13BSA005 Organisational Behaviour

Work Motivation

Outline

• Definitions• Content Theories• Process Theories• Job Design

Motivation

The force which drives behaviour.• DIRECTION/GOAL - what a person is trying to do

• EFFORT - how hard a person is trying

• PERSISTENCE - how long a person continues trying

The motivation questions: how much energy?for how long?in what direction?

Motivation and Performance

EFFORT PERSISTENCE

GOALS

INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISICS

TASK DESIGN

PERFORMANCE REWARD

ORGANISATIONAL SYSTEMS & CULTURE

Motivation• Intrinsic Motivation: behaviour performed

for its own sake – relates to ‘psychological’ rewards.– Motivation comes from performing the work.

• Extrinsic Motivation: behaviour performed to acquire rewards – relates to ‘tangible’ rewards.– Motivation source is the consequence of an action.

Motivation – Take note:

• People are usually motivated to do something - even nothing

• Motivation is not the only determinant of performance - e.g. ability, group co-ordination also matter

• Motivation does not always result in performance

“Common-sense” approach 1 “Theory X”McGregor (1960)

1. People cannot be trusted

2. They are lazy, irrational, unreliable

3. They need to be controlled, motivated by money and threatened by punishment.

4. Without control they will pursue their own goals, which will be contrary to those of the organization

“Common-sense” approach 2 “Theory Y”McGregor (1960)

1. People seek independence, self-development and creativity in their work

2. They look beyond immediate circumstances and can adapt to new ones

3. They are fundamentally moral and responsible people who will strive for the good of the organization if they are treated as such

“Common-sense” Approach 3 Paternalism

Schein (1980)

1. A person’s behaviour influenced most fundamentally by social interactions

2. These can determine sense of identity and belonging at work

3. People seek meaningful relationships at work

4. They are responsive to others expectations, often more than financial incentives

A Map of Motivation TheoriesTaylorism(Theory X)

Human Relations (Paternalism)

Need Theories(Y-ish, but also X, P)Maslow, Herzberg

Cognitive and Social Cognitive Theories

Justice Theories

Job Design Theories

Expectancy Goal-settingSelf Regulation

Equity Job Characteristics Model

                

Motivation TheoriesTwo main types of theory….• Content theories – “what” motivates

– Specific things which actually motivate people– Needs and strengths

• Process theories – the “how” of motivation– Identifies relationships– How motivation is initiated– How motivation can be directed– How motivation can be sustained

Frederick TaylorDesign of Manual Jobs

1. Decide on the optimum degree of task fragmentation

2. Decide the most efficient way of performing each part of the work

3. Train employees to carry out the fragmented tasks in exactly the ways that have been decided are best

Need Theories

A need is seen as an inbuilt drive within a person - usually part of his or her basic biological make-up.

Behaviour is driven by needs which are unmet - usually to rectify deficiencies, but sometimes to maximise satisfaction.

Hierarchy of Human Needs(Maslow 1943,1970)

1. Self-actualization, e.g. development to the fullest potential

2. Esteem needs, e.g. for reputation

3. Social needs, e.g. affection, belongingness

4. Safety needs, e.g. shelter

5. Physiological needs, e.g. sex

Hierarchy of Needs

Self Actualisation

Esteem Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs

Social Needs

Higher needs emerge as lower needs are fulfilled

Hertzberg’s Two Factor TheoryHygiene factors

• Salary• Job security• Working conditions• Supervision• Co. policy and

admin.• Interpersonal

relations

Motivators• Sense of

achievement• Recognition• Responsibility• Nature of the

work• Personal growth

and advancement

Problems with Need Theories

• Not specific about what behaviours and rewards satisfy which needs.

• Neglects the impact of the social context on people’s interpretation of their needs.

• People do not necessarily strive to move up the hierarchy - at least, not through their work.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Three Major Factors• Expectancy - If I tried would I be able to

perform the action?• Instrumentality - Would performing the

action lead to identifiable outcomes?• Valence - How much do I value those

outcomes?

Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence

Effort

Expectancy:Person’s

perception thattheir effort will

result inperformance

Instrumentalityperception that

performanceresults in outcomes

Valence:How desired

are the outcomesfrom a

job

Performance Outcomes

Goal Setting Theory• Focus worker’s inputs in the direction of high

performance & achievement of organizational goals.– Goal is what a worker tries to accomplish.

• Goals must be specific and difficult for high performance results.

• Workers put in high effort to achieve such goals.– Workers must accept and be committed to them.

• Feedback on goal attainment also is important.• Goals point out what is important to the firm.

– Managers should encourage workers to develop action plans to attain goals.

Goal-Setting Model

Individual intention and expectation (in the form of goals)

PerformanceDesires and aspirations

HigherActual outcome levelLower

Goal Specificity

Goal Difficulty

Goal Acceptance

Goal Commitment

Frustration and lower motivation

Increased satisfaction and motivation

Justice TheoriesKey feature: people are motivated by fairness•Equity Theory:

– Considers worker’s perceptions of the fairness of work outcomes in proportion to their inputs.• The Outcome/input ratio is compared by worker with

another person called a referent.• The referent is perceived as similar to the worker.• Equity exists when a person perceives their

outcome/input ratio to be equal to the referent’s ratio.– If the referent receives more outcomes, they should also give

more inputs to achieve equity.

Equity TheoryCondition Person Referent Example

Equity Outcomes = OutcomesInputs Inputs

Worker contributesmore inputs but also

gets more outputsthan referent

UnderpaymentEquity

Outcomes < OutcomesInputs Inputs

Worker contributesmore inputs but also

gets the same outputsas referent

OverpaymentEquity

Outcomes > OutcomesInputs Inputs

Worker contributessame inputs but also

gets more outputsthan referent

Inequity– Inequity exists when worker’s outcome/input

ratio is not equal to referent.• Underpayment inequity• Overpayment inequity

– Restoring Equity: Inequity creates tension in workers to restore equity.In underpayment, workers reduce input levels to

correct. Overpayment, worker can change the referent to adjust.• If inequity persists, worker will often leave the firm.

Motivation through design of work

Hackman and Oldman (1980)• Five ‘Core Job Dimensions’

– Skill variety– Task identity– Task significance– Autonomy– Feedback

Job Characteristics ModelOutcomes

Skill VarietyTask Identity

Task Significance

Autonomy

Feedback

Meaningfulnessof work

Responsibilityfor Work

Outcomes

Knowledge ofresults of

work

High:Motivation

PerformanceSatisfaction

Psychological StatesJob Characteristics

Identity and Motivation• Our sense of identity (or self) influences

motivation:– Traits, Competences, Values, Roles

• We want to:– Emphasise some aspect of self– Show its importance to us– Show our competence in it– Distinguish ourselves from others– Give ourselves a comforting sense of certainty

• Different identities are salient at different times

So…what do all these theories add up to?

• Successful work performance can arise from many different needs/motives

• People need to believe they can perform effectively if they try

• The rewards for good performance should actually be desired by the people concerned

• What constitutes good performance should be clearly defined

• People need feedback on their performance• People’s values and identity matter