Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE A lot of work has been conducted on okra production but a little work is available on its varietal differences in response to fertilization. Different scientist's research work on affect of fertilizer application on growth and yield of okra is reviewed as under: Sharma and Prasad (1973) reported that a field study was conducted during the rainy season of 1966-67 with soil moisture tension of 0 to 0.25, 0 to 0.5 and 0 to 0.75 atm. Nitrogen was applied at the rate of 30-120 kg/ha. Pod yield increased as the N level increased upto 90 kg/ha. Increasing N levels were generally associated with greater N uptake by the crop and an improvement of crude protein contents of pods. Campos et al. (1975) applied NPK fertilizer to okra cultivars in 5 different ways with different levels and reported that germination was adversely affected when the seeds were in direct contact with fertilizer. They further suggested that low fertilizer should be placed below or to 4
Transcript
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A lot of work has been conducted on okra production but a little work is available
on its varietal differences in response to fertilization. Different scientist's research work on
affect of fertilizer application on growth and yield of okra is reviewed as under:
Sharma and Prasad (1973) reported that a field study was conducted during the
rainy season of 1966-67 with soil moisture tension of 0 to 0.25, 0 to 0.5 and 0 to 0.75 atm.
Nitrogen was applied at the rate of 30-120 kg/ha. Pod yield increased as the N level
increased upto 90 kg/ha. Increasing N levels were generally associated with greater N
uptake by the crop and an improvement of crude protein contents of pods.
Campos et al. (1975) applied NPK fertilizer to okra cultivars in 5 different ways
with different levels and reported that germination was adversely affected when the seeds
were in direct contact with fertilizer. They further suggested that low fertilizer should be
placed below or to the side of seeds.
Ibrahim (l978) found that nitrogen application @ 150 lbs/ha, significantly affected
yield of okra fruit and gave highest yield and vigour of fruits.
Singh (1979) stated that okra cv. "Pusa Sawani" was compared in NPK trial
applied @ 0, 75 and 150 kg/ha N, 0, 60 kg/ha P2O5 and 120 kg/ha K2O in all possible
combinations. The best results were obtained with N:P:K = 0:60:75 kg/ha.
Abusaleh and Shanmugavelu (1980) reported about trails of okra cv. "Pusa
Sawani" in which N @ 40 kg/ha was applied as ammonium sulphate, FYM, poultry
manure and horse manure in different combinations + PK basal dressing. Application of
20 kg N/ha as ammonium sulphate + 20 kg N/ha as poultry manure overall gave best
results with the highest yield of 18.019 ton/ha.
4
Hooda et al. (1980) performed an experiment to evaluate impact of nitrogen and
phosphorus on the growth and green pod yield of okra and observed that highest average
yield (126.5 q/ha) was obtained with 120 kg nitrogen per hectare. Plant's response to P
was lowered with 112, 116 and 60 kg/ha, respectively.
Mani and Ramanathan (1980) reported about a field experiment of okra in which
combinations of five levels of N (0, 20, 40, 60 and 80 kg/ha) and four levels of P (0, 15,
30 and 45 kg/ha) were studied. N fertilization significantly increased the yields. The
highest N level (80 kg/ha) increased the yield by 149.20 % over control. Combined
applications of 80 kg N/ha with either 30 or 60 kg P/ha produced the highest yields, plant
height, branch number and fruit number per plant. They reported that seed yield per unit
area was also increased when spacing between plants was reduced.
Pandey et al. (1980) studied the effect of nitrogen and phosphorus levels on seed
production of okra. They applied nitrogen @ 40, 80 and 120 kg/ha and phosphorus @ 25
and 50 kg/ha. They reported about highest yield in plots receiving nitrogen @ 120 kg/ha,
while phosphorus had no significant effect on seed yield.
Zanin and Kimoto (1980) reported that application of fertilizer to okra cv.
Campinas-1 increased the seed yield per unit area with the increase of plant height, branch
number and fruit number per plant. They said that seed yield per unit area also increased
when plant spacing was reduced whereas there was no effect on germination with both the
fertilizer and spacing treatments.
Singh and Pandita (1981) conducted an experiment on okra and reported that the
highest seed yield was obtained from plants receiving N:P @ 120: 25 kg/ha, respectively.
They further reported that the treatment had no significant effect on the quality of seeds.
Tomar and Chauhan (1982) explained that plants of okra cv. "Pusa Sawani"
receiving N @ 25, 50, 75 or 100 kg/ha were picked at intervals of 2, 3 or 4 days. Plants
5
receiving 75 kg N/ha gave highest yield 0f 152.1 q/ha compared with 88.8 q/ha with 25 kg
N/ha and 146.3 q/ha with 100 kg N/ha.
Sharestha (1983) stated that okra plants were grown at three spacings (l5x45,
30x45 and 45x45 cm) and four rates of N fertilizers (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg/ha) as ammonium
sulphate. Spacing did not affect the number of days to first harvest and pod length but
influenced pod number per plant. Although, individual plant yield was maximum with
plants spaced at 45x45 cm (48,400 plants/ha), pod yield per hectare was maximum at
spacing (15x45 cm) i.e. 145200 plants/ha. The N fertilization enhanced the first harvest by
4-6 days compared with control receiving no N. Pod yield was highest (9.3 tons/ha) from
plants receiving N @ 60 kg/ha.
Majanbu et al. (1986) studied the response and nutrient concentration in okra
(Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) as influenced by four nitrogen rates (0, 25, 50 and
100 kg/ha) and three phosphorus rates (0, 13 and 26 kg/ha) were examined using two
varieties (White velvet and NHAE 47-4). Nitrogen application generally increased fruit
and shoot dry weights markedly whereas phosphorus increased them only moderately.
Leaf and primary branch production and plant height were also enhanced by nitrogen
fertilization up to 100 kg N/ha but were not influenced by phosphorus application. The
application of nitrogen enhanced the concentration of N, P and K in fruits and N and Mg
in leaves while P and K concentrations in leaves were depressed. Nutrient concentrations
in plant tissues were also partly a function of plant age and variety.
Reddy et al. (1984) reported that in a field trail of okra cv. Pusa Sawani plants
received N @ 40-120 kg/ha and P2O5 @ 30-60 kg/ha. N alone increased the yield from
58.9 q/ha in non-fertilized control to 97.5 q/ha with 120 N kg/ha whereas, phosphorus
alone increased the yield to 89.16 q/ha in case of 60 kg/ha P2O5. However, highest yield of
101.46 q/ha was obtained by N + P2O5 at highest rates and 20 cm spacing.
6
Arora et al. (1985) reported that in case of okra cultivars i.e. Pusa Sawani and
Punjab Padmini, highest pod glycoprotein content were recorded from plants receiving N
and P2O5 @ 90 and 60 kg/ha, respectively.
Majanbu et al. (1985) studied the growth response and nutrient concentration in
okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) as influenced by four nitrogen rates (0, 25, 50
and 100 kg/ha) and three phosphorus rates (0, 13 and 26 kg/ha) using two varieties (White
Velvet and NHAE 47-4). Nitrogen application generally increased fruit and shoot dry
weights markedly whereas phosphorus increased them only moderately. Leaf and primary
branch production and plant height were also enhanced by nitrogen fertilization up to 100
kg N/ha but were not influenced by phosphorus application. The application of nitrogen
enhanced the concentration of N, P and K in fruits and N and Mg in leaves while P and K
concentrations in leaves were depressed. Nutrient concentrations in plant tissues were also
partly a function of plant age and variety.
Mishra and Pandey (1987) conducted an experiment with okra cv. Pusa Sawani
with different combinations of fertilizers. They mentioned that N @ 80 kg/ha and K @ 40
kg/ha significantly increased number of fruits/plant, 1000-seed weight and seed yield
whereas, application of N and K, both showed adverse effects on seed yield when used
above 80 kg/ha and 40 kg/ha, respectively.
Rastogi et al. (l987) stated that okra cv. Sel 2-2 plants gave highest seed yield
when plants were spaced at 60x40 cm along with N @ 60 kg/ha. Spacing and fertilizer
did not show any appreciable effect on germination percentage and 1000-seed weight.
Khan and Jaiswal (1988) reported about okra cv. Pusa Sawani gave highest seed
yield when plants were spaced at 30x15 cm and applied N at the highest rate and picked
twice.
Lenka et al. (1989) performed an experiment with 4 levels of N (0, 50, 75 and 100
7
kg/ha), two levels of P2O5 (30, 60 kg/ha) and K2O at a constant level of 40 kg/ha. N and
P2O5 significantly increased plant height and yield of okra. They also noticed that N @
100 kg/ha and P2O5 @ 30 kg/ha gave a satisfactory seed yield.
Lee et al. (1990) reported that okra cv. Dwarf Prolific was sown on 15 th April, 1st
and 15th May and 1st and 15th June at spacing of 45, 60 and 90x30 cm and given 40, 80 and
100 kg N/ha. Average green pod yield was 11.36 t/ha with 40 kg N/ha, 13.27 t/ha with 80
kg and 12.64 ton with 100 kg and were highest at most dense spacing and lowest at the
least dense spacing. Green pod yield was 7.2 t/ha with the earliest sowing and 12.7 t/ha
with sowing on 1st May, which decreased with further delay in sowing to 4.0 tons with
sowing on 15th June.
Arora et al. (1991) compared growth and yield of okra cvs. Punjab Padmini and
Pusa Sawani with 0, 30, 60 and 90 kg/ha N and concluded that plant length, number of
fruits, fruit size and total green fruit yield were significantly improved by application of 90
kg N/ha. However, Punjab Padmini gave higher mean fruit yield (124.6 kg/ha.) than Pusa
Sawani.
Emerbiri et al. (l992) studied the response of nitrogen fertilizer rates of 0 (control),
100, 200 and 300 kg N/ha upon three okra cultivars and stated that all vegetative and
reproductive characteristics were improved significantly with nitrogen application. Four
days after anthesis, individual fruit weight was 50, 71 and 48% higher with 100, 200 and
300 kg N/ha than control plot. They also reported highest number of flowers formed per
plant with 100 kg N/ha and increase in average number of fruit set per plant from 4.78
without N to 4.91 to 5.93 with applied nitrogen.
Naik and Srinivas (1992) conducted an experiment by applying nitrogen fertilizer
to okra cv. Pusa Sawani @ 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg/ha and reported that highest seed yield
of 13.00 and 11.25 q/ha in two successive years were obtained with 200 kg N/ha. They
8
also found that fruit length, number of fruits per plant, number of seeds per fruit and 1000-
seed weight were also highest with the highest rate of fertilizer application.
Ayub et al. (1993) reported results of doses of nitrogen applied to okra crop. They
concluded that nitrogen dose of 168 kg/ha was found to be optimum for quality and yield
of okra crop whereas, more vigour and secondary shoots were observed in case of 224
kg/ha.
Khan (1994) tested the application of half, normal and super normal doses of
nitrogen (50, 100 and 200 kg/ha, respectively) in eight organic amendments and reported
that super normal nitrogen dose of each of the organic amendment was most effective for
increasing growth and yield of okra.
Faraq and Damrany (1994) worked on okra cvs. Balady and Blonchy with N rates
of 40 and 80 kg/feddan and indicated that yield and protein contents were highest for
Blonchy but plant height, pod diameter and crude fiber contents were higher for Balady.
They also reported that plant growth, yield and quality parameters were improved with
increasing nitrogen application.
Rao and Subramanian (1994) indicated that response to applied nitrogen was
decreased with increasing fertility status of soil for okra crop and available nitrogen was
significantly correlated with yield of all vegetable crops including okra.
Singh (1995) reported that application of nitrogen fertilizer @ 0, 30, 60, 90, 120
and 150 kg/ha did not significantly affect on seed germination rate of okra whereas,
application of nitrogen @ 90-150 kg/ha gave highest number of pods per plant (12.7-
14.0), pod length (16.7-17.6- cm), seed yield (17.5-19.0 q/ha) and 1000-seed weight.
Birbal et al. (1995) conducted an experiment with okra cv. Varsha Uphar applying
0, 50, 100 and 150 kg N/ha and observed that seed treatment with 25 ppm GA3 plus
application of fertilizer @ 70 % of the recommended rate gave a significant increase in
9
fruit yield (203.77 g/plant and 164.82 kg/ha compared with full recommended rate of
fertilizer alone (151.33 g per plant and 96.42 kg/ha).
Taya et al. (1994) applied nitrogen fertilizer @ 0, 25, 50 and 75% of recommended
rate and concluded that there was significant difference in yield of okra in case of 75% of
recommended rate and nitrogen concentration in leaf increased with increasing nitrogen
rate. Moreover, nitrogen application had no effect on leaf phosphorus and potassium
contents.
Gondane and Bahatia (1995) marked significantly better varieties from 50 okra
genotypes for yield components, particularly yield per plant, plant height, pods per plant
and nodes to first pod which were treated with (i) full NPK dose (ii) half NPK dose and
(iii) gibberilic acid spray (150 ppm).
Chaudhari et al. (1995) evaluated the response of okra cvs. Parbhani Kranti and
Selection 2-2 and applying 0 to 100 kg N/ha in various combinations. They reported that
yield increased from 36.19 t/ha in unfertilized control to 88.49 t/ha through nitrogen
application. It was also reported that yield of Parbhani Kranti was higher than Selection 2-
2.
Kadam et al. (I996) studied the response of okra cv. Pragati to 100, 75, 50 and 25
% of recommended nitrogen doses. They found that yield in 100, 75 and 50 % nitrogen
treatment were significantly higher than those in 25% and control treatments although,
nitrogen use efficiency was greatest in 25 % nitrogen treatment.
Pandey and Dubay (1996) observed that quality parameters of green pods of okra
such as length, diameter, volume and weight as well as protein, phosphorus and starch
content could be improved by applying nitrogen @ 120 kg/ha and phosphorus @ 80 kg/ha.
Somkuwar et al. (1997) reported that 75 kg N/ha increased vegetative growth,
number and weight of fruits per plant and yield/ha in okra cultivars Parbhani Kranti,
10
Selection 2-2 and Punjab-7 in trials at Akola, during 1988-89. Among these cultivars,
Parbhani Kranti gave the highest yield (77.70 q/ha) and had a low incidence of yellow
vein mosaic virus and shoot borer.
Singh (1998) carried out a pot experiment during 1993-95 to study the effect of
salinity and N levels on growth and nutrient uptake in okra (Abelmoschus esculentus).
Green and dry pod yield content and uptake of K, Ca, Mg and Zn in pods decreased in
soils of EC 8 and 12 dS/m2. Increasing N levels (0 to 90 mg N/kg) of soil increased the
pod production and imparts the adverse effect of salinity. Higher levels of N application
increased the contents and uptake of almost all the nutrients.
Ganeshe et al. (1998) conducted a field experiment during 1995-96, on a sandy
clay loam soil and studied the effect of 3 N levels (0, 20 and 40 kg/ha) and seed or soil
inoculation with Azospirillum sp. and Azotobacter sp. on the yield of okra cv. Parbhani
Kranti. For comparison, one treatment received the recommended dose of N (80 kg/ha)
and no bacterial fertilizer. N @ 40 kg/ha in combination with soil applied Azospirillum
gave a yield of 56.33 q/ha which was statistically equivalent to that obtained with 80 kg
N/ha (56.78 q/ha) and also gave similar fruit nutritional quality. Anyhow, N fertilizer
application decreased total bacterial soil population.
Anjum and Amjad (1999) studied the effect of fertilizers applied @ 50, 75, 100
and 125 kg/ha N, 60, 80, 100 kg/ha P2O5 and 60 and 80 kg K2O in different combinations
to okra cv. Pusa Sawani. Results showed that seed germination was not affected
statistically by the fertilizer application, while plant height, number of leaves per
plant, number of pods per plant, pod length and green pod yield were affected
significantly .
Ahmad et al. (1999) studied the effect of different rates of N (0, 100, 120 and
140 kg/ha) alone and in combination with 90 kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O/ha on growth and
11
yield of okra cv. T-13, at Mingora, Swat, Pakistan. Maximum plant height (1.85 m),
number of pods per plant (24.59) and highest pod yield per hectare (16950.79 kg)
were recorded from plots given 120 kg N, 90 kg P and 60 kg K/ha. No significant
differences were observed in case of days to seedling emergence and first picking.
Singh (1999) conducted a field experiment for 2 consecutive years. Seed yield
obtained was higher from cv. Parbhani Kranti than Pusa Sawani. Seed yield increased with
increasing N fertilizer rate to reach maximum at 120 kg N/ha whereas, seed quality
characteristics were not affected significantly.
Olasantan (1999) studied the effect of nitrogen fertilization on okra (Abelmoschus
esculentus) intercropped with cassava (Manihot esculenta) and maize (Zea mays) using
three N rates (0, 60 and 120 kg/ha) in two field experiments in Nigeria between 1995 and
1997. The okra was grown between the cassava and maize rows. Intercropping with maize
and cassava significantly increased stem elongation, delayed pod harvest, and decreased
branch or pod formation and marketable pod yield in okra. In the cassava/maize/okra
combination, maize had greater effect than cassava in determining most growth and pod
yield attributes of the okra crop, regardless of N rate. Although applied N at rates above 60
kg/ha in intercropping increased maize grain and cassava tuber yields, this did not result in
a further significant gain in pod yield of the associated okra crop.
Ahmadu et al. (2000) recorded positive response in okra exhibited by plant height,
number of leaves and branches per plant to N application up to 80 kg N/ha rate, which was
an indicative of role of N in vegetative growth of the plants.
Khan et al. (2000) investigated the effect of different levels of nitrogen (0, 100,
120 and 140 kg/ha) alone and in combination with constant doses of phosphorous (90
kg/ha) and potassium (60 kg/ha) on growth and yield of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.)
cv. T-13 at Agricultural Research Station (North) Mingora, Swat during 1997. Maximum
12
plant height (185 cm), number of pods per plant (24.59), pod length (12.63 cm) and the
highest pod yield per hectare (16950.79 kg) was recorded in plots fertilized with N @ 120
kg/ha. They concluded that no significant differences were observed in days to emergence,
flowering and first picking.
Amjad et al. (2001) carried out a study to evaluate four exotic okra cultivars, viz.
Pusa Sawani, Parbhani Kranti, Hybrid Bhindi Sakshi and Krishma 51 against a local
cultivar Sabz Pari. According to their findings maximum seed germination (79.50%) was
recorded in Sabz Pari, which was also earliest to flower in 45 days. Plant height at
flowering was not affected significantly among the cultivars. Green pod length was the
maximum in Hybrid Bhindi Sakshi (12.88 cm) followed by Sabz Pari (12.55 cm) and both
were statistically at par. Sabz Pari ousted all the exotic cultivars for average weight per
green pod and green pod yields per plant and per hectare. Regarding seed production,
maximum number of seeds per pod, highest 1000-seed weight and seed yields per plant
and per hectare were also recorded in cv. Sabz Pari.
Verma and Batra (2001) conducted a field experiment in Haryana, India, during
1997 and 1998 on sandy loam soil to study the response of spring okra to irrigation and
nitrogen. Treatments consisted of three levels of irrigation and three levels of nitrogen
(100, 150 and 200 kg/ha) was applied in 3 (basal, 30 and 45 days after sowing (DAS), 5
(basal, 30, 45, 60 and 75 DAS) and 7 (basal, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 DAS) split rates.
Nitrogen uptake increased with increase in intensity of irrigation and level of nitrogen
supply. The highest fruit yield could be ensured with moderate intensity of irrigation for
both the years whereas, maximum number of fruits per plant, fruit weight and plot yield
were recorded from 200 kg N/ha, which was at par with 150 kg N/ha treatment. Increased
nitrogen fertilization resulted in better leaf nutrient status, although 150 kg N/ha was the
optimum treatment. The increase in split rates did not affect fruit production appreciably.
13
Singh (2001) conducted field experiments for two consecutive years (1989-90) at
Ranchi, Bihar, India, and reported that intercropping of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)
either with tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) or cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) did not
significantly affect the performance of base crop (okra). Higher okra yield and net returns
were observed with tomato intercropping (370 q and Rs. 45847 per ha, respectively) but
differences were not significant. Nitrogen fertilizer application @ 120 kg/ha produced
significantly higher okra yield (373 q/ha), giving net return of Rs. 45451/ha and better rate
of realization (404%) compared to other levels. The best performance of okra in terms of
yield, number and yield of pod per plant, pods size and plant height were observed for 160
kg N/ha level. N applications did not significantly affect the unmarketable yield of okra.
Application of phosphorus had no significant influence on pod size, performance of
individual plant and unmarketable yield of okra whereas, significantly higher okra pod
yield, okra total yield, net returns and rate of realization were recorded with 60 kg P 2O5
compared to 30 kg P2O5/ha.
Shaheen et al. (2007) conducted two field experiments during the two seasons of
2005 and 2006 at the experimental station of National Research Centre in Nubaria (North
Egypt). The aim of these experiments was to study the integrated effect of bio-inoculants
and chemical nitrogen fertilizer on okra plant growth, pods yield as well as its physical
and chemical properties. Two chemical nitrogen fertilizer rates as ammonium sulphate
(the recommended rate and half of it) and two bio-inoculants, i.e. Azospirillum and
Azotobacter, all of these treatments were applied to two okra cultivars, i.e. Balady and
Eskandarani. They observed that the cultivars had no significant effect on the plant growth
parameters, pods yield as well as its physical and chemical measurements, but the
application of two bacterial strains, i.e. Azosperillium and/or Azotobacter enhanced the
plant growth parameters and pods yield and its quality in both cultivars. The fertilization
