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Course : Discourse AnalysisCode : IGB432Component : MKKDepartment : Language Education ProgramStudy Program : English Education SectionProgram : S1Semester : IV Four)Credit : 3 SKSLecturer : Khidayatul Munawwaroh, M.Pd
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
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Component of language
linguistic structure (phonetics, phonology,morphology, syntax and semantics)
language use (pragmatics, discourse analysis,
sociolinguistics) language as a social phenomenon (dialects,
language change, taboos, language and sex roles,
language and deception), and language universals.
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The Rules of Conversation
We also have rules for putting sentences, whether they arewritten or spoken, together to make larger units of discourse.
Here, discoursemeans any spoken or written language thathas been produced in order to communicate.
As interpreters, your primary concern is with spoken languagemore specifically with conversation.
In any language, there are rules for conversation that governsuch things as how to interrupt a speaker, how to know whena speakers turn is over, how to change a topic, what topic isappropriate, etc.
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7.1 Discourse and discourse analysis
In everyday life, we often produce several sentences at a time, which form a larger
coherent whole. In an interview from the manager of a company, you may reply likethis:I will be happy to attend for an interview on Monday next at 10 a.m. I will
bring with me the full details of my testimonials as you suggest these are usually
called discourse.
Discourse is language above the sentence or above the clause
(Stubbs, 1983: 1). 1960s grammarians became convinced of theusefulness of considering stretches longer than individual sentences
in their analyses, at least two terms came to be used in parallel
fashion: text li nguisticsand discourse analysis.
Originally, some people preferred to usetextto refer to written
language and kept discoursestrictly for oral production.
In this chapter, we do not make any distinctions between text
linguisticsand discourse analysis, and between discourseand text,
because they are now often used interchangeably.
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What is discourse?
In everyday life, we often produce several sentences at atime, which form a larger coherent whole. In an interviewfrom the manager of a company, you may reply like this:Iwill be happy to attend for an interview on Monday next at10 a.m. I will bring with me the full details of my
testimonials as you suggest these are usually calleddiscourse.
Originally, some people preferred to usetextto refer to
written language and kept discoursestrictly for oral
production. In this chapter, we do not make any distinctions between
text l inguisticsand discourse analysis, and between
discourseand text, because they are now often used
interchangeably.
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What is discourse?
Discourse is:
language above the sentence or above theclause
a continuous stretch of spoken language largerthan a sentence, often constituting a coherentunit
a stretch of language perceived to bemeaningful unified, and purposive; language inuse
(viewed) as social practice determined bysocial structures
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Structural and functional definitions of
discourse
Structural or textual definition of discourse:
Discourse is a particular unit of language (above the
sentence).
Functional definition of discourse: Discourse is aparticular focus of language use.
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Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is a general term for a number
of approaches to analyzing written, vocal, or sign language use or any
significantsemiotic event.
Discourse analysis is also called discourse linguisticsand discourse studies,or text analysis.pragmatics is more concerned with meaning, discourse is
more concerned with the formal and information structure.
Discourse analysisis the study of how sentences in spoken and written
language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations,
interviews, etc.tasks in discourse analysisis to explore the linguistic features which
characterize discourses.
The goal of discourse analysisis to examine how the reader or user of a
discourse recognizes that the words/phrases/sentences in a discourse must
be co-interpretedthat parts of a discourse are dependent on others.
One of the most important features of discourseis that they have cohesion.
Besides, some other topics of discourse analysis include information
structure, coherence, discourse markers, conversational analysis.
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Seven criteria which have to be fulfilled to
qualify either a written or a spoken text as a
discourse have been suggested by Beaugrande
(1981). These include:
Cohesion- grammatical relationship between parts of a sentenceessential for its interpretation;
Coherence- the order of statements relates one another by sense. Intentionality- the message has to be conveyed deliberately and
consciously;
Acceptability- indicates that the communicative product needs tobe satisfactory in that the audience approves it;
Informativeness - some new information has to be included in thediscourse;
Situationality - circumstances in which the remark is made areimportant;
Intertextuality - reference to the world outside the text or theinterpreters' schemata;
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Types of Discourse
There are many ways to classify discourse:
Written/spoken discourse.
Classification of discourse according to the register
(level of formality). Classification of discourse according to genre
(communicative purpose, style, audience).
Monologic (one speaker/writer produces an entire
discourse)/ dialogic/ multiparty (two/moreparticipants interact/ construct discourse together).
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Distinction between Written and
Spoken Discourse Spoken and written discoursediffer for many
reasons. Spoken discourse has to be understood
immediately, written discourse can be referred to
many times.
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Distinction between Written and Spoken
Discourse
Spoken discourse:
Variations in speed, but it is generally faster than writing.
Loudness/quietness.
ExampleAnnouncer: an the winner iz:s (1.4) RACHEL ROBERTS.
For YANKS.
A: who is she going out with.
B: Um (.) Peter.
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Distinction between Written and Spoken
Discourse
Spoken discourse:
Gestures/ Body language(Mr. Bean)
Intonation.
Pitch range: - the shift to the higher pitch; - the shift to
the lower pitch, V - a fall rise.
Stress: underlined words in transcription: good.
Rhythm.
Pausing and phrasing: (.)a tiny gap, difficult to be measured,
(7.1)a pause of 7.1 seconds,a longer pause like (..)
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Which Discourse is More Complex?
Grammatically?
Spoken discoursefewer subordinate clauses,
fewer that/to complement clauses, fewer
sequences of prepositional phrases, fewer
attributive adjectives, more active verbs.
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Which Discourse is More Complex?
Lexical characteristics?
Spoken discourselonger, more repetitions. Spokendiscoursethe percentage of different word is below40%, written discourseabove 40%.
Spoken discourseshorter, less complex words andphrases (less contractions, fewer nominalizations,more verb-based phrases, more words that refer to
the speaker, less abstract words, more quantifiers).
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Which Discourse is More Complex?
Lexical characteristics?
Spoken discoursehas:
More verb-based phrases:
having treatment (W)being treated (S)
hospital care (W)go to the hospital (S)
More predicative adjectives:
misleading statistics (W)statistics are misleading (S)frightening news (W)news is frightening (S)
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Which Discourse is More Complex?
Lexical characteristics?Spoken discoursehas:
More pronouns (it, they, you, we).
more lexical repetitions/ refinements
This man+ this chap she was going out with
More first person references.
More active verbs.
Use of indeterminate agentsOh everything they do in Edinbourgh+ they do it far
too slowly
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Which Discourse is More Complex?
Structurally?
Spoken discourse is more fragmented. It
contains more simple sentences and
coordination words (and, but, so, because,
etc.)
Written texts exhibit a confusing variety and
richness of different structural forms.
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Which Discourse is More Complex?
Haiku, a Japanese form of poetry, wheresyllables are the form of writing:
Example 3
line 1- 5 syllables: Beauty and color
line 2- 7 syllables: Butterflies dance in the sky
line 3- 5 syllables: Flying high and free.
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Which Discourse is More Complex?
Shape poems usually describe an object being writtenabout
Example 4
A spider
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Which Discourse is More Complex?
Representation/ reproduction of text:
Written discourse can be divided into chapters,
sections, units, headings, subheadings,
quotations, etc.
Where the original text exploits typographicalvariety, a reproduction of the same text may lack
the qualities of the original.
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Which Discourse is More Complex?
Hallidaycompares a sentence from a written text with a typical spokenequivalent:
Written form:
The use of this method of control unquestionably leads to safer and fastertrain running in the most adverse weather conditions.
A typical spoken variant:
If this method of control is used trains will unquestionably (be able to) runmore safely and faster (even) when the weather conditions are mostadverse.
A more natural spoken version:
You can control the trains this way and if you do that you can be quite surethat theyll be able to run more safely and more quickly then they wouldother wise, no matter how bad the weather gets.
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Which Discourse is More Complex?
Functionally?
Spoken and written discourses serve differentfunctions. The written language has two mainfunctions (Goody):
the storage function which permits communicationover time and space;
shifting language from the oral to the visual domain,
which permits words and sentences to be examinedout of their original contexts.
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Which Discourse is More Complex?
(Brown and Yule). We use speech largely for
the establishment and maintenance of human
relationships (or we use it for interaction),
whereas we use written language for workingout and transference of information (primarily
for the purpose of transaction).
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Interrelation of Written and Spoken
Discourse
Writing and speech interrelate (e.g. the doctor
writes your symptoms, you write a telephone
number).
We can have written discourse that is
intended to be spoken, and spoken language
that is designed to be read.
Marginal discourses: e-mails, SMS, chats
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Interrelation of Written and Spoken
Discourse
KINDS SPOKEN WRITTEN
ORATE e.g.conversation
e.g. informalletters, drama,
poetry
LITERATE e.g. lectures,
sermons,
speeches
e.g.
expository
essays,
articles
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Example of coherence text
A: Dik, tolong itu teleponnya dijawab.
B : Aduh, lagi tanggung, Mas.
Jika ditinjau dari kata-katanya, tidak ada
perpautan antara A dan B. Akan tetapi, keduakalimat itu adalah koheren karena maknanyaberkaitan. Perkaitan itu disebabkan oleh adanyakata-kata yang tersembunyi yang tidak diucapkan.
Kalimat B sebenarnya dapat berbunyi Maaf Mas,saya tidak dapat menjawab telepon itu karena
saya lagi tanggung, menggoreng tempe.
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References:
Brown, G., Yule, G. (1983). Discourse Analysis.
Cambridge, etc.: Cambridge University Press.
pp. 1226
Van Dijk (1997). Discourse Studies, Volume 2:
Discourse as Social Interaction. London etc.:
Sage Publications.Ch 1.pp.1-38. (esp. p.4)