-
1INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Rolf Härdter
International Potash Institute, c/o K+S KALI GmbH,
Bertha-von-Suttner-Str.7, 34131 Kassel,
Germany. Fax: +49 561 9301 1416, E-mail:
[email protected]
Thomas Fairhurst
Potash & Phosphate Institute/Potash & Phosphate
Institute of Canada – East & Southeast
Asia Programs, 126 Watten Estate Road, Singapore 287599. E-mail:
[email protected]
BACKGROUND
The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) has nowbeen established on
about 5.5 M ha of landin Southeast Asia. Due to its large demandfor
nutrients and the size of the area planted,the crop is now one of
the largest consumersof mineral fertilizer nutrients in Southeast
Asia.Because of its geological nature, SoutheastAsia is able to
supply almost all i tsrequirements for nitrogen (N), by
utilizingabundant deposits of natural gas tomanufacture N
fertilizers, but most of itsrequirements for phosphorus (P), and
all itspotassium (K) requirements as well as part ofits requirement
for magnesium (Mg) fertilizersmust be imported.
The use of mineral fertilizer nutrients inSoutheast Asia
increased from about 250,000M t NPK fertilizer nutrients in 1980 to
morethan 1,500,000 M t in 2000. The oil palmaccounts for a large
part of the increase innutrient consumption. Only a small
proportionof total nutrient uptake is exported in palm andkernel
oils, the economic products of oil palm,and thus there is
considerable scope torecycle nutrients contained in crop residuesor
provide nutrients to other cropping systemsin the form of compost
manufactured frompalm oil mill effluent (POME) and empty
fruitbunches (EFB) (Redshaw, this volume).
Much knowledge and know-how hasaccumulated over the past thirty
years throughthe work of research and developmentdepartments in the
leading plantation housesas well as practical planters. Our aim
inupdating this bulletin (Ng, 1972; von Uexküll
and Fairhurst, 1991) is to provide scientists,advisers,
consultants, managers and growerswith ‘state of the art’ knowledge
on issuesrelating to nutrient management in oil palm.
VEGETABLE OIL SUPPLY AND
DEMAND
Growth in world population and economicdevelopment are two
factors that drive theincreasing global demand for vegetable
oils.Per capita consumption of oils and fats issmaller than levels
recommended by the Foodand Agriculture Organization in
manydeveloping countries (Figure 1) wherepopulation growth and
increasing incomes willresult in further growth in the demand
forvegetable oils in the 21st century.
Nevertheless, the supply of oils and fatsto the world’s
increasing population hasimproved continuously over the past
twentyyears. Almost all of the growth in productionhas been
contributed by vegetable oils whilstthe production of animal oils
and fats hasstagnated during the same period (Figure 2).
Between 1994 and 2001 the production ofpalm and kernel oil
increased by 63% and54% respectively: a larger increase than forany
other vegetable oil (Table 1). The annualrate of increase in
production during thisperiod was greater for oil palm
(>7%)compared with soybean (6%). Palm andkernel oils represent
almost 28% of totalvegetable oil production and are well-positioned
to become the largest sources ofvegetable oil in the 21st century
(Table 1).
-
2 Härdter, R. and Fairhurst, T.
Figure 1. Vegetable oil supply in selected countries in Asia in
2002 (FAO, 2002).
China
Cambodia
India
Indonesia
Laos
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Thailand
Viet Nam
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Supply (kg capita-1 year-1)
Figure 2. Global production of vegetable oils and animal fats
(Oil World Annual 1998, 1999,
2000, 2001; Oil World Weekly, 2002).
1994 1996 1998 20000
20
40
60
80
100
120
Production (,000 M t)
Year
Vegetable
Animal
-
3INTRODUCTION
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Ta
ble
1.
P
rod
uctio
n o
f ve
ge
tab
le o
ils (
19
94
–2
00
1)
(Oil
Wo
rld
An
nu
al 1
99
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il W
orld
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ekly
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arc
h &
5 A
pril 2
00
2],
MP
OB
[d
ata
on
Ma
laysia
]).
-
4 Härdter, R. and Fairhurst, T.
AREA EXPANSION AND
PRODUCTIVITY
The cultivated oil palm originated from WestAfrica, but
Southeast Asia has now becomethe largest producer of palm oil
(Table 2). Themost significant increases in production duringthe
past seven years have occurred inMalaysia (8.5% per annum) and
Indonesia(16.9% per annum) which together account formore than 80%
of world production (Table 2).
In spite of large rates of growth in produc-tion in some
countries in Latin America, thearea planted is small compared to
SoutheastAsia, and the position of Malaysia as theworld-market
leader in palm oil is only likelyto be challenged by Indonesia in
the nearfuture. Indonesia’s palm oil productiondoubled in only
seven years from 1994 to2001 (Table 2), which may be explained
bythe country’s favorable climatic and soilconditions and the large
reserves of suitableland that were available for oil
palmdevelopment during this period.
Most of the area planted in Southeast Asiacan be found
concentrated in a band between10º N and 10º S of the equator due to
the crop’sparticular climatic requirements (Figure 3). Oilpalm is
cultivated successfully beyond theseagroecological boundaries in
Thailand, wherethe major production constraint is low andpoorly
distributed rainfall (Paramananthan, thisvolume). The largest
centres of production,however, are located in Peninsular
Malaysia,and the islands of Sumatra, Borneo and PapuaNew
Guinea.
Whilst palm oil prices have shown acontinuous decline in real
terms over the pastthirty years (Fry, 2002) the recent
largeexpansion in palm oil production is partlyexplained by the
favorable prices forvegetable oil during the 1990s (Figure 4).When
presented in real prices, however, palmoil prices have been in
continuous declinesince 1950 (Figure 5). Perhaps the mostimportant
reason for the rapid expansion ofoil palm and its strong position
among othervegetable oil crops is found in thecharacteristics of
the plant itself. Oil palm hasan unsurpassed ability to intercept
andtransform solar energy into vegetable oil and
in this respect can truly be considered a ‘giftof nature’
(Breure, this volume). This becomesevident when current vegetable
oil productionand the planted area of major vegetable oilcrops is
compared.
Soybean, oil palm, oil seed rape andsunflower together account
for about 81% ofthe world’s vegetable oil, and occupy about87 M ha.
Oil palm contributes 33% of totalvegetable oil production but
occupies only 8%(6.6 M ha) of the total area planted to thesefour
crops (Figure 6). By contrast, soybeanproduces 35% of the world’s
vegetable oil butaccounts for 63% (55 M ha) of the land plantedto
vegetable oil crops. Thus, oil palm usesland more efficiently than
any of the othervegetable oil crops. Even at present averageoil
yields in Southeast Asia of 3.3 t ha-1, oilpalm exceeds present
yields of other majoroil crops and requires only 0.3 ha to produce1
t oil, compared to oil seed rape (0.75 ha),sunflower (1.57 ha) and
soybean (2.17 ha)(Figure 7).
Breeders have continuously improvedyield potential of oil palm
by using selectedsuperior dura and pisifera parents to
producetenera palms in conventional breedingprograms, and tissue
culture to multiplyindividual elite palms to produce ‘clonal
palms’(Ng et al., this volume) (Table 3).
It seems unlikely that yields of more than 11t oil ha-1 will be
achieved in large scalecommercial plantations (Breure, this volume)
butwell-managed plantations using conventionalmodern planting
materials have achieved oilyields of 6.0–6.5 t ha-1, and yields of
>14 t oilha-1 have been reached with some small scaleplantings
of clonal palms (Ng et al., this volume).Thus, there appears to be
tremendous potentialto further increase palm oil production
withoutexpanding the area planted.
At current average yields in Malaysia of3.6 t oil ha-1 under
present managementpractices, oil palm outperforms the othermajor
oil crops with regard to the efficient useof inputs. The
input:output ratios for oil seedrape and soybean are about 1:3.0
and 1:2.5respectively, whilst the energy output from oilpalm is 9.5
times the energy inputs requiredfor production (Wood and Corley,
1991).
-
5INTRODUCTION
Ta
ble
2.
W
orld
dis
trib
utio
n o
f p
alm
oil
pro
du
ctio
n (
19
94
–2
00
1)
(Oil
Wo
rld
An
nu
al 2
00
1,
20
00
, 1
99
9,
19
98
& O
il W
orld
We
ekly
(2
2 M
arc
h &
5
Ap
ril 2002),
MP
OB
[data
on M
ala
ysia
]).
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-
6 Härdter, R. and Fairhurst, T.
Fig
ure
3.
D
istr
ibu
tio
n o
f th
e a
rea
pla
nte
d t
o o
il p
alm
in
th
e f
ou
r m
ajo
r ce
nte
rs o
f p
rod
uctio
n in
So
uth
ea
st A
sia
.
-
7INTRODUCTION
Figure 4. Price of crude palm oil (CPO), rapeseed oil and
soybean oil (Oil World Annual
1998, 1999, 2000, 2001; Oil World Weekly 2002).
1980 1985 1990 1995 20000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
US$ t-1
Year
Crude palm oil Oil seed rape Soybean
Figure 5. Price development of crude palm oil (CPO) since 1950s
and projected until 2010.
The jump in real prices in 1975 is attributed to the first OPEC
oil price rise that affected the
price of all commodities (Fry, J., pers. comm.).
B
B
B
BBBB
B
B
B
BB
BB
B
B
BB
BB
BB
B
B
B
B
B
BBB
BB
B
B
B
B
BB
B
B
BB
BB
BB
BB
B
B
BB
B
B
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
20100
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
Price (US$ t-1)
Year
B Real
Trend
Projection
-
8 Härdter, R. and Fairhurst, T.
Table 3. Yield performance of oil palms reported by various
planting material producers in
Malaysia (Jalani, 1999; Ng et al., 1999).
lairetamgnitnalPraeYdetnalp
dleiyBFFaht( 1- yr 1- )
otliO)%(hcnub
dleiyliOaht( 1- yr 1- )
ecruoS
)enolc(91KGA 3991 6.64 0.03 0.41 9991,.lategN
D xD x airegiN 1991 1.63 9.13 5.11 9991,inalaJ
D xD x ibmagnaY 1991 8.43 1.13 8.01 0002,imiahuhS&nihC
D xD x ibmagnaY 8891 1.53 0.62 5.9 6991,naT&amrahS
D xD x SORVA 9791 5.43 8.52 9.8 1991,hoT&eeL
D xD x SORVA-YD 9791 3.33 8.52 6.8 1991,hoT&eeL
D xD x SORVA 0791 6.13 2.42 6.7 1991,hoT&eeL
D xD x SORVA 4691 0.13 5.32 3.7 1991,hoT&eeL
D xD x SORVA 8691 1.13 1.22 9.6 1991,hoT&eeL
D xD x PS/CAU/IC 2691 6.22 9.12 9.4 1991,hoT&eeL
Figure 6. Global area planted (M ha) and production (M t) of
major vegetable oil crops
(Chan, 2002).
6.6 (8%)
10.7 (12%)
55.4 (63%)
14.6 (17%) 24.5 (33%)
14.5 (20%)25.5 (34%)
9.7 (13%)
Palm oils Rape seed Soybean Sunflower
Area (M ha) Production (M t)
Figure 7. Land area required to
produce 1 t oil and oil yields for major
vegetable oil crops.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Land requirement (ha t-1 oil)
Oil yield (t ha-1)
Oil palm
Canola
Soybean
Sunflower
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9INTRODUCTION
ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF
PRODUCTION
By making optimal use of natural growthfactors (sunlight,
moisture) and productioninputs (fertilizers and other
agrochemicals)(Goh et al., this volume), the oil palm is theideal
crop plant to convert photosyntheticallyactive radiation (PAR) into
biomass (Breure,this volume). During this process the
cropassimilates large amounts of carbon dioxide(CO
2) from and releases oxygen (O
2) to the
atmosphere. A productive oil palm stand thus‘fixes’ large
amounts of carbon (C) (Table 4).
The amount of carbon fixed in the biomassof tropical
rainforests, the natural land coverin Southeast Asia, is larger
than oil palm dueto the much longer life cycle of tropical
forests.However, undisturbed tropical rainforests aregenerally
found in a steady state where thereis a balance between the
accumulation anddecomposition of above- and below-groundbiomass.
Thus, the net fixation of CO
2, which
is caused by incremental biomass production,is larger in a
vigorously growing oil palmplantation compared with tropical
andtemperate forests (Figure 8). The 6.6 M ha ofoil palm in
Southeast Asia may thus make aconsiderable contribution to
reducinggreenhouse gases.
When planted together with legume covercrops, the oil palm
simulates the rainforestitself by:
� protecting the soil from erosion byproviding permanent
groundcover,
� constantly renewing the supply of surfaceorganic matter in
recycled crop residuesand litter provided by legume cover
plants,and
� maintaining low soil temperatures.
spuorgegA)sraey(
gnidnatSaht(ssamoib 1- )
nobraCaht( 1- )
aeradetnalP01( 3 )ah
dexifnobraclatoT01( 3 )t
3-1 5.41 08.5 9.434 2252.2
8-4 3.04 21.61 6.1601 311.71
31-9 8.07 23.82 0.185 554.61
81-41 4.39 63.73 9.075 723.12
42-91 2.311 82.54 1.664 401.12
52> 5.401 00.14 3.262 357.01
latoT - - 7.6733 472.98
Table 4. Estimated amount of carbon fixed by Malaysian oil palm
plantations in 2000 (Chan,
2002).
Figure 8. Net annual biomass production
for tropical rainforest, temperate beech forest
and oil palm (Härdter et al., 1997).
TRF TBF OP0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Biomass (t)
In circulation
Annual increment
-
10 Härdter, R. and Fairhurst, T.
When proper management techniques areused the oil palm can be
considered a verysustainable cropping system, as evidenced bysome
of the plantations in North Sumatra,Indonesia, where four crop
cycles have beencompleted without detriment to the naturalresource
base.
