Bloomington, Indiana

2016 Community Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventory

Executive Summary Inanefforttobetterunderstanditsgreenhousegasemissionsandinformplanstocurbthem,theDepartmentofEconomicandSustainableDevelopmentattheCityofBloomingtoncompiledacommunity-widegreenhousegasemissionsinventoryforthecalendaryear2016.UsingtheGlobalProtocolforCommunity-wideGreenhouseGasEmissionsInventoriesasareportingtemplate,itdividesemissionsintothreescopes(reflectinggeographiclocationofemissionsrelativetothecity)andfiveemittingsectors.Wefoundthat,in2016,thegreatestsourceofemissionsbyfarwasenergyproduction,followedbytransportