ON USING QUALITATIVE LEXICOSTATISTICS TO ILLUMI-NATE LANGUAGE HISTORY: SOME TECHNIQUES AND CASE STUDIES. Diachronica.2010, 27(2):277–300.

Following certain aspects of the work on lexicostatistics carried out in the 1960s andpublished thereafter and thereby working in a tradition which has most recently been practisedby Ringe, among others, I maintain that much of lasting value can be learned about linguisticinterrelationships by using techniques which have been developed in work on qualitative(rather than merely quantitative) lexicostatistics, using character-based methods.

0008. Hammarström, H. A FULL-SCALE TEST OF THE LANGUAGE FARMING DIS-PERSAL HYPOTHESIS. Diachronica. 2010, 27(2):197–213.

One attempt at explaining why some language families are large (while others are small) isthe hypothesis that the families that are now large became large because their ancestral speak-ers had a technological advantage, most often agriculture. Variants of this idea are referred toas the Language Farming Dispersal Hypothesis. Previously, detailed language family studieshave uncovered various supporting examples and counterexamples to this idea. In the presentpaper I weigh the evidence from ALL attested language families. For each family, I use thenumber of member languages as a measure of cardinal size, member language coordinates tomeasure geospatial size and ethnographic evidence to assess subsistence status. This data

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shows that, although agricultural families tend to be larger in cardinal size, their size is hardlydue to the simple presence of farming. If farming were responsible for language family expan-sions, we would expect a greater east-west geospatial spread of large families than is actuallyobserved. The data, however, is compatible with weaker versions of the farming dispersalhypothesis as well with models where large families acquire farming because of their size,rather than the other way around.

0009. Heggarty, P. BEYOND LEXICOSTATISTICS: HOW TO GET MORE OUT OF‘WORD LIST’ COMPARISONS. Diachronica. 2010, 27(2):301–324.

This article surveys various long-standing ambiguities and confusions that continue to doglexicostatistics and glottochronology. I aim to offer some novel perspectives and clarifications,which also help map out how we might devise new, alternative methods to build upon the goodin Swadesh’s troubled legacy. I challenge the recent trend towards honing down Swadesh’soriginal list to a minimal core. A richer signal on language relationships is to be had not by dis-carding the data in meanings considered ‘unstable’, but by exploring the revealing patterns thatemerge only when those meanings are kept, and contrasted against their ‘core’ counterparts.

0010. Hill, E. A CASE STUDY IN GRAMMATICALIZED INFLECTIONAL MOR-PHOLOGY: ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE GERMANIC WEAK PRETERITE.Diachronica. 2010, 27(3):411–458.

This paper deals with one of the oldest and most controversial problems in the historicalmorphology of the Germanic branch of Indo-European: the origin and historical developmentof the so-called ‘weak preterite’. In Germanic, the weak preterite is the only means of formingthe preterite tense of a derived verb. In spite of two hundred years of research into the weakpreterite and a large number of hypotheses concerning its origin, it is not even securely estab-lished how the inflectional endings of this formation should be reconstructed for the commonprehistory of the attested Germanic languages. Traditionally the inflectional endings of theweak preterite are conceived of as reflecting free inflectional forms of the verb “do”, onlyrecently having been grammaticalized as inflectional morphology for derived verbs. But it hasnever been possible to identify the inflectional forms in question satisfactorily within the para-digm of “do”. This paper reconsiders the evidence of the Germanic daughter languages bytaking into account West Germanic irregularities previously neglected or viewed as irrelevant.It is shown that the West Germanic evidence provides a key to understanding the origin and thelater developments of the weak preterite inflectional endings.

0011. Holman, E. W. DO LANGUAGES ORIGINATE AND BECOME EXTINCT ATCONSTANT RATES? Diachronica. 2010, 27(2):214–225.

The shape of phylogenetic trees of language families is used to test the null hypothesis thatlanguages throughout a family originate and go extinct at constant rates. Trees constructedeither by hand or by computer prove to be more unbalanced than predicted, with many lan-guages on some branches and few on others. The observed levels of imbalance are notexplainable by errors in the trees or by the population sizes or geographic density of the lan-guages. The results suggest changes in rates of origination or extinction on a time scale shorterthan the time depth of currently recognized families.

0012. Kossmann, M. PARALLEL SYSTEM BORROWING: PARALLEL MORPHO-LOGICAL SYSTEMS DUE TO THE BORROWING OF PARADIGMS. Diachronica. 2010,27(3):459–488.

In the typology of morphological borrowing, one type has received little attention: caseswhere words are borrowed in several paradigmatic forms. An example of this is found in Eng-lish alumnus–alumni, where Latin nouns are borrowed both in their singular and plural forms.Such borrowings lead to a coexistence of borrowed and native paradigms in one and the samelanguage. This type of borrowing is called Parallel System Borrowing (PSB). Such patterns arewide-spread, and concern virtually all parts of morphology, including verbal inflection and

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pronouns. The emergence of PSB is not governed by a single sociolinguistic factor, such as theexistence of learned registers (as with alumnus–alumni). In fact, it appears that some of themost spectacular cases of PSB have no relation to learned registers at all.

0013. Landsbergen, F. et al. A CULTURAL EVOLUTIONARY MODEL OF PATTERNSIN SEMANTIC CHANGE. Linguistics. 2010, 48(2):363–390.

This article explores several mechanisms that may lead to language change, and examineswhether they may be responsible for unidirectionality. We use a cultural evolutionary compu-tational model with which the effects of individual behavior on the group level can bemeasured. By using this approach, regularities in semantic change can be explained in terms ofvery basic mechanisms and aspects of language use such as the frequency with which particularlinguistic items are used. One example is that frequency differences by themselves are a strongenough force for causing unidirectionality. We argue that adopting a cultural evolutionaryapproach may be useful in the study of language change.

0014. Leslie, D. HEKIMA AND BUSARA—ARE THEY DIFFERENT CONCEPTS ANDHOW DO THEY RELATE TO UTU? Swahili Forum. 2010, 17:24–33.

Swahili literature provides us with a useful insight into the meanings of the words busara,hekima and utu. Understanding these words helps us to see the relationship between differenttypes of wisdom, intelligence and thought as seen by Swahili speaking people.

0015. Owens, J., and Dodsworth, R. STABILITY IN SUBJECT-VERB WORD ORDER:FROM CONTEMPORARY ARABIAN PENINSULAR ARABIC TO BIBLICAL ARA-MAIC. Anthropological Linguistics. 2009, 51(2):151–175.

This article differs from traditional treatments of subject-verb word order in Semitic in tworespects. First, we take as our point of departure a detailed study of word order in contemporaryArabian Peninsular Arabic, which shows that the respective order of the subject and verb in thatvariety is determined by morpholexical and by discourse-immanent factors. From this startingpoint, we work backwards, applying the same analytical framework to subject-verb word order inBiblical Aramaic. Secondly, we use corpus-based quantitative methods and regression analysisto determine the degree of similarity between Arabian Peninsular Arabic and Biblical Aramaic. Itemerges that, for all intents and purposes, subject-verb word order in Arabian Peninsular Arabicand Biblical Aramaic are governed by an identical set of morpholexical and discourse con-straints. Historical explanations for these results are discussed; it is emphasized that, whether thepatterns are due to common inheritance or to diffusion, a complex pattern of word order determi-nation is sustained over at least 2,500 years of chronological time.

0016. Ranne, K. HEAVENLY DROPS THE IMAGE OF WATER IN TRADITIONALISLAMIC SWAHILI POETRY. Swahili Forum. 2010, 17:58–81.

Iba Ndiaye Diadji, a Senegalese professor of aesthetics, sees water as intrinsic to Africanontology. He also argues that water is the most important substance to inspire African artists.Water certainly has a significant role in Swahili poetry, written traditionally by people livingon the coast of the Indian Ocean. Swahili poems have used aquatic imagery in expressing dif-ferent ideas and sensations, in different contexts and times. Water imagery can be found inhundreds of years old Islamic hymns as well as in political poetry written during the colonialGerman East Africa. This article discusses water imagery in traditional Islamic Swahili poetry.

0017. Rettová, A. PHILOSOPHY IN UTENZI METRE: EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ANDVALUES IN POSTINDEPENDENCE SWAHILI HISTORIOGRAPHIC POETRY. SwahiliForum. 2010, 17:34–57.

Traditionally poetry has been a very important, even the predominant medium of the expres-sion of ideas, values and viewpoints in Swahili culture. 1 Jan Knappert saw Swahili poetry,with a particular focus on the utenzi genre, as an articulation of the ‘Swahili worldview’.Adopting a diachronical perspective, Albert Gérard has shown how the development of societyand its values is reflected in three tenzi.

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0018. Sullivan, J., and McMahon, A. PHONETIC COMPARISON, VARIETIES, ANDNETWORKS: SWADESH’S INFLUENCE LIVES ON HERE TOO. Diachronica. 2010,27(2):325–340.

While his eponymous basic vocabulary lists and the study of language divergence may beSwadesh’s most appreciated legacies, we demonstrate that phonetic quantification of languagevarieties also follows very much in the tradition of Swadesh’s own work. We compare a fewdifferent measures of phonetic distance on a very small set of data from Germanic varieties,showing the influence of lexicostatistics and the relevance of Swadesh’s ‘Mesh Principle’.What we emphasise overall is that Swadesh’s influence is palpable, even in domains outsidethose for which he is best remembered.

0019. Tadmor, U., Haspelmath, M., and Taylor, B. BORROWABILITY AND THENOTION OF BASIC VOCABULARY. Diachronica. 2010, 27(2):226–246.

This paper reports on a collaborative quantitative study of loanwords in 41 languages, aimedat identifying meanings and groups of meanings that are borrowing-resistant. We find thatnouns are more borrowable than adjectives or verbs, that content words are more borrowablethan function words, and that different semantic fields also show different proportions of loan-words. Several issues arise when one tries to establish a list of the most borrowing-resistantmeanings: Our data include degrees of likelihood of borrowing, not all meanings have counter-parts in all languages, many words are compounds or derivatives and hence almost bydefinition non-loanwords. We also have data on the age of words. There are thus multiple fac-tors that play a role, and we propose a way of combining the factors to yield a new 100-item listof basic vocabulary, called the Leipzig-Jakarta list.

0020. Van de Velde, F. THE EMERGENCE OF MODIFICATION PATTERNS IN THEDUTCH NOUN PHRASE. Linguistics. 2009, 47(4):1021–1040.

This article gives a diachronic account of adnominal modification from Proto-Indo-Europeanto present-day Dutch. The main conclusion is that through the ages, noun phrases appear to “foldout”: they acquire their layered structure for different lexical modifiers over time. The latest stagein this process is the fairly recent development of a specific slot for interpersonal modification ofthe whole noun phrase. The different stages in the diachronic development are described with thelayered and modular representation of functional discourse grammar (FDG).

0021. Wichmann, S., Müller, A., and Velupillai, V. HOMELANDS OF THE WORLD’SLANGUAGE FAMILIES: A QUANTITATIVE APPROACH. Diachronica. 2010, 27(2):247–276.

A systematic, computer-automated tool for narrowing down the homelands of linguistic familiesis presented and applied to 82 of the world’s larger families. The approach is inspired by the well-known idea that the geographical area of maximal diversity within a language family correspondsto the original homeland. This is implemented in an algorithm which takes a lexicostatisticallyderived distance measure and a geographical distance measure and computes a lexical diversitymeasure for each language in the family relative to all the other related languages. The location ofthe language with the highest diversity measure is heuristically identified with the homeland.

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

0022. Akita, K. AN EMBODIED SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICALMIMETICS IN JAPANESE. Linguistics. 2010, 48(6):1195–1220.

This paper claims that psychological sound-symbolic words (or psych-mimetics; e.g., kat (to)‘angry’, wakuwaku ‘exhilarated’) in Japanese and predicates they form have embodied semanticcharacteristics. Previous studies have assumed that psych-mimetics form one category. How-ever, the possibility of cooccurrence with locus NPs enables a clear distinction among them.Psych-mimetics that optionally take a locus NP (termed “somatopsych-mimetics”) refer to

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bodily sensation and those that cannot take one (termed “visuopsych-mimetics”) refer to observ-able activity or behavior in addition to emotion. Several sorts of reinforcement are given to thisdichotomy. First, not a few somato- and visuopsych-mimetics can be synchronically ordiachronically analyzed as being derived from mimetics for bodily sensation and mimetics ofvision, respectively. Second, some morphosyntactic properties of mimetic psych-verbs, includ-ing their morphology and participation in two controllability-related constructions, support thedistinctive statuses of somato- and visuopsych-mimetics. Third, an experiment asking Japanesespeakers to draw pictures for psych-mimetics provided further evidence for the visual basis ofvisuopsych-mimetics. Thus, like other psychological/perceptual expressions, psych-mimeticsrepresent emotion by referring to particular physical experiences associated with or similar to it.Consequently, this study is dually significant. It contributes to the embodiment theory and pointsout the regularity of this apparently peculiar word class.

0023. Ambrose, S. H. COEVOLUTION OF COMPOSITE-TOOL TECHNOLOGY, CON-STRUCTIVE MEMORY, AND LANGUAGE: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE EVOLUTION OFMODERN HUMAN BEHAVIOR. Current Anthropology. 2010, 51(Suppl 1):S135–S145.

The evolution of modern human behavior was undoubtedly accompanied by neurologicalchanges that enhanced capacities for innovation in technology, language, and social organiza-tion associated with working memory. Constructive memory integrates components ofworking memory in the medial prefrontal cortex to imagine alternative futures. Enhancedmental time travel permits long-range strategic planning. Within this broadly conceived area ofcognitive neuropsychology, I will focus on two stages of the evolution of cognitive faculties forplanning. The first involves executing complex sequences of actions involving manufacture ofmulticomponent artifacts; the second involves enhanced planning through information shar-ing, which required the establishment of extended regional social interaction networks basedon trust and cooperation. Both stages were probably accompanied by important innovations ingrammatical speech.

0024. Bruner, E. MORPHOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES IN THE PARIETAL LOBESWITHIN THE HUMAN GENUS: A NEUROFUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE. CurrentAnthropology. 2010, 51(Suppl 1):S77–S88.

There have been very few morphological studies regarding brain parietal volumes. This isprobably a result of the fact that their boundaries are rather difficult to establish. Functions ofthe parietal lobes that have already been documented range from visuospatial integration,category recognition, and praxis to orientation, numerical processing, and speech decoding. Ithas been hypothesized that the parietal lobes have had a major role in the evolution of thehuman brain because of their morphological changes.

0025. DeDe, G. UTILIZATION OF PROSODIC INFORMATION IN SYNTACTICAMBIGUITY RESOLUTION. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2010, 39(4):345–374.

Two self paced listening experiments examined the role of prosodic phrasing in syntacticambiguity resolution. In Experiment 1, the stimuli consisted of early closure sentences(e.g., “While the parents watched, the child sang a song.”) containing transitive-biased sub-ordinate verbs paired with plausible direct objects or intransitive-biased subordinate verbspaired with implausible direct objects. Experiment 2 also contained early closure sentenceswith transitively and intransitive-biased subordinate verbs, but the subordinate verbs werealways followed by plausible direct objects. In both experiments, there were two prosodicconditions. In the subject-biased prosodic condition, an intonational phrase boundarymarked the clausal boundary following the subordinate verb. In the object-biased prosodiccondition, the clause boundary was unmarked. The results indicate that lexical andprosodic cues interact at the subordinate verb and plausibility further affects processing atthe ambiguous noun. Results are discussed with respect to models of the role of prosody insentence comprehension.

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0026. Duman, T. Y. TIME REFERENCE THROUGH VERB INFLECTION IN TURK-ISH AGRAMMATIC APHASIA. Brain and Language. 2009, 108(1):30–39.

This study tested the production of tensed finite verbs and participles referring to the past andfuture in agrammatic speakers of Turkish. The agrammatic speakers did not make more time refer-ence errors in tensed verbs than in participles. This is interesting because tense in general cannottherefore be the main problem, since time reference for participles lacking tense inflection is as dif-ficult as for verbs with tense inflection. Besides that, the past tense/perfect aspect was found to bemore difficult to produce for the agrammatic speakers than the future tense/imperfect aspect. Noneof the current theories on agrammatic deficits can explain why reference to the past/perfect aspect ismore difficult than reference to future/imperfect aspect, although a similar finding was reported forDutch by We present a remoteness model of time reference to account for the data.

0027. Gawda, B. SYNTAX OF EMOTIONAL NARRATIVES OF PERSONS DIAG-NOSED WITH ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2010,39(4):273–283.

The aim of this study was to show some specificity of syntax of narratives created by personsdiagnosed with antisocial personality. The author attempted to verify and supplement informa-tion that persons with antisocial personality have an incapacity for emotional language. Scores of60 prisoners with high antisocial tendencies, 40 prisoners with low antisocial tendencies, and100 men without the antisocial tendencies, were analyzed. The participants had to describe thesituations of love, hate and anxiety inspired by the photographs. The narrative discourse wasanalyzed. The research was concentrated on syntactic elements. Comparisons between the threegroups were conducted. The results show the differences between the antisocial inmates, non-antisocial inmates, and controls. In their emotional narratives, the antisocial individuals usedmore repetitions, pauses and negations. These linguistic characteristics are attributed to highactivity, psychopathy and emotionality of persons diagnosed with antisocial personality.

0028. Hsu, C.-H. ORTHOGRAPHIC COMBINABILITY AND PHONOLOGICAL CON-SISTENCY EFFECTS IN READING CHINESE PHONOGRAMS: AN EVENT-RELATEDPOTENTIAL STUDY. Brain and Language. 2009, 108(1):56–66.

In this study, event-related potentials (ERPs) were used to trace the temporal dynamics ofphonological consistency and phonetic combinability in the reading of Chinese phonograms.The data showed a significant consistency-by-combinability interaction at N170. High pho-netic combinability characters elicited greater negativity at N170 than did low phoneticcombinability characters, and the combinability effect was only found in the reading of highconsistency characters. The results support the phonological mapping hypothesis of the reading-related N170 effect and suggest that the earlier stages of visual word recognition are shaped bythe mapping of orthography to phonology even in Chinese. Moreover, our data revealed bothconsistency and combinability effects at P200 and N400, accounted for by the two-stageframework for visual word recognition. That is, characters with high combinability or highconsistency facilitated the earlier stages of orthographic or phonological processing whichwere due to increased activation at the perceptual level; consequently, less positive P200 wasdemonstrated. In the later stages, high combinability or high consistency characters were asso-ciated with a larger semantic neighborhood, which increased semantic competition andexaggerated the N400 effect. These data support the assumption of radical-based inputs pro-posed by the lexical constituent model. However, the phonetic consistency effects found atN170 and P200 cannot be reconciled with the current framework of the lexical constituentmodel. A possible revision will be discussed.

0029. Hu, C.-F. PHONOLOGICAL BASES FOR L2 MORPHOLOGICAL LEARNING.Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2010, 39(4):305–322.

Two experiments examined the hypothesis that L1 phonological awareness plays a role inchildren’s ability to extract morphological patterns of English as L2 from the auditory input.In Experiment 1, 84 Chinese-speaking third graders were tested on whether they extracted

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the alternation pattern between the base and the derived form (e.g., inflate–inflation) frommultiple exposures. Experiment 2 further assessed children’s ability to use morphologicalcues for syntactic categorization through exposures to novel morphologically varying forms(e.g., lutate vs. lutant) presented in the corresponding sentential positions (noun vs. verb).The third-grade EFL learners revealed emergent sensitivity to the morphological cues in theinput but failed in fully processing intraword variations. The learners with poorer L1 PAwere likely to encounter difficulties in identifying morphological alternation rules and in dis-covering the syntactic properties of L2 morphology. In addition to L1 PA, L2 vocabularyknowledge also contributed significantly to L2 morphological learning.

0030. Huumo, T. IS PERCEPTION A DIRECTIONAL RELATIONSHIP? ONDIRECTIONALITY AND ITS MOTIVATION IN FINNISH EXPRESSIONS OF SENSORYPERCEPTION. Linguistics. 2010, 48(1):49–98.

This article examines the hypothesis that sensory perception is linguistically conceptual-ized as a directional relationship that involves the motion of a signal between the experiencerand the stimulus. The hypothesis is tested with data from Finnish. The study focuses onexpressions of visual, auditory and olfactory perception. The data consist of sentencesincluding a perception verb and a locative element that indicates the position of either theexperiencer or the stimulus. There are three options for marking such a locative: a static ‘in’/‘on’/‘at’ case, a directional ‘from’ case, or a directional ‘to’ case. The results reveal crucialdifferences on the one hand between different verbs in each domain, on the other between thedifferent sensory domains. Agentive perception verbs favor the directionality experiencer⇒ stimulus to a greater extent than non-agentive or intransitive perception verbs. Theopposite directionality (stimulus ⇒ experiencer) is favored if the stimulus is a signal or amental content rather than a concrete entity. In general, expressions of visual perceptionfavor the static coding to a greater extent than expressions of auditory and olfactory percep-tion, which favor the directional stimulus ⇒ experiencer coding. It is argued that thisdifference follows from the conceptualization of auditory and olfactory perception as involv-ing the motion of a signal (a sound or a smell) as opposed to visual perception, which isconceptualized as the perception of a concrete entity.

0031. Keng Wee Ong, K., and Jun Zhang, L. METALINGUISTIC FILTERS WITHINTHE BILINGUAL LANGUAGE FACULTY: A STUDY OF YOUNG ENGLISH-CHINESEBILINGUALS. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2010, 39(3):243–272.

This study reports two metalinguistic parameters that constitute the schematic control of lateralinhibitory links between translation equivalents within the bilingual lexico-semantic system ofGreen’s inhibitory control (IC) model. Building on Green’s postulation that the bilingual lexico-semantic system is controlled by a hierarchy of schemas under a supervisory attentional system, thebilingual unconsciously filters activated lemmas during fluent spontaneous codeswitching, suchthat lemmas that are semantico-syntactically versatile or morphosyntactically transparent are likelyto reach a threshold of activation first while other lemmas are inhibited. To investigate the issue, wecollected code-paired naturalistic and elicited data with a focus on code-switched determinerphrases from 140 Mandarin-English simultaneous bilinguals who were post-secondary students inSingapore. We found that the semantico-syntactic and morpho-syntactic dissimilarities betweenMandarin and English activated both filters. As most Mandarin determiners are economical vis-à-vis their English counterparts, their lemmas were selected frequently while English lemmaswere largely inhibited. It was also found that our participants preferred English nouns in fillingthe lexical category for their interpretable feature of number, a feature that is normally absent inMandarin nouns.

0032. Nejati, V., and Asadi, A. SEMANTIC AND PHONEMIC VERBAL FLUENCY INBLINDS. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2010, 39(3):235–242.

A person who has suffered the total loss of a sensory system has, indirectly, suffered abrain lesion. Semantic and phonologic verbal fluency are used for evaluation of executive

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function and language. The aim of this study is evaluation and comparison of phonemic andsemantic verbal fluency in acquired blinds. We compare 137 blinds and 124 sighted peoplein verbal fluency task. The tasks were phonemic and semantic verbal fluency test that sub-jects should be generate as many word as possible in a limited amount of time for a givenletter (Phonemic fluency) or a given category (Semantic fluency). Independent T Test wasused to comparing blind with sighted. Findings show significant difference between twogroups so that that sighted subjects have higher performance in semantic verbal fluencytask ( p = 0.000). Comparing sighted and blind subjects in phonemic verbal fluency taskshows performance in sighted subjects ( p = 0.000). Based on this study blinds have lowerperformance in semantic and phonemic verbal fluency task as a executive function offrontal lobe.

0033. O’Connell, D., and Kowal, S. INTERJECTIONS IN THE PERFORMANCE OFJANE AUSTEN’S PRIDE AND PREJUDICE. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2010,39(4):285–304.

Three data sets of primary and secondary interjections were compared: (1) the original inter-jections written into the text of Jane Austen’s (1813/1994) novel Pride and Prejudice; (2) theinterjections read aloud in commercial recordings by six professional readers of the entire textof the novel; (3) the interjections spoken by actresses and actors in the film production whosescript, despite modest selectiveness, adheres most closely of all film versions to Austen’s originaltext. Overall, the respective frequencies of occurrence of interjections were 136 < 141 < 398.Of the 136 interjections in Austen’s printed text, 96% were attributable to women’s roles, par-ticularly Elizabeth Bennet and her mother. The second of these figures (141) is an averageacross all six readers. Hence, readers added a very modest number of interjections. But theactresses and actors added a large number of interjections. The dramatic oral expressivenessof the film performance is largely carried by and reflected in the actresses’ and to a lesser extentin the actors’ use of these primary interjections. A large percentage (96%) of the interjectionsin the film performance served the function of initializing various units of discourse, eitherafter a pause before articulatory phrases, or before a sentence and/or turn. Both the emotionaland initiating functions of interjections are characteristic of conceptual and medial oralityrather than of conceptual and medial literacy. Accordingly, their usage throws further light on atheory of spontaneous spoken discourse.

0034. O’Connell, D. C. et al. START-UP RHETORIC IN EIGHT SPEECHES OFBARACK OBAMA. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2010, 39(5):393–409.

Our purpose in the following was to investigate the start-up rhetoric employed by U.S.President Barack Obama in his speeches. The initial 5 min from eight of his speeches fromMay to September of 2009 were selected for their variety of setting, audience, theme, andpurpose. It was generally hypothesized that Barack Obama, widely recognized for theexcellence of his rhetorical performance, would pursue both constant and variable strate-gies in his effort to establish contact with his audience. More specifically, it washypothesized that the make-up of the audience-primarily native or non-native speakers ofEnglish-would be a prominent independent variable. A number of temporal and verbalmeasures were used as dependent variables. Variations were evident in mean length in syl-lables and duration in seconds of utterances (articulatory phrases), articulation rate insyllables per second of ontime, mean duration of silent pauses in seconds, and frequency offillers, hesitations, colloquial words and phrases, introductory phrases, and 1st person sin-gular pronominals. Results indicated that formality versus informality of the setting andpresence or absence of a teleprompter were more prominent than native versus non-nativeaudiences. Our analyses confirm Obama’s skillfulness in challenging and variable settingsand clearly detect orderliness and scientific generalizability in language use. The conceptof orality/literacy provides a theoretical background and emphasizes dialogical interactionof audience and speaker.

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0035. Poirier, J. et al. THE REAL-TIME PROCESSING OF SLUICED SENTENCES.Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2010, 39(5):411–427.

Ellipsis refers to an element that is absent from the input but whose meaning can nonethelessbe recovered from context. In this cross-modal priming study, we examined the online process-ing of Sluicing, an ellipsis whose antecedent is an entire clause: The handyman threw a book tothe programmer but I don’t know which book the handyman threw to the programmer Tounderstand such an elliptical construction, the listener arguably must ‘fill in’ the missing mate-rial (‘the handyman threw___to the programmer’) based on that which occurs in the antecedentclause. We aimed to determine the point in time in which reconstruction of the sluiced sentenceis attempted and whether such a complex antecedent is re-accessed by the ellipsis. Out of thetwo antecedent constituents for which we probed, only the Object (programmer) was foundactive in the elliptical clause, confirming that an antecedent is attributed to the sluice in realtime. Possible reasons for the non-observation of the Subject (handyman) are considered. Wealso suggest that ellipses are detected earlier in coordinated than subordinated sentences.

0036. Reuland. E. IMAGINATION, PLANNING, AND WORKING MEMORY: THEEMERGENCE OF LANGUAGE. Current Anthropology. 2010, 51(Suppl 1):S99–S110.

Imagination (leading to planning, culture, “theory of mind”) is a powerful property of thehuman mind. This article will focus on the relation between imagination, planning, and lan-guage. Language is a systematic mapping between arbitrary forms in a medium andinterpretations. Its minimal units—words—combine an instruction for realization with aninstruction for interpretation. A crucial condition for language to emerge is the ability to accessand recursively combine concepts as words by form rather than meaning. I will discuss whatsuch control over lexical access depends on. Using language requires holding forms in workingmemory while temporarily suppressing their realization and interpretation. A memory systemwith a buffer able to hold chunks of material of sufficient size is necessary. I will argue that thelimiting factor is not so much working memory per se, as understood in the seminal work byBaddeley, but rather the interface/area of overlap between short-term declarative and proce-dural memory systems as discussed by Ullman. I conclude with a discussion of the relationbetween the shape of the grammatical system and (limitations on) working-memory processingresources thus conceived.

0037. Tomita, K., Yamada, J., and Takatsuka, S. ENGLISH VOWEL SPACES PRO-DUCED BY JAPANESE SPEAKERS: THE SMALLER POINT VOWELS’ AND THEGREATER SCHWAS’. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2010, 39(5):375–391.

This study investigated how Japanese-speaking learners of English pronounce the threepoint vowels /i/, /u/, and /a/ appearing in the first and second monosyllabic words of Englishnoun phrases, and the schwa /�/ appearing in English disyllabic words. First and second for-mant (Fl and F2) values were measured for four Japanese speakers and two American Englishspeakers. The hypothesis that the area encompassed by the point vowels in the F1–F2 vowelspace tends to be smaller for the Japanese speakers than for the English speakers was verified.The hypothesis that the area formed by the three schwas in $${{chick\underline{e}n}}$$,$${{spoonf{\underline{u}}1}}$$, and $${{Tarz\underline{a}n}}$$ is greater for the Japa-nese speakers than for the English speakers and its related hypothesis were largely upheld.Implications for further research are briefly discussed.