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
Further expansion in the area planted tovegetable oil crops is
constrained by therequirement to preserve remaining wildernessland
(forest, wetlands) and the scarcity of landnot already occupied by
farmers andindigenous people. Thus, as with other crops,there is a
need to search for the most efficientmeans of production and high
levels ofproductivity, whilst minimizing potentialnegative impacts
on the wider environment.Where large yields of oil palm are
obtained,land is ‘spared’ for other uses since much moreland is
required to produce equivalent amountsof oil from other vegetable
oil crops.
Progress in terms of productivity gains inSoutheast Asia over
the past two decades hasbeen rather limited. By contrast to most
otheragricultural commodities, average yields havemostly stagnated
over the past twenty yearsand increased production of palm oil is
mainlyaccounted for by expansion in the areaplanted (Figure 9). As
mentioned above, thearea under harvest in Malaysia and Indonesiahas
increased dramatically over the pasttwenty years, whilst growth in
Thailand andPapua New Guinea has only been moderate.In terms of oil
yields, however, only Thailandhas achieved a substantial increase
inaverage yields whilst yields stagnated inMalaysia and Indonesia
and even decreasedin PNG (Figure 9). What are the reasons forthis
development? The oil palm industry inThailand, located at the
boundary of thefavorable agroecological zone for oil palm (10ºnorth
and south of the equator), wascompelled to improve productivity to
competewith its neighbors in the south where thepotential yield is
greater. The stagnation in
Figure 9. Area harvested and relative yield (1980=100) in four
major oil palm producing
conutries in Southeast Asia between 1980 and 2001.
1980 1985 1990 1995 20000.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Area harvested (M ha)
Year
Indonesia Malaysia PNG Thailand
1980 1985 1990 1995 20000
50
100
150
200
Relative yield (%, 1980 = 100)
Year
-
11INTRODUCTION
yields in Malaysia and Indonesia may be dueto expansion into
areas with less fertile soils,and the relatively large proportion
of youngmature plantations.
Close cooperation is required betweenplanters and their partners
in research enddevelopment to improve and broaden theimplementation
of existing technologies thathave the potential to increase
productivity inthe oil palm industry. Plantation houses mustfocus
on developing a working environment inplantations so that high
quality graduates canbe attracted, and new entrants must also
beprovided with the skills and training requiredto contribute to
the development of highlyproductive plantations
Some of the important technical challengesfaced by the oil palm
industry include thefollowing:
� Careful land selection based on strictevaluation procedures
and regulations,avoiding expansion into marginal land andareas with
important ecological functions;
� Use of high quality planting material for theestablishment of
new plantations and thereplanting of existing areas;
� Meticulous attention to each detail of fieldmanagement in land
preparation, plantingand mature palm upkeep;
� Site-specific and precise nutrientmanagement techniques that
ensure themaintenance of soil fertility in the long runand
efficient use of costly mineral fertilizers.
If the oil palm is to retain or improve uponits position as a
leading source of vegetableoil, greater attention must be given
toachieving larger yields by closing the gapbetween potential and
currently attainedyields (Fairhurst et al., this volume) (see
Table3).
Environmentalists have created a powerfullobby against oil palm,
claiming that the cropcontributes to rainforest destruction and
thealienation of indigenous people from theirland. It is therefore
timely for the industry toprovide more evidence that the oil palm
canindeed contribute to the world’s growingdemand for vegetable oil
with high levels ofproductivity on already establishedplantations.
The oil palm has also the potentialto contribute indirectly to
conservation effortsby sparing wilderness land for other uses.
Atthe same time, whether grown bysmallholders or in plantations,
the oil palm canprovide gainful and secure employment toindigenous
people eager to removethemselves from the poor living conditions
soprevalent in the islands of Sumatra andBorneo.
-
12 Härdter, R. and Fairhurst, T.
REFERENCES
Chan, K.W. (2002) Oil palm carbonsequestration and carbon
accounting: Our
global strength. (Paper 17). MPOA, 17p.
Chin, C.W. and Suhaimi, S. (2000) Plantingmaterials for higher
oil yields. In: SeminarPengurus. FELDA Agricultural ServicesSdn.
Bhd., Jerantut, Pahang, Malaysia, 18–20 October 2000, 5p.
FAO (2002) Fertilizer Use by Crop. IFA, IFDC,IPI, PPI, Rome,
Italy, 45p.
Fry, J. (2002) The competitive position of palmoil in the global
oil market. In: InternationalOil Palm Conference and Exhibition.
IOPRI,Bali, Indonesia, 8–12 July 2002, 15p.
Härdter, R., Woo, Y.C. and Ooi, S.H. (1997)Intensive plantation
cropping, a source ofsustainable food and energy production inthe
tropical rain forest areas in southeastAsia. Forest Ecology and
Management, 93,93–102.
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