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J.Jancsics 6.12.2013
Summer 2013 | Joseph Jancsics
PROPOSAL FACILITATING CREATION OF AD-HOC CROSS-FUNCTIONAL TEAMS FOR DESIGNING INNOVATION WITH A RAPID TURNAROUND
J.Jancsics 6.12.2013
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Abstract ______________________________________________________________________ 1
Introduction __________________________________________________________________ 2
Literature Review ______________________________________________________________ 3
Design Prototyping _________________________________________________________________ 3
Social Innovation ___________________________________________________________________ 3
Group Creation and Personality Factors ________________________________________________ 8
Holistic Problem Analysis and Integrative Thinking _______________________________________ 9
IBM and their 'Innovation Jam' _______________________________________________________ 11
Glossary of Terms __________________________________________________________________ 16
Research Questions ___________________________________________________________ 17
Method ______________________________________________________________________ 18
A: Approach to Answer and Research Question _________________________________________ 18
B: Technical and Logistical Issues Involved _____________________________________________ 18
C. Timeframe for Work ______________________________________________________________ 19
D. Documenting Results _____________________________________________________________ 19
E. Validating Results________________________________________________________________ 19
References ___________________________________________________________________ 20
J.Jancsics 6.12.2013
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Abstract
Research is proposed to understand “design jams” - events with a social and
collaborative design-based approach to problem solving and creating new value. It is
proposed that by researching such events, some of the unique value attributed might be
discerned and made applicable to areas of organizational development and problem-
solving. Research is summarized and methods are identified as a means for answering the
question of how to develop a system for an organization to create and manage teams
focused on designing innovation.
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Introduction
The general area of this thesis is to evaluate the process, social dynamics and
outcomes of collaborative “design-jamming” methods used for social, team-based
innovation, and to explore ways of transferring the benefits of such an approach to intact
organizational teams. Ad hoc, collaborative design “jam” groups have been shown to be
highly effective at turning around valuable innovations within short cycles. However, as
of yet no one has developed an effective means for transferring such an approach to a
more formalized organization.
The significance of this study relates to the rising demand for innovation in
offerings, and designers are faced with the challenge to deliver successful new products
and service in short order. A lengthy or inefficient design process can lead to significant
missed opportunities. The increased global competition and shorter product cycles are
creating competitive pressure for organizations to significantly shorten development
cycles and also improve the hit-rate of successful innovations.
I will try to address this problem by studying how diverse ad hoc teams assemble
and work together in social jam events, such as Global Service Jam (etc), to develop and
prototype often remarkable design ideas in short order, often less than 48 hours. From
this study I will explore how to translate or transfer such an approach to the ongoing
practice of an intact organization.
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Literature Review
Design Prototyping
"Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing
situations into preferred ones." (Simon, 1996, Kindle Locations 1880-1881) A powerful
method of design representation is prototyping. Moggridge (2006) defined prototyping as
"A representation of a design, made before the final solution exists." (p. 685) Schrage
(1996) defined the role of prototyping when he stated, "Prototypes are designed to answer
questions. The quantity and kind of questions that generate prototypes are at the heart of
prototyping culture." (p.10) Prototypes present incomplete solutions, and allow a starting
point for refinement through iteration, before moving a product into production.
According to Suri, Coughlan, & Canales, (2007) three primary objectives of prototyping
were identified in the realm of organizational change: building to think, rather than
discussing; learning faster by failing early; and giving permission to explore new
behaviors, where the presence of the prototype will encourage new behaviors. (p. 127)
Social Innovation
The value of social components related to design work has been recognized
formally for decades. In the first issue of Task Magazine, published by architecture
students in Cambridge, MA in 1941, they began the editorial section with an emphasis on
a lack of awareness and training towards the rapidly changing needs of society and
collective work principles for architects. (Hull, E., et al., 1941) The students established
Task Magazine in an effort close that gap, for both academic and professional purposes.
"New Trends in Design" was an article in the same issue where Moholy-Nagy (1941)
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stated, "Thus design is dependent not alone on function, science and technological
processes, but upon social implications as well." (p. 28) He points out division of labor
and other relationships that changed the outlook and approach to design. This social
structure of design work supports the application of Activity Theory to the working
process of design, in this case architects. Kaptelinin and Nardi (2006) explain that
activity theory is an approach used in social sciences that aims to understand individuals
and the social entities they compose in their natural environments and activities.
Engestrom (2000) presented the activity theory framework is in a way to which it
can be adjusted to apply a team-based design structure (Fig. A). In figure A the designers
are focused on rapid innovation, their skills and specialties are instruments used but not
the central element. The rules they adhere to involve constraints of a user's goals and time
limits applied to the project, the collaborators on the team find their roles through the
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division of labor. Activity theory is a cultural and historical model, shown to be relevant
through research within the social sciences, and based on the material presented up to this
point we can hypothesize that these patterns apply when designers are working
collaboratively.
Tuckman's group development model (as cited in Robbins and Judge, 2011)
suggests working in groups generally gives members the benefits of increased security,
status, self-esteem, social affiliation, power, and goal achievement. Robbins and Judge
(2011) detail the five
stages of group
development (fig. B).
During the forming stage
there is a large amount
of uncertainty about the
purpose, structure, and
leadership of the group.
After members begin to
think of themselves as
members of the group
they enter the storming
stage. This is when "Members accept the group but resist the constraints it imposes on
their individuality. Furthermore, there is conflict over who will control the group."
(Robbins and Judge, 2011, Kindle Locations 3453-3454) The third stage is called
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norming, and it consists of the group members agreeing on expectations and defining
behavior. The performing stage is evident when the structure is fully accepted and the
group's energy has transitioned focus onto performing their assignment. The norming and
performing stages both relate back to the division of labor outlined in the aforementioned
activity theory model (fig. A). The adjourning stage is where the group prepares to part
ways; at this point the focus has shifted to finishing activities and wrapping up tasks.
Robbins and Judge (2011) defined a work team as something that "generates
positive synergy through coordinated effort. The individual efforts result in a level of
performance greater than the sum of those individual inputs." (Kindle Locations 3871-
3876) They identify work teams with diverse member specialization as a cross-functional
team, focusing on problem solving, coordination of complex projects, and the creation of
new ideas. (Robbins & Judge, 2011) A model provided in the text (fig. C) compares a
'work group' and a 'work team'. The most notable distinction is the primary goal; work
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groups share information, and work teams focus on collective performance. A performing
group and a work team both rely on a social component to increase performance.
Johnson and Bate (2003) identify a different five-stage process, relating to the
strategy innovation discovery process and teams: staging, aligning, exploring, creating,
and mapping. They point out that the staging phase involves selecting the right members
for a focus on strategy innovation. The aligning phase relates to directing the team toward
the best new business opportunities. The exploring phase consumes the most time and
energy as it involves the process of discovering new value and insights through activities.
The creativity phase is, "a creative activity where imagination is used to envision and
define businesses of the future." (Johnson & Bate, 2003, p. 186) Lastly, the mapping
stage is the implementation planning process of the new business opportunity. (Johnson
& Bate, 2003)
Johnson and Bate (2003) emphasized diversity on teams, "cross-functional teams
greatly enhance the internal alignment process." (p. 76) They also stated the advantage of
support for complexity, "In this complex and often ambiguous journey, a team of people
can offer support and problem-solving ideas to each other where an individual would
have to shoulder the entire burden alone." (Johnson & Bate, 2003, p. 75) A commonly
referenced model for an organizational framework is AEIOU; which refers to activities,
environments, interactions, objects, and users. Martin and Hanington (2011) clarify that
the AEIOU framework is originally credited to Rick Robinson, Ilya Prokopoff, John
Cain, and Julie Pokorney, from 1991 when they practiced at the Doblin Group in
Chicago. (pp. 10-11) When coding observations of designers (or anyone for that matter)
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working in teams, the AEIOU framework can help identify critical interactions. Activities
involve the pathways people take to accomplish goals. Environments play a significant
role to influence the way people behave, or how a team will collaborate. Interactions can
be between people, the environment, or objects. In this case objects can be artifacts
within the environment, tools, and prototypes. Lastly, users are the team members, or the
people whose behaviors are being observed.
Group Creation and Personality Factors
Mandate from senior management is essential to the aforementioned staging
phase. (Johnson & Bate, 2003) One key challenge in the first step of staging involves
selection of the best members for an innovation team. Johnson and Bate (2003) made
reference to Dan Buchner of Moen and the importance placed on finding the proper
balance of perspectives. They quoted Buchner, "It was also very important to me that
team members be open-minded and have the ability to change. But there weren't a lot of
people like that in our organization at the time." (Johnson & Bate, 2003, p. 84) They went
into detail about how Buchner worked directly with department leaders and requested
their best person; often times he needed to return and ask for a different person. At times
he would present the vision of the team to specific individuals, building up the level of
excitement, and this would lead to their request to join. (Johnson & Bate, 2003, p. 84)
Self-determination theory proposes "people prefer to feel they have control over their
actions, so anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation
than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation." (Robbins & Judge, 2011,
Kindle Locations 2612-2613) By evoking volunteerism Buchner was able to create a
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situation where individuals comfortable with uncertainty, those who can thrive on an
innovation team, were identifying themselves to him. Part of assembling an innovation
team involves seeking out people with desirable attributes or facilitating a process where
they can identify themselves.
Holistic Problem Analysis and Integrative Thinking
"The process of discovering new business opportunities requires both right-brain
creative skills to identify a new customer need and left-brain rational skills to create the
appropriate business model to meet that need." (Johnson & Bate, 2003, p. 75) Tovey
(1984) wrote about the hemispheres of the human brain, where the left hemisphere
handles sequential analytic abilities and the right hemisphere has an association with
visuo-spatial thinking. Using both hemispheres, known as lateralization, is most evident
in simple tasks; it is under more significant load that one hemisphere will take a leading
role. (Tovey, 1984) This explains that one side of the brain will take a leading role when
an individual is challenged. The objective for a team with a blend of left and right-brain
thinkers is to cumulatively represent a lateral thinking model when dealing with
complicated problems.
The article "The Art of Integrative Thinking" begins with a description of "today's
climate of constant change and relentless competition." (Martin & Austen, 1999,
Introduction section) They stress the importance to understand problems in their entirety
through a process of integrative decision making. The choice cascade model (Fig. D)
shows the four steps related to integrative decision making. Higher-order choices set the
context for and put constraints on lower-order choices. There is an element of
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interrelatedness, where higher-order choices are revisited if lower-order choices cannot
be constructed, the model promotes an iterative process. The first part of the choice
cascade is salience; this involves consideration of important requirements, normally the
start of any development or design process. The next step is causality; this is the
understanding of relationships and variables of the requirements from the prior choice.
Sequencing is the step
where an integrative
thinker will recognize
the salient and causal
choices to build a
scenario that moves
towards creative
solutions. Resolution
is the final step where
all salience, causality, and sequencing are all considered. This step of resolution relates to
making decisions that will deliver innovation in a way that considers all variables.
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IBM and their 'Innovation Jam'
IBM held their first Innovation Jam in 2001 as a method to unite the organization.
(Bjelland & Wood, 2008) "The executives conceived the idea of a 'Jam' to promote
innovation. 'Jam' was IBM’s term for a 'massively parallel conference' online." (Bjelland
& Wood, 2008, p. 32) The 2001 jam effort and subsequent events were focused on
improving IBM's operations. "Values Jam in 2003 gave IBM's workforce the opportunity
to redefine the core IBM values for the first time in nearly 100 years." ("Welcome to the
IBM Jam," n.d., The history of Jams) The 2001-2005 jams were "drawing employees into
discussion about everything from management to company values." (Helander et al., n.d.,
Section 1.1 Innovation Jam Background) Interlinked bulletin boards were the primary
vehicle to answer questions like "How do you work in an increasingly mobile
organization? and "How do we get IBM Consulting into the C-suite?" (Bjelland & Wood,
2008, p. 32) In 2006 the "Innovation Jam" had a budget allocated and it became a
company initiative towards designing new products, aiming for results more central to
IBM's future and customers. (Bjelland & Wood, 2008)
This initiative was supported due to the excitement around finding new ways,
through cross-collaboration and open discussion, to uncover breakthrough ideas. The
IBM Innovation Jam was a large-scale format held in two three-day phases. Bjelland and
Wood (2008) reported, "150,000 IBM employees, family members, business partners,
clients (from 67 companies) and university researchers. Participants Jammed from 104
countries, and conversations continued 24 hours a day." (para. 6) The event was viewed
as successful to a considerable degree based on data used to track projects that later went
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on to receive $100 million in funding. (Bjelland & Wood, 2008) They also elaborated on
a few various impractical and irrelevant ideas produced, mainly attributing their
emergence as a result of brainstorming without heavy guidance or moderation. The
authors pointed out that online communication played a significant role, and that
moderation was low as to not interfere with the creative process.
Bjelland and Wood (2008) provided the steps that IBM worked through in
creating and managing the process. The steps they list involve details about review
phases, setting up discussion websites, and other concepts related to managing new ideas,
but they do not involve detail about prototyping or refinement. The IBM Innovation Jam
has led to new ideas that have later continued on to become new businesses, such as
smart health care payment systems, 3-d Internet using gaming environments for
navigation, and a "Digital Me" service to simplify storage of personal files, just to name a
few. (Bjelland & Wood, 2008, p.36) The 2006 Innovation Jam "led to the creation of Big
Green Innovations, a new IBM business unit that applies IBM’s advanced expertise and
technologies to emerging and global-scale environmental issues." (A Global Innovation
Jam, n.d., Transforming the World Section)
This open-format large-scale virtual brainstorm gives IBM the ability to explore
new ideas and extract information, it is during a review processes that ideas are sorted
and aligned with a vision. Bjelland and Wood (2008) quoted a former IBM scientist Paul
Horn where he said:
Jamming is a form of brainstorming. And the first thing you have to learn in
brainstorming is: Take in all the ideas. Even if the ideas are crazy, take ’em all in.
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That means you’re going to get a lot of garbage. But it forces you to think out of
the box. You do it on this scale, you come out, and you’re just completely
saturated with stuff and you have to come up with some way to winnow those
things down. (p. 38)
The IBM Innovation Jam has time constraints within phases, cross-collaboration through
discussion, and personality and task ownership elements fall into place naturally with the
open and voluntary format.
The IBM innovation jams facilitate a collaborative process that accelerates the
emergence of new ideas. "As their name suggests, these jams are like jazz
improvisations, connecting people who might otherwise never meet, allowing them to
formulate and build on each other's thoughts, and in the process, create something
entirely new." ("A Global Innovation," n.d., Overview Section) Bjelland and Wood
(2008) pointed out that the IBM jam achieved two primary types of progress:
First, it had enabled people with big ideas to articulate them to a wider audience,
including skeptics, to hear others’ complementary ideas and to win funding.
Second, and probably more important, it had allowed people whose ideas weren't
quite so big and who hadn't been able to find the place for their ideas within IBM
to present them in ways that senior people could understand. Related ideas could
then be combined in major new initiatives. (p.38)
In 2007 IBM launched a service that runs jams for other organizations, one event
involved bringing auto component makers and manufacturer customers together for an
Automotive Supplier Jam. (Bjelland & Wood, 2008, p.38) There is also an IBM website
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where they hosted a Service Jam event. "The Service Jam will engage leaders, subject
matter experts, organizations and individuals in this field to generate breakthrough ideas
that will redefine service and social innovation." ("Service Jam," n.d., FAQ Section -
What is the goal of Service Jam?) The Service Jam took place on October 10-12, 2010
and was hosted online using IBM’s Innovation Jam™ solution platform, "which is
especially adept at bringing communities together to discuss social issues." ("Service
Jam," n.d., FAQ Section - About Jam Platform Tech...) The total impact of the IBM
Innovation Jams has resulted in over $700 million in revenues from innovations created
through open collaboration. ("A Global Innovation," n.d.) "In a world where innovation is
global, multidisciplinary and open, you need to bring different minds and different
perspectives together to discover new solutions to long-standing problems. Therein lies
the essence of collaborative innovation." ("Welcome to the IBM Jam," n.d., Collaborative
Innovation)
Helander et al. (n.d.) collected and analyzed data from the IBM Innovation Jams,
and then published a findings to "discuss the results of supervised and unsupervised
learning applied this data." (Abstract, P. 1) Among their findings is a summary of 31
ideas from the 2006 jam and indication that 10 of these were selected for funding as new
business initiatives. (Helander et al., n.d., Table 4) Some of these ideas, such as the
Electronic Health Record System, were funded but later put on hold after further
exploration. (Bjelland & Wood, 2008, p.36) Helander et al. (n.d.) concluded "Much work
is left in extending our use of the different data types in both supervised and unsupervised
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learning, and in identifying the key characteristics - or a combination of characteristics -
that lead to success." (Section 6- Conclusion)
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Glossary of Terms
Definitions are provided to clarify key terms associated with the literature review.
Ad hoc team - "team assembled for a one time purpose and disbanded when that
purpose has been served." (Answers, n.d., What is an ad-hoc team?)
Design jams - Events aimed to get designers to learn and collaborate with each
other while working on actual problems. ("Design Jam," n.d.)
Design-jamming - The use of design methods with the collaborative jam process.
Global Service Jam - An international event, made up of multiple jams.
("Global,” n.d., Glossary section)
IBM Innovation Jam - IBM’s term for a 'massively parallel conference' online."
(Bjelland & Wood, 2008, p. 32)
Jam - A collaborative process of working that involves the creation of unique
results, often involving a short deadline. ("Global", n.d., Glossary section)
Lateral thinking - "a heuristic for solving problems; you try to look at the
problem from many angles instead of tackling it head-on." ("The free," n.d., Lateral
Thinking- thesaurus.) I.e., the process of using both halves of the brain to understand
problems.
Kansas City Service Jam - The Kansas City local iteration of the Global Service
Jam. (Schreiber, 2013) "Focuses on collaboration and designing services related to a
shared theme" ("Forty-Eight hour event," 2013, par .2)
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Research Questions
-What social and collaborative elements can stimulate the creation of innovative ideas in
a short amount of time?
-What methods can guide a manager through the creation of a highly-motivated cross-
functional team focused on streamlined innovation?
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Method
A: Approach to Answer and Research Question
Kansas City Service Jam, the local iteration of the Global Service Jam, was
convened on March 1-3. Over a 48-hour period event participants formed two teams and
designed prototypes inspired by the theme that was announced at the kickoff. Primary
research methods consisted of recorded observation, staggered-survey distribution
(before, during, and 30 days after), and interviews. Other cities from around the world
participated in research activity and interacted with the KC team.
The literature review is based on a framing the topic of collaborative innovation
with an initial focus on building the team. Diversity in thinking is cited for the value
added in understanding problems holistically. The IBM Innovation Jams are referenced to
provide an existing model for collaborative innovation. The management sources cover in
detail the concepts to benefit structure of teams, and the design sources are about the
actual processes, way of thinking, and activities.
B: Technical and Logistical Issues Involved
The primary logistical issue is to find a reasonable stopping point. The topic was
weak and now it is strong, but like many design challenges the layers get peeled back as
you try to find the underlying problem. Without much time left I will need to spend it
wisely to prepare for my presentation date.
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C. Timeframe for Work
June 12th- Proposal revision submitted
June 13th- July 15th- Take research data and build presentation along with
proposed model or solution.
July 16th- 26th- Present to a committee within these dates.
D. Documenting Results
Results will be documented in a presentation including qualitative and
quantitative information, participant personas, a needs cluster matrix, and overviews of
recorded activities. Comparison to prior local Jam events will be presented; sequences
and activities will be compared along with output from teams. General strategies, useful
tactics, and practical techniques will be identified as they apply to the design jam process.
E. Validating Results
Results will be validated through analysis of data from event participants and
output from the teams involved. Application of behavioral concepts to a system, or
model, for delivering streamlined innovation will provide further validation. The
deliverable will be research findings and a vision document of a streamlined innovation
system. Results will also be validated with coverage of follow-up comments from
participants, including agreements and disagreements.