0038. Turella, L. MIRROR NEURONS IN HUMANS: CONSISTING OR CONFOUND-ING EVIDENCE? Brain and Language. 2009, 108(1):10–21.

The widely known discovery of mirror neurons in macaques shows that premotor and parietalcortical areas are not only involved in executing one’s own movement, but are also active whenobserving the action of others. The goal of this essay is to critically evaluate the substance offunctional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) stud-ies whose aim has been to reveal the presence of a parallel system in humans. An inspection of

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this literature suggests that there is relatively weak evidence for the existence of a circuit with‘mirror’ properties in humans, such as that described in monkeys.

0039. Wilke, M. COMBINED FUNCTIONAL AND CAUSAL CONNECTIVITY ANALY-SES OF LANGUAGE NETWORKS IN CHILDREN: A FEASIBILITY STUDY. Brain andLanguage. 2009, 108(1):22–29.

Instead of assessing activation in distinct brain regions, approaches to investigating thenetworks underlying distinct brain functions have come into the focus of neuroscienceresearch. Here, we provide a completely data-driven framework for assessing functional andcausal connectivity in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data, employingGranger’s causality. We investigate the networks underlying story processing in 17 healthychildren (8f, 9m, 10.4 ± 2.8 years, 6.5–15.4 years). Extensive functional connectivity existsbetween brain regions, including some not detected in standard random effects analyses.Causal connectivity analyses demonstrate a clear dominance of left-sided language regions forboth forward and backward interactions with other network nodes. We believe our approach tobe useful in helping to assess language networks in the normal or pathological setting; it mayalso aid in providing better starting estimates for the more hypothesis-driven approaches likestructural equation or dynamic causal modeling.

0040. Xiang, M. ILLUSORY LICENSING EFFECTS ACROSS DEPENDENCY TYPES:ERP EVIDENCE. Brain and Language. 2009, 108(1):40–55.

A number of recent studies have argued that grammatical illusions can arise in the process ofcompleting linguistic dependencies, such that unlicensed material is temporarily treated aslicensed due to the presence of a potential licensor that is semantically appropriate but in a syn-tactically inappropriate position. A frequently studied case involves illusory licensing ofnegative polarity items (NPIs) like ever and any, which must appear in the scope (i.e., c-commanddomain) of a negative element. Speakers often show intrusive licensing effects in sentenceswhere an NPI is preceded but not c-commanded by a negative element, as in *The restaurantsthat no newspapers have recommended in their reviews have ever gone out of business. Exist-ing accounts of intrusive licensing have focused on the role of general memory retrievalprocesses. In contrast, we propose that intrusive licensing of NPIs reflects semantic/pragmaticprocesses that are more specific to NPI licensing. As a test of this claim, we present results froman ERP study that presents a structurally matched comparison of intrusive licensing in twotypes of linguistic dependencies, namely NPI licensing and the binding of reflexive anaphorslike himself, and herself. In the absence of a potential licensor, both NPIs and reflexives elicit aP600 response, but whereas there is an immediate ERP analog of the intrusion effect for NPIlicensing, no such effect is found for reflexive binding. This suggests that the NPI intrusioneffect does not reflect general-purpose retrieval mechanisms.

0041. Yu, V., and Andruski, J. A CROSS-LANGUAGE STUDY OF PERCEPTION OFLEXICAL STRESS IN ENGLISH. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2010, 39(4):323–344.

This study investigates the question of whether language background affects the perceptionof lexical stress in English. Thirty native English speakers and 30 native Chinese learners ofEnglish participated in a stressed-syllable identification task and a discrimination task involv-ing three types of stimuli (real words/pseudowords/hums). The results show that both languagegroups were able to identify and discriminate stress patterns. Lexical and segmental informa-tion affected the English and Chinese speakers in varying degrees. English and Chinesespeakers showed different response patterns to trochaic vs. iambic stress across the three typesof stimuli. An acoustic analysis revealed that two language groups used different acoustic cuesto process lexical stress. The findings suggest that the different degrees of lexical and segmen-tal effects can be explained by language background, which in turn supports the hypothesis thatlanguage background affects the perception of lexical stress in English.

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SOCIOLINGUISTICS

0042. Amfo, N. A. A. LEXICAL SIGNALING OF INFORMATION STRUCTURE INAKAN. Linguistics. 2010, 48(1):195–226.

Akan (Kwa, Niger Congo) has a rich inventory of lexical items for the purposes of signalinginformation structure. This article examines the communicative role of a number of these markers.The focus marker na singles out the constituent within its scope as the only new information in theutterance in which it is contained. Two inclusive markers are identified; they are (n)so and mpo.(N)so is an additive focus marker which indicates that the utterance to which it is attached has to beinterpreted in a context parallel to that of the immediately preceding utterance. Mpo is a scalarmarker; the entity within its scope is considered quite low on a pragmatically given scale. Exclusivemarkers in the language include the restrictive nko and the multifunctional ara. The latter combineswith features of the context to communicate restriction, simultaneity, continuity, or it may cause theaccompanying utterance to receive a scalar reading. Finally, the traditional analysis associated withthe information structural marker de is shown to be untenable. Thus, an alternative analysis isproffered, based on critical examination of its discourse function, using attested data.

0043. Armour, W. RECONCEPTUALISING ‘IDENTITY SLIPPAGE’: ADDITIONALLANGUAGE LEARNING AND (L2) IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT. Journal of Multilingualand Multicultural Development. 2009, 30(4):311–326.

This paper reconsiders the theoretical concept of ‘identity slippage’ by considering a detailedexegesis of three model conversations taught to learners of Japanese as an additional language.To inform my analysis of these conversations and how they contribute to identity slippage, I haveused the work of the systemic-functional linguist Jay Lemke and the educational linguist JamesPaul Gee as well as using the guiding principle of semogenesis. It is suggested that the three inter-related frames of correctness, norms, and conformity need to be accounted for in a discussion ofhow learning an additional language impacts of identity development.

0044. Bensoussan, M. READING PREFERENCES AND EXPECTATIONS OF MULTI-LINGUAL ISRAELI UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. Journal of Multilingual and MulticulturalDevelopment. 2009, 30(6):465–480.

Israeli students need to be multilingually literate to read academic texts, mainly in Hebrew,Arabic, Russian and English. In fact, little is known about students’ reading habits despite avariety of university reading comprehension courses in different languages. The present studyexamines students’ reading preferences and textual expectations, comparing reading in L1 withL2/L3/Ln. Two questionnaires on reading habits and expectations were administered to 226students during the academic year 2005–2006. Reading preferences were found to be multilin-gual, linked to the reader’s interests, as well as to text genre and availability. Students reportedreading the Internet, textbooks, literature and poetry mostly in L1 (Hebrew, Arabic or Rus-sian), newspapers mostly in L1/L2 (Hebrew, Arabic), academic articles mostly in L2/L3(Hebrew, English) and sacred texts mostly in L1 (Arabic, Hebrew). In addition, English textswere read regardless of native language, indicating a situation of multilingualism with English.Most reading was reported for social purposes, followed by academic purposes, with personalreading least frequent. English was read more for social and academic purposes than for per-sonal reading, which occurred mostly in L1. Most of the students expected to read forinformation (indicating social and academic) rather than imagination or fantasy (personal).

0045. Bliss, L. S., and McCabe, A. PATTERNS OF DISCOURSE COHERENCE: VARI-ATIONS IN GENRE PERFORMANCE IN CHILDREN WITH LANGUAGE IMPAIR-MENT. Imagination, Cognition and Personality. 2009, 28(2):137–154.

The purpose of this investigation was to compare the discourse coherence of 36 childrenwith language impairment (LI) who produced 3 types of genres: scripts, personal narratives,and procedural discourse. The children described in random order a routine activity, personalexperience, and a favorite game. The genres were analyzed for length, Syntactic complexity,

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topic maintenance, informativeness, and fluency. Scripts resulted in short, simple, and fluentutterances. Personal narratives and procedural discourse were similar in their length, informa-tiveness, and fluency. Procedures were more syntactically complex and on topic than personalnarratives. Children with LI are influenced by discourse genre. Different discourse genresshould be compared in clinical assessments. Intervention should include different discoursegenres in order to maximize a child’s social, communicative, and classroom discourse.

0046. Bobda, A. S. THE MEANING OF ENGLISH WORDS ACROSS CULTURES,WITH A FOCUS ON CAMEROON AND HONG KONG. Journal of Multilingual and Multicul-tural Development. 2009, 30(5):375–389.

A word, even when considered monosemic, generally has a cluster of meanings, dependingon the mental representation of the referent by the speaker/writer or listener/reader. The varia-tion is even more noticeable across cultures. This paper investigates the different ways inwhich cultural knowledge helps in the interpretation of English lexical items. After a briefreview of the traditional World Englishes structural perspective, the paper analyses the variousways in which the schema helps in the construction of lexical meaning: it helps to decode thedenotative meaning of some words with possible multiple interpretations; to perceive the refer-ential boundaries; to understand the connotative meaning; to modulate meaning, demotingsome features and promoting others; to understand the physical elements which contribute tothe mental representation of some words; to perceive the bodily movements and otherparalinguistic elements which contribute to the construction of the meaning of some words; toperceive the salience of a word within a cultural community; to perceive and predict collocates;to perceive cultural assumptions; to perceive political politeness and taboos; to distinguishtransactional language from interactional language, and so on. The study is shown to haveimplications for lexicography and for English Language teaching.

0047. Brown, I., and Sachdev, I. BILINGUAL BEHAVIOUR, ATTITUDES, IDENTITYAND VITALITY: SOME DATA FROM JAPANESE SPEAKERS IN LONDON, UK. Journalof Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 2009, 30(4):327–343.

Although the Japanese community in London is relatively small, its composition is stable andreflects several aspects of Japan’s relationship with the international community. Yet thereappears to have been no systematic research exploring patterns of bilingual behaviour in relationto social psychological processes amongst Japanese nationals in London. The 95 participants inthis study were all Japanese nationals, who came from three major groups in this community,namely company employees, students and pupils at a Japanese school. They completed a quanti-tative questionnaire about language use, attitudes to use, proficiency, identity, contact andperceived vitalities in both London and Japan. Although the findings confirmed the dominance ofJapanese in proficiency and identity, they also suggested some systematic variance in use andattitudes according to context. Furthermore, while multivariate analyses supported the predictivevalue of English proficiency for the use of each language, the prediction of English use and atti-tudes was significantly enhanced by incorporating three factors related to identities and vitalities.Finally, Japanese use and attitudes were also associated with social contact. These findings arediscussed with reference to ethnolinguistic identity theory, intergroup and intragroup factors, andthe international status of English.

0048. Chan, A. Y. W. AN INVESTIGATION INTO CANTONESE ESL LEARNERS’ACQUISITION OF ENGLISH INITIAL CONSONANT CLUSTERS. Linguistics. 2010,48(1):99–142.

This article discusses the acquisition of English initial consonant clusters by Cantonese ESLlearners in Hong Kong with an aim to examine the explanatory power of the Markedness Dif-ferential Hypothesis (MDH) and the Interlanguage Structural Conformity Hypothesis (ISCH)and to gain insights into the interlanguage phonology of the learners. Both hypotheses makepredictions about second language learning on the basis of implicational universals, but theformer is also premised on the differences between the native and target languages. The study

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investigated Cantonese ESL learners’ acquisition of English obstruent + nasal onsets andobstruent + liquid onsets as well as their acquisition of two-member onsets and three-memberonsets. A total of twelve learners participated in the study. They were asked to perform four dif-ferent speech tasks including the reading of a word list, the description of a series of picturesusing isolated words, the reading of three passages, and a conversational interview. The partici-pants’ speech was recorded using a high-quality mini-disk recorder and transcribed by tworaters. The results of the study show that the implicational relationships which hold betweenthe different categories of onset clusters also hold for the interlanguages of the participants, andthe predictions of the MDH and the ISCH are also borne out. Where no universal markednessrelationships exist among different onset clusters, the inherent difficulty of a segment resultingfrom the phonotactic constraints of a learner’s mother tongue remains the most importantfactor contributing to the overall level of difficulty of an onset cluster. It is also argued that, inthe interlanguages of the participants, there exists a phonological rule which neutralizes liquidsin clusters. Further research is needed to investigate the abilities of Cantonese ESL learners toperceive English speech sounds and the possible effects that their perceptual abilities may haveon their production abilities.

0049. Clift, R., and Helani, F. INSHALLAH: RELIGIOUS INVOCATIONS IN ARABICTOPIC TRANSITION. Language in Society. 2010, 39:357–382.

The phrase inshallah ‘God willing’ is well known, even to non-Arabic speakers, as a mitigator ofany statement regarding the future, or hopes for the future. Here we use the methods of conversa-tion analysis (CA) to examine a less salient but nonetheless pervasive and compelling interactionalusage: in topic-transition sequences. We use a corpus of Levantine (predominantly Syrian) Arabictalk-in-interaction to pay detailed attention to the sequential contexts of inshallah and its cognatesacross a number of exemplars. It emerges that these invocations are used to secure possiblesequence and topic closure, and that they may engender reciprocal invocations. Topical talk fol-lowing invocations or their responses is subsequently shown to be suspended by both parties; thisprovides for a move to a new topic by either party.

0050. D’Arcy, A., and Tagliamonte, S. A. PRESTIGE, ACCOMMODATION, AND THELEGACY OF RELATIVE WHO. Language in Society. 2010, 39:383–410.

This article presents a quantitative variationist analysis of the English restrictive relative pro-nouns. However, where previous research has largely focused on language-internal explanationsfor variant choice, the focus here is the social meaning of this erstwhile syntactic variable. Weuncover rich sociolinguistic embedding of the relative pronouns in standard, urban speech. Theonly productive wh- form is who, which continues to pattern as a prestige form centuries after itslinguistic specialization as a human subject relative. This legacy of prestige is reflected not onlyin the social characteristics of those with whom it is associated, but also in the patterns of accom-modation that are visible in its use. These findings simultaneously demonstrate the tenaciousnature of social meaning and the enduring effects of grammatical ideology, both of which influ-ence pronoun choice in the context of face-to-face interaction.

0051. East, M. PROMOTING POSITIVE ATTITUDES TOWARDS FOREIGN LAN-GUAGE LEARNING: A NEW ZEALAND INITIATIVE. Journal of Multilingual andMulticultural Development. 2009, 30(6):493–507.

This paper reports on the effectiveness of a tailored undergraduate course at a tertiary institutionin New Zealand constructed to challenge, and encourage changes to, monolingual ‘English-only’attitudes. The course was designed to provide knowledge and promote understanding of the phe-nomenon of English as a global language, and the place of, and implications for, languages otherthan English in that context. Working with two cohorts of students, a pre- and post-treatment designwas used whereby participants completed an attitudinal questionnaire at the start of the course andthe same questionnaire at the end. They were also asked what they thought about languages in aglobalised world. The questionnaires Were analysed to determine if there had been any shift in atti-tudes by the end of the course. Findings are presented and discussed in terms of the effectiveness of

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this course to promote positive attitudes towards foreign language learning in New Zealand-basedstudents. It raises the question of whether similar courses could be planned for use by secondaryand other tertiary students as part of initiatives to help them to recognise that speaking languagesother than English is normative in today’s world.

0052. Forlot, G. CHOOSING A SCHOOL IN A ‘DOUBLE-MINORITY’ CONTEXT:LANGUAGE, MIGRATION AND IDEOLOGIES IN FRENCH ONTARIO. Journal of Multi-lingual and Multicultural Development. 2009, 30(5):391–403.

Based on ethnographic fieldwork carried out in Toronto, Ontario, this article examines theschooling behaviour of parents who have migrated from France to Canada. The populationunder study, engaged in a ‘northern’ kind of migration, generally benefits from an educationacquired in the pre-migration period and from the legitimacy of possessing an international lan-guage. On the other hand, these immigrants from France are faced with a reversed status withintheir host society: while they used to belong to the majority in their country of origin, they havebecome a minority in English Canada, as well as a minority within the Francophone minority ofthe province. The central argument of this article is that for immigrant families, languageacquisition and maintenance, educational philosophy and renewed identifications are key tothe decisionmaking process of choosing a school. This is particularly true in the context of adiverse ‘educational market’ (such as this urban Canadian one) which offers programmes rang-ing from an ethno-centred kind of education to a non-ethnic, student-centred, multiculturalapproach of learning. The study reveals that educational choices contribute to immigrants’adaptation processes, and that opting for a school may both reflect ideology and identitychoices and participate in their reproduction.

0053. Gao, F. LANGUAGE AND POWER: KOREAN-CHINESE STUDENTS’ LAN-GUAGE ATTITUDE AND PRACTICE. Journal of Multilingual and MulticulturalDevelopment. 2009, 30(6):525–534.

Language is not only a method of communication, but also a mechanism of power. Theethnographic research reported in this article documents how a group of Korean students, whoare participating in a bilingual Korean school in Northeast China, construct their language atti-tude and practice. Research findings indicate that the Korean students value both Korean andChinese language acquisition, and adopt the two languages for self-empowerment in the aca-demic hierarchy of the Korean school. The positive attitude and practice of Korean studentstowards Korean and Chinese language studies highlight the politically and economically func-tional power of Korean and Chinese languages as a means of acquiring a larger benefit fromChina’s economic marketisation, especially increasing business contacts with South Korea.This article argues that the increasing significance of transnationalism for ethnic minoritieswithin globalisation emphasises bilingual proficiency, or even trilingualism in China’s reformperiod which implies the necessity of relevant policy initiations for the increasing needs oflanguage acquisition.

0054. Hay, J., and Drager, K. STUFFED TOYS AND SPEECH PERCEPTION. Linguis-tics. 2010, 48(4):865–892.

Previous research has shown that speech perception can be influenced by a speaker’s socialcharacteristics, including the expected dialect area of the speaker. This article reports on anexperiment designed to test to degree to which exposure to the concept of a region can also influ-ence perception. In order to invoke the concept, we exposed participants, who were all speakersof New Zealand English, to either stuffed toy kangaroos and koalas (associated with Australia) orstuffed toy kiwis (associated with New Zealand). Participants then completed a perception task inwhich they matched natural vowels produced by a male New Zealander to vowels from a synthe-sized continuum which ranged from raised and fronted Australian-like tokens to lowered andcentralized New Zealand-like tokens. Our results indicate that perception of the vowels shifteddepending on which set of toys the participants had seen. This supports models of speech percep-tion in which linguistic and nonlinguistic information are intricately entwined.

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0055. Ioratim-Uba, G. A. LANGUAGE ENDANGERMENT AND THE VIOLENTETHNIC CONFLICT LINK IN MIDDLE BELT NIGERIA. Journal of Multilingual andMulticultural Development. 2009, 30(5):437–452.

This paper highlights the fact that language endangerment in some multilingual developingsocieties is causal to the violent ethnic conflicts in those societies. Endangered language iden-tity groups shift to the dominant language groups. But, over time, a concatenation of factorsand nuanced realisation of perceived marginalisation (showing overtly at the political, economic,social and religious realms) leads to attrition in the wake of the endangered groups’ clamour forfair treatment. The cases of Benue, Plateau and Taraba States in Middle Belt Nigeria (involvingthe Tiv, Jukun, Etulo, Kuteb, Berom, Afizere, Anaguta, Taroh, and Hausa ethnic groups) revealthis fact. Highly significant calculated t-test values at an alpha level of <0.05 are found, forexample, to show the disintegration of bilingual behaviour between Tiv/Jukun and Tiv/Etuloduring the period of the violent ethnic clashes among them. Language endangerment/shiftreversal is complex. It can create conflicts but at the same time help to restore confidence andmitigate the fear of domination felt by ethnic minorities. Linguists and small/dominated lan-guage communities can work assiduously towards the latter. Conflict management experts willalso do well to pay a great deal of attention to language as a conflict agent.

0056. Keating, E., and Sunakawa, C. PARTICIPATION CUES: COORDINATINGACTIVITY AND COLLABORATION IN COMPLEX ONLINE GAMING WORLDS. Lan-guage in Society. 2010, 39:331–356.

The development of digital communication technologies not only has an influence on humancommunicative practices, but also creates new spaces for human collaborative activity. In thisarticle we discuss a technologically mediated context for interaction, computer games. Closelylooking at interactions among a group of gamers, we examine how players are managing com-plex, shifting frameworks of participation, the virtual game world and the embodied world oftalk and plans for action. Introducing the notion of PARTICIPATION CUES, we explain howinteractants are able to orient to, plan, and execute collaborative actions that span quite differ-ent environments with quite different types of agency, possible acts, and consequences. Novelabilities to interact across diverse spaces have consequences for understanding how humansbuild coordinated action through efficient, multimodal communication mechanisms.

0057. Kishimoto, H. SUBJECTS AND CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE IN JAPANESE.Linguistics. 2010, 48(3):629–670.

In this article, on the basis of a set of new data that allow us to assess the position of subjects,it is shown that in Japanese, ordinary subjects (which are marked with either nominative ordative case) are moved to Spec of TP, while the subjects of oblique-subject constructions donot undergo subject raising. We argue that subject raising to TP is motivated if the clause isconstrained by the nominative-case requirement, which dictates that a clause must have at leastone nominative argument. Nevertheless, there are also cases among idioms where nominativesubjects remain in vP-internal position; that is, idiom subjects, which are interpreted non-compositionally as part of clausal idioms, do not undergo subject raising. In Japanese, subjectraising to TP motivated by the EPP requirement of T is most typically instantiated, owing to thefairly persistent nominative-case requirement, but still, it is not unitarily implemented, sincesubjects do not undergo raising to TP if they receive oblique marking, which brings out theeffect of voiding the nominative-case requirement, or constitute part of idiomatic expressions.

0058. Matiki, A. J. RE-EXAMINING LANGUAGE SHIFT CASES IN MALAWI IN THECONTEXT OF FISHMAN’S GIDS. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development.2009, 30(6):535–546.

This paper explores language shift cases in three Malawian languages using Fishman’sGraded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS) in order to gain some insight into the extentto which these languages should be regarded as threatened and therefore in need of reversalsupport. The paper shows that Chingoni, in its current state of attrition, is a GIDS 8 language.

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While not much can be done to revive it, there is need for folklorists and linguists to documentthe language and its culture before it completely disappears. With respect to Chilomwe, thepaper places this language at GIDS 7. Without any serious intergenerational transmissiontaking place, Chilomwe needs a full array of reversal support if the language is to survive.Finally, the paper shows that in spite of some studies showing that Chiyao is undergoing somelanguage shift, at GIDS 6 it is in fact the strongest of the three languages examined and currentreversal efforts can only strengthen its position.

0059. Mei, J. et al. ACCULTURATION IN RELATION TO THE ACQUISITION OF ASECOND LANGUAGE. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 2009, 30(6):481–492.

Learners who begin to acquire a second language (L2) in a naturalistic environment afterpuberty are thought to be constrained by biological age factors and to have greater difficultyobtaining native-like L2. However, the extant literature suggests that L2 acquisition may bepositively affected by post-maturational factors, such as acculturation. This exploratory studyexamined the relationship between acculturation and L2 acquisition on Chinese-English latelearners. Chinese students who arrived in the USA after puberty were examined to see whetherthe acculturation process towards US society was associated with higher speaking proficiencylevels and more native-like pronunciation of English language. The results suggest that accul-turation relates to speaking proficiency but not pronunciation.

0060. Paxton, M. I. J. ‘IT’S EASY TO LEARN WHEN YOU USING YOUR HOMELANGUAGE BUT WITH ENGLISH YOU NEED TO START LEARNING, LANGUAGEBEFORE YOU GET TO THE CONCEPT’: BILINGUAL CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT INAN ENGLISH MEDIUM UNIVERSITY IN SOUTH AFRICA. Journal of Multilingual andMulticultural Development. 2009, 30(4):345–359.

This article describes a multilingual glossary project in the economics department at the Uni-versity of Cape Town which gave multilingual students learning economics through the mediumof English, opportunities to discuss new economic concepts in their home languages in order tobroaden and enrich understanding of these new concepts. The findings from this project illustratehow important it is that students use a range of languages and discourses to negotiate meaning ofunfamiliar terms. The article responds to Mesthrie’s caution regarding the development of multi-lingual glossaries, dictionaries and textbooks at higher education level in South Africa. It arguesthat translation of terminology happens inevitably both inside and outside our university class-rooms as multilingual university students, in peer learning groups, codeswitch from English totheir primary languages in order to better understand new concepts and this could be used as animportant resource for building academic registers in African languages.

0061. Rannut, U. CIRCASSIAN LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE IN JORDAN. Journal ofMultilingual and Multicultural Development. 2009, 30(4):297–310.

The central goal of this research is to explore the language policy aspects in Jordan by focus-ing on the Circassian language maintenance issues and to provide measures for languagerevitalisation in the current demographic, linguistic and political situation. Research is basedon multiple sources of information, but primarily on the empirical data collected through 14videotaped interviews conducted with prominent researchers and professors and teachers ofCircassian, through observations and a survey covering 485 respondents, including 323 pupilsfrom the age of 10 up to 16, and 162 parents. The Circassian language status and maintenanceare analysed as a continuum of language functions and domains in a society. Classification isbased on the traditional distribution of language policy dimensions, where language status,corpus and acquisition aspects, as well as UNESCO’s nine language vitality factors and lin-guistic rights are considered. Different factors influencing language maintenance are useful forcharacterising a language’s overall sociolinguistic situation. So far there has been neitherexpert evaluation of the Circassian language situation based on international legal documents,nor has there been research which would provide basis for requesting governmental supportand plan further steps for language revitalisation.

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0062. Reny, M.-E. THE POLITICAL SALIENCE OF LANGUAGE AND RELIGION:PATTERNS OF ETHNIC MOBILIZATION AMONG UYGHURS IN XINJIANG ANDSIKHS IN PUNJAB. Ethnic and Racial Studies. 2009, 32(3):490–521.

This article examines the reasons why the politicization of language has not been translatedinto disruptive forms of ethnic mobilization as opposed to the political salience of religionamong the Uyghurs in Xinjiang throughout the 1990s and the Sikhs before and after the cre-ation of Punjab in 1966. The article argues, from a structural-rationalist perspective, thatlanguage-based claims in Xinjiang and in Punjab have been accommodated by the respectivecentral governments to a larger extent than religious claims have. Accommodation has takenthe form of particular policies as well as greater incorporation of minority elites on the basis oflanguage, which have in turn significantly reduced the possibilities of anti-regime sentimentsand the incentives for disruptive forms of pressure on the basis of linguistic claims among theminority group. Religious claims have, however, not been accommodated in a similar way.

0063. Ryan, S. AMBIVALENCE AND COMMITMENT, LIBERATION AND CHAL-LENGE: INVESTIGATING THE ATTITUDES OF YOUNG JAPANESE PEOPLETOWARDS THE LEARNING OF ENGLISH. Journal of Multilingual and MulticulturalDevelopment. 2009, 30(5):405–420.

This article has emerged from a large-scale, nationwide attitudinal study (n = 2397) into themotivation of learners of English in Japan, which initially found that enjoyment of the learningexperience seemed to be the major factor in the motivation of English learners. However, sub-sequent examination of the data revealed several incongruities in this initial analysis, whichprompted further investigation of these issues using qualitative data. The qualitative investiga-tion suggests that for many Japanese learners ‘liking English’ is essentially nothing more thanan intentionally vague, socially conditioned response but in other cases it represents a genuinecommitment to learning. The article concludes that this sense of commitment derives not somuch from the values associated with English and an English-speaking community or a desireto interact with that community, but rather from factors in the learner’s immediate social envi-ronment or personal experience that mediate these surface attractions of the language.

0064. Trenchs-Parera, M., and Newman, M. DIVERSITY OF LANGUAGE IDEOLO-GIES IN SPANISH-SPEAKING YOUTH OF DIFFERENT ORIGINS IN CATALONIA.Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 2009, 30(6):509–524.

To explore language attitudes and ideologies in urban Catalonia, focus group structured inter-views were conducted with two groups of adolescents of Spanish-speaking origins: theAutochthonous group, descendents of mid-late twentieth century immigrants from other parts ofSpain, and the Immigrant group, who came from Latin America. The Autochthonous group dis-played a clear spectrum of six sets of language ideologies. At one extreme was ‘linguisticparochialism’ in support for Catalan entailing rejection of compromise with Spanish or the Spanishstate. At the other was linguistic parochialism favouring Spanish, which was dismissive of Catalanlinguistic and national aspirations. In the middle were ‘linguistic cosmopolitan’ attitudes favouringaccommodation, bilingualism and diversity. This spectrum was coherent and ordered in that it con-sisted of different responses to political and socioeconomic facts in Catalonia. By contrast, theImmigrant group, though equally ideologically diverse, was inconsistent and betrayed littleengagement with local political or socioeconomic realities. Instead, immigrants seemed more inter-ested in maintaining their linguistic identity by avoiding dialectal influence from PeninsularSpanish. The findings contribute to our understanding of the development of language ideologiesand attitudes in bilingual contexts and in particular the impact of immigration on bilingual societies.

0065. Wagner, L. I’LL NEVER GROW UP: CONTINUITY IN ASPECT REPRESENTA-TIONS. Linguistics. 2009, 47(5):1051–1074.

Children’s early production typically favors prototypical groupings of temporal-aspectualfeatures; children prefer to say telic, perfective, past combinations (e.g., broke) and atelic,imperfective present combinations (e.g., riding). The current experiments examine the extentto which adults also favor these prototypical groups in a comprehension task (Experiment 1)

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and a sentence comparison task (Experiment 2). The results show that, like children, adults findprototypical combinations easier to understand, particularly in low-information contexts.Moreover, adults judge prototypical combinations as better sentences than nonprototypicalsentences. The results are argued to support continuity in aspectual representations. The differ-ences between children and adults is linked to the proposed origin of the prototypesthemselves, namely, information processing demands.

0066. Willoughby, L. LANGUAGE CHOICE IN MULTILINGUAL PEER GROUPS:INSIGHTS FROM AN AUSTRALIAN HIGH SCHOOL. Journal of Multilingual and Multi-cultural Development. 2009, 30(5):421–435.

Despite Australia’s strong tradition of research on language maintenance and shift, little isknown about the ways in which migrant background students continue to use their heritage lan-guages in Australian schools. This paper presents an in-depth case study of students’ linguisticpractices at a multiethnic Melbourne high school, where over 95% of students speak a languageother than English (LOTE) at home. Although virtually all students are bilingual, it shows thatpeer group divide sharply on linguistic lines, with recent arrivals from China and Sudan the onlystudents to consistently speak their first languages with friends at school. More established stu-dents use English as their lingua franca with friends, but continue to deploy their LOTEs for avariety of purposes, including gossiping, crossing and communicating with recent migrants. Thepaper argues that while established students make only incidental use of their LOTEs at school,LOTE use performs important social functions for these students that could not be substituted byusing English alone. Local conditions at the school clearly shape the meanings ascribed to LOTEuse; and the paper thus argues that detailed analysis of students’ linguistic practices can be a valu-able tool for examining interethnic relations in multiethnic schools.

THEORETICAL LINGUISTICS

0067. Ameka, F. K. VERB EXTENSIONS IN LIKPE (S�KP�LÉ). Journal of West AfricanLanguages. 2009, 36(1–2):139–157.

The noun class systems of the Ghana-Togo-Mountain (GTM) languages have attracted a lotof interest and have been used as a defining feature of the group as the “Class languages”. Verbextensions, or verb derivational suffixes, also occur in the GTM languages yet they have notreceived much attention. This paper examines the syntax and semantics of verb extensions inLikpe (S�kp�lé) ISO 639-3: lip, a Na-Togo language.

0068. Amuzu, E. K. MECHANISMS OF L1 MAINTENANCE IN EWE-ENGLISHCODESWITCHING. Journal of West African Languages. 2009, 36(1–2):221–243.

In Ghana, the pervasive use of codeswitching (CS) involving each indigenous language andEnglish, the official language and sole medium of instruction in school from primary four, hasbrought about intensive contact between English and each of these languages. The paperfocuses on Ewe-English CS (and occasionally Akan-English CS) and demonstrates that thecodeswitchers are using certain mother tongue (MT) maintenance mechanisms to preserve notonly the grammar but also parts of the lexicon of their MT from interference from English.

0069. Ansaldo, U. SURPASS COMPARATIVES IN SINITIC AND BEYOND:TYPOLOGY AND GRAMMATICALIZATION. Linguistics. 2010, 48(4):919–982.

The Surpass (or Exceed) comparative is a widespread feature of Sinitic languages found inalmost all ‘dialect’ groups. This article investigates the nature of Surpass constructions inSouthern Chinese varieties with a focus on Cantonese, and in unrelated languages of SoutheastAsia, where Surpass comparatives are also found (Thai, Lao and Vietnamese). I offer possiblegrammaticalization paths for the Surpass comparative in the history of Chinese grammar, andargue that Surpass constructions are typical of Southern Sinitic but not of Mandarin Chinese. Ialso propose that the Surpass comparative should be added to the shared features of a broadly

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defined Mainland Southeast Asian region which illustrates the affinity of languages such asCantonese to their non-Sinitic Southeast Asian neighbors. Finally, in arguing that compara-tives in Mandarin Chinese are not Surpass construction, I suggest that it is not Sinitic languagesin general that go against robust typological correlations between basic word order andstandard-adjective order; rather, it is only Mandarin that provides a counterexample and is, inthat respect, typologically rare.

0070. Becher, V. DIFFERENCES IN THE USE OF DEICTIC EXPRESSIONS IN ENG-LISH AND GERMAN TEXTS. Linguistics. 2010, 48(6):1309–1342.

The article presents a contrastive analysis of the use of English and German deicticexpressions. Its focus is on the communicative role of these items, i.e., the way in whichthey are used by authors to communicate effectively with their readers. The analysis tries tocombine a qualitative (discourse analytic) and a quantitative (corpus linguistic) perspec-tive by making use of a small corpus containing the endings of 32 English and 32 Germantexts from the genre popular science. All deictic expressions present in the corpus weremanually identified, counted and analyzed according to the function(s) they fulfill in theirrespective context. The results suggest that deictic expressions are more frequent inGerman than in English texts. Two (related) reasons seem to account for this finding: first,deictics figure more prominently in the German system of textual cohesion. Second, theywere in many instances found to serve as an (optional) instrument for maximizing explicit-ness, a communicative strategy which is customary in German but not in English discourse.

0071. Bostoen, K., and Nzang-Bie, Y. ON HOW ‘MIDDLE’ PLUS ‘ASSOCIATIVE/RECIPROCAL’ BECAME ‘PASSIVE’ IN THE BANTU A70 LANGUAGES. Linguistics.2010, 48(6):1255–1308.

In this paper we show that the Bantu A70 languages did not preserve the passive morphemeinherited from Proto-Bantu (PB), but developed a new suffix. It is a morpheme that is com-pound in origin, consisting of two verbal derivation suffixes which still function independentlyin today’s languages as a middle marker and an associative/reciprocal marker respectively,though with variable degrees of productivity. The genesis of a passive marker from the stack-ing of two pre-existing suffixes is a typologically rare evolution path, but it fits in with a widerBantu phenomenon of double verb extensions which develop non-compositional meanings.Especially double extensions involving the Proto-Bantu associative/reciprocal marker *-an-tend to develop such idiosyncratic meanings. This suffix is also one of the constituents of theBantu A70 passive marker. Nevertheless, even within Bantu, the emergence of a productivepassive marker from such double extension is unique. In this paper, we argue that the notion ofco-participation may account for the rising of this passive meaning out of the stacking of thecommon Bantu associative/reciprocal suffix to a common Bantu middle suffix. The semanticdevelopment of this compound suffix (and its historical constituents) happened within thesemantic continuum that links reciprocals, reflexives, middles and passives in many languagesof the world, but did not necessarily follow the typologically common reflexive > reciprocal >middle > passive cline.

0072. Chesley, P., and Baayen, R. H. PREDICTING NEW WORDS FROM NEWERWORDS: LEXICAL BORROWINGS IN FRENCH. Linguistics. 2010, 48(6):1343–1370.

This study addresses entrenchment into the lexicon of lexical borrowings. We, search for allnew lexical borrowings in a corpus of French newspaper texts and examine the frequency withwhich these borrowings reoccur in a second corpus of newspaper texts from about 10 yearslater. Lexical entrenchment emerges as depending on a variety of factors, including length insyllables, the original language of the borrowing, and also semantic and contextual factors. Thedispersion of a word in the early corpus is found to be a better predictor of its frequency in thelater corpus than its frequency, but both measures contribute to predicting the degree ofentrenchment of a lexical item. The interaction between these two variables implies thatborrowings are penalized for their burstiness.

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0073. Davis, H. CROSS-LINGUISTIC VARIATION IN ANAPHORIC DEPENDENCIES:EVIDENCE FROM THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory.2009, 27:1–43.

Several languages of northwestern North America systematically fail to show obviation(“Condition C”) effects in contexts where an R-expression is c-commanded by a covalued pronoun.This paper examines Condition C-defying dependencies in one such language, St’át’imcets(Lillooet Salish). It is shown here that Condition C violations in St’át’imcets are not confined tocoreference anaphora, since they may involve sloppy identity; however they are limited tocases where the dependency (a) does not contain a quantificational expression and (b) crossesa clause boundary. Employing a version of linking theory, this paper argues that ConditionC-defying dependencies are “upside-down”—rather than involving a name unexpectedlydepending on a c-commanding pronoun, they involve a dependent pronoun c-commanding anantecedent name. In order to account for this possibility, a parametrized version of the Independ-ence Principle is invoked, whose domain in St’át’imcets is restricted to the minimal clause. Thefacts here provide a direct challenge to the Universalist Hypothesis on anaphora.

0074. Dehé, N., and Samek-Lodovici, V. ON THE PROSODY AND SYNTAX OF DPS:EVIDENCE FROM ITALIAN NOUN ADJECTIVE SEQUENCES. Natural Language andLinguistic Theory. 2009, 27:45–75.

This study tests a syntactic property—namely the availability of N- vs. NP-raising in DPs—through prosodic means. The opposition between N- and NP-raising is central to the ongoingdebate about the internal representation of DPs, yet it often eludes testing by syntactic meansalone. As we show in this study, the two syntactic hypotheses are instead neatly distinguishedby the distinct prosodic phrasing predicted by each operation. In this paper, we present theresults of an empirical experiment designed to test the prosodic phrasing of N-A and A-Nsequences in Italian and the corresponding syntactic implications. As prosodic cues, we usesyllabic and word lengthening effects induced by phonological phrase boundaries. Accordingto our results, A and N share the same phonological phrase in both orders. Regarding the syn-tactic implications of this finding, we show that under all current models of syntax-prosodymapping the underlying syntactic structure responsible for the attested prosodic phrasingmust necessarily rely on N-raising. Finally, we propose an analysis of Italian DPs where theN-raising operation found necessary in light of the attested prosodic phrasing is reconciledwith the evidence for DP-internal phrasal movement discussed in Cinque.

0075. Delalorm, C. VOWEL HARMONY IN SEKPELE. Journal of West African Lan-guages. 2009, 36(1–2):201–208.

The paper discusses vowel harmony in Sekpele (Lipke). It demonstrates that the language hasregressive assimilation controlled by the first vowel in word stems. Sekpele has both ATR harmonyand height harmony. The height harmony involves a stepwise rise in height triggered by the [+high,+ATR] vowels or the schwa in the stem. ATR harmony precedes height in application. The paperdeparts from previous studies and suggests that Sekpele has a 10 rather than an 8 vowel system.

0076. Forker, D. NONLOCAL USES OF LOCAL CASES IN THE TSEZIC LAN-GUAGES. Linguistics. 2010, 48(5):1083–1110.

The Tsezic languages form a sub-branch of the Nakh-Daghestanian language family. Theyhave up to eight location markers that can be combined with up to six orientation markers inorder to form complex spatial categories. Outside the spatial domain these markers indicatetemporal and metaphorical location and orientation. Their grammatical uses include amongothers the marking of verbal arguments, of nonfinite verb forms in adverbial clauses and theexpression of possession or purpose. This paper is meant to provide a comprehensive descrip-tion of the nonlocal functions in relation to the spatial functions and to reveal the structure inthe distribution of nonlocal functions of the cases. The nonlocal uses are not equally distributedamong the local cases. Some location and orientation markers have many nonlocal functionswhile others have almost only local uses.

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0077. Ganenkov, D. TOPOLOGICAL RELATIONS IN DAGHESTANIAN LAN-GUAGES. Linguistics. 2010, 48(5):1011–1042.

One of the features that distinguishes Daghestanian languages of the Caucasus from manyother languages is the richness of the nominal paradigm, which arises due to large locative sub-systems, counting up to eighty forms. This paper presents a description of major distinctionsmade by Daghestanian in the topological domain. The paper reveals three basic semanticoppositions underlying systems of nominal locative markers and describes a number of minorpoints of variation. In the domain of location in Ground this is the distinction between location incontainer and location in substance. In the domain of location on Ground, the primary division inmost languages of the family is between attachment and nonattachment configurations. In thedomain of location near Ground, several languages use the formal distinction between localizationmarker and postposition to reflect the semantic contrast between location in a space associated witha given Ground and location near Ground. The detailed comparison shows that the same distinctioncan function quite differently even in related languages. The paper also makes a number ofcrosslinguistic observations related to patterns found in Daghestanian.

0078. Klein, W. ON TIMES AND ARGUMENTS. Linguistics. 2010, 48(6):1221–1254.Verbs are traditionally assumed to have an “argument structure”, which imposes various con-

straints on form and meaning of the noun phrases that go with the verb, and an “event structure”,which defines certain temporal characteristics of the “event” to which the verb relates. In thispaper, I argue that these two structures should be brought together. The verb assigns descriptiveproperties to one or more arguments at one or more temporal intervals, hence verbs have an“argument-time structure”. This argument-time structure as well as the descriptive propertiesconnected to it can be modified by various morphological and syntactic operations. Thisapproach allows a relatively simple analysis of familiar but not well-defined temporal notionssuch as tense, aspect and Aktionsart. This will be illustrated for English. It will be shown that afew simple morphosyntactic operations on the argument-time structure might account for formand meaning of the perfect, the progressive, the passive and related constructions.

0079. Koontz-Garboden, A. ANTICAUSATIVIZATION. Natural Language and Linguis-tic Theory. 2009, 27:77–138.

This paper provides a comprehensive review and analysis of the facts of anticausativization,the phenomenon whereby an inchoative verb is morphologically derived from its causative coun-terpart (e.g., Spanish, romper ‘break (trans)’ versus romperse ‘break (intrans)’). It treats thephenomenon as reflexivization, providing a number of new arguments for this kind of treatment,and showing how it, as opposed to alternatives in the literature, accounts for the wide range ofdata reviewed. In addition, the facts laid out show that inchoatives derived from causatives retainthe CAUSE operator present in the lexical semantic representation of the causative verb fromwhich they are derived, contrary to the widely held view of anticausativization as a process thatdeletes a CAUSE operator. In this way, it is shown that anticausativization does not provide anargument against the Monotonicity Hypothesis, the idea that word formation operations do notdelete operators from lexical semantic representations.

0080. Lomotey, C. F. THE VOWELS OF THE LIKPE LANGUAGE. Journal of WestAfrican Languages. 2009, 36(1–2):209–219.

This paper analyzes the oral vowels of Likpe, a Ghana-Togo-Mountain language. Eight (8) oralvowels were analyzed. Sixteen speakers from the two main Lipke areas were recorded. Formantfrequency values were obtained from broadband spectrograms. Various statistical methods wereemployed in order to determine any differences or similarities that might exist between the dialects.

0081. Meyer, M.-C., and Sauerland, U. A PRAGMATIC CONSTRAINT ON AMBIGUITYDETECTION: A REJOINDER TO BÜRING AND HARTMANN AND TO REIS. NaturalLanguage and Linguistic Theory. 2009, 27:139–150.

Büring and Hartmann and Reis discuss reconstruction data with focus particles in Germanwhich they claim show that German allows adjunction of phonologically integrated focus

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particles to the root clause. We show that the facts are better explained by independent prag-matic constraints on semantic judgments and conclude therefore that there are no arguments insupport of root clause adjunction of such focus particles in German.

0082. Pantcheva, M. THE SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE OF LOCATIONS, GOALS, ANDSOURCES. Linguistics. 2010, 48(5):1043–1082.

In this article, I argue for a decomposition of the Path head in the syntactic structure fordirectional expressions. Based on crosslinguistic data showing that different types of paths areof different complexity and, crucially, are subject to a morphological containment relationship,I propose a more detailed structure for directionals. I adopt the orthodox view that Goal pathsare built on top of a locative Place projection. However, I suggest that Source paths are built ontop of Goal paths. This is evidenced by the morphological makeup of Source-denoting ele-ments in a variety of languages, where the Source marker morphologically contains the Goalmarker. Further, I explore the lexicalization of the decomposed Path structure I defend and testthe predictions against the empirical domain of syncretisms between the spatial roles Source,Goal, and Location. I show that the decomposed Path structure and the lexicalization theory Iadopt capture syncretism patterns that are widely attested among languages and ban thosesyncretism patterns that are unattested.

0083. Rivero, M. L. INTENSIONALITY, HIGH APPLICATIVES, AND ASPECT:INVOLUNTARY STATE CONSTRUCTIONS IN BULGARIAN AND SLOVENIAN.Natural Language and Linguistic Theory. 2009, 27:151–196.

This paper discusses Bulgarian and Slovenian constructions with a dispositional reading andno apparent dispositional marker, such as Bulgarian Na Ivan mu se raboteše. Such a sentencecombines a dative logical subject Ivan with an inflected verb raboteše ‘work’, and roughly cor-responds to ‘Ivan was in a working mood’, so does not entail that Ivan worked. I argue that suchconstructions consist of two core ingredients that account both for their syntactic properties,and for their modal flavor as dispositions. One ingredient is an Imperfective Operator in View-point Aspect as the source of modality. Such an Operator resembles in syntactic and semanticproperties both the Progressive Operator in so-called English Futurates such as For two weeks,the Red Sox were playing the Yankees today, and the Spanish modal Imperfecto. The otheringredient is a High Applicative Phrase with an oblique subject, which, other than determiningsyntactic properties, contributes to a difference in modal flavor with English Futurates.

0084. Seifart, F. THE BORA CONNECTOR PRONOUN AND TAIL-HEAD LINK-AGE: A STUDY IN LANGUAGE-SPECIFIC GRAMMATICALIZATION. Linguistics.2010, 48(4):893–918.

The Amazonian language Bora systematically uses in narratives a special, paragraph-initialanaphoric “connector pronoun”. This pronoun helps to ensure referential coherence throughagreement in noun class and number with an antecedent, whose referent is thematic in the newparagraph. Additional morphology in the connector pronoun specifies temporal, causal, andother relations between events. The connector pronoun is syntactically tightly integrated intothe clause, where it may function as an argument of a verb or as the dependent element of a gen-itive phrase. Certain frequent forms of the connector pronoun are the basis for a number oflexicalized conjunctions. This paragraph-linking strategy parallels in a number of ways tail-head linkage systems, not only in its functionality, but also with respect to its diachronicoutcome (discourse conjunctions). The fact that Bora grammaticalized nominal expressions ina paragraph-linking system (whereas verbs are the central components of tail-head linkage) iscongruent with the general preference of Bora to use many noun phrases per clause, in contrastto tail-head linkage languages, where noun phrases are rarely used.

0085. Zuraw, K., and Lu, Y.-A. DIVERSE REPAIRS FOR MULTIPLE LABIAL CON-SONANTS. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory. 2009, 27:197–224.

The relationship between constraints on surface forms and operations that alter representationsis of central interest in phonological theory. This squib presents a case of diverse “repairs” in

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response to a marked structure—labial . . . labial sequences—created by um-infixation in stemsbeginning with (or, in some cases, merely containing) labial consonants in Austronesian lan-guages. We review several strategies, which for the most part do not cluster according tosubfamilies: tolerance, gaps, loss of stem consonant, loss of infix nasality, stem dissimilation,infix dissimilation, prefixation, and non-realization of infix. The evidence indicates that avoid-ance of these sequences applies only within the root-and-infix domain, and only in derivedenvironments. This diversity of repairs seems unexpected if changes should be perceptually min-imal; we suggest possible explanations.

0086. Zwarts, J. A HIERARCHY OF LOCATIONS: EVIDENCE FROM THE ENCOD-ING OF DIRECTION IN ADPOSITIONS AND CASES. Linguistics. 2010, 48(5):983–1010.

The encoding of direction (place, goal, source, route) in systems of adpositions and localcases is not uniformly distributed over different locations (at, in, under), but can be shown tofollow a hierarchical pattern. This pattern is compared with similar hierarchies proposed in theliterature about the acquisition and typology of spatial language. Differences in semantic com-plexity and pragmatic salience between locations might explain why such a hierarchy exists.

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