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References A global innovation jam. (n.d.). Retrieved May 12, 2013, from http://www-
03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/innovationjam/ Answers (n.d.) What is an ad-hoc team?. Retrieved from
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_ad-hoc_team Bjelland, O. M., & Wood, R. C. (2008, Oct 1). An inside view of IBM's 'Innovation
Jam'. MIT Sloan Management Review, 50 (1), 31-41. Retrieved March 5, 2013, from MIT Sloan Management website: http://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/an-inside-view-of-ibms-innovation-jam/
Design jam (n.d.). Come together to tackle user experience challenges. Retrieved May
12, 2013, from http://www.designjams.org/ Engestrom, Y. (2000). Activity theory as a framework for analyzing and redesigning
work. Ergonomics, 43(7), 960 - 974. Forty-Eight hour event produces innovative ideas. (2013, March 3) In KCPT Kansas City
public television blog. Retrieved from http://kcpt.org/blog/2013/03/03/48_hour_event_produces_innovative_ideas/
Global Service Jam. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://planet.globalservicejam.org Helander, M., Lawrence, R., Liu, L., Perlich, C., Reddy, C., & Rosset, S. (n.d.). Looking
for great ideas: Analyzing the innovation jam. Retrieved March 5, 2013, from http://dmkd.cs.wayne.edu/Papers/WEBSNAKDD07.pdf
Johnson, R. E., & Bate, J. D. (2003). The power of strategy innovation: a new way of linking creativity and strategic planning to discover great business opportunities. New York, NY: AMACOM. Kindle Edition.
Kaptelinin, V., & Nardi, B. (2006). Acting with technology: Activity theory and
interaction design (Acting with Technology) (pp. 31-39). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Hull, E., Radford, W. H., Rosenberg, R. H., Snibbe, R. W., Turner, J., Bayley, J. B., &
Metzger, G. (Eds.), (1941) Editorial: Social usefulness of the architect's education. Task: a magazine for the younger generation in architecture, Issue 01, 5-9. Retrieved April 15, 2013, from http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/45295213
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Martin, B., & Hanington, B. (2012). Universal methods of design. (pp. 10-11) Beverly, MA: Rockport Publishers.
Martin, R., & Austen, H. (1999) The art of integrative thinking. Retrieved April 25, 2013, from http://rogerlmartin.com/library/articles/integrative-thinking/
Moggridge, B. (2007). Designing interactions. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Moholy-Nagy, L. (1941) New trends in design. Task: a magazine for the younger generation in architecture, Issue 01, 27-31. Retrieved April 15, 2013, from http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/45295213
Robbins, Stephen P.; Judge, Timothy A. (2011-05-18). Essentials of organizational behavior (11th Edition): Pearson HE, Inc.. Kindle Edition. Schreiber, D. (2013, February 26). KC event that kicks off Friday gives teams 48
hours to design a service. Silicon Prairie News. Retrieved from http://www.siliconprairienews.com/2013/02/kc-event-that-kicks-off-friday-gives-teams-48-hours-to-design-a-service
Service jam: Making the world work better through service. (n.d.). Retrieved May 12,
2013, from http://www.ibm.com/ibm/responsibility/minijam/overview.html Simon, Herbert A. (1996-10-01). The Sciences of the artificial, 3rd edition: MIT Press. Kindle Edition. Suri, J. F., Coughlan, P., & Canales, K. (2007). Prototypes as (design) tools for
behavioral and organizational change. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 43(1), 1-13.
Schrage, M. (1996). Cultures of prototyping. Bringing design to software, 191–205. The Free Dictionary (n.d.). Lateral thinking. Retrieved from
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/lateral+thinking Tovey, M. (1984). Designing with both halves of the brain. Design studies, 5(4), 219-
228. Tuckman, W. (1965, June). Developmental sequences in small groups. Psychological
Bulletin, 384-399. Welcome to the IBM jam events page. (n.d.). Retrieved May 12, 2013, from
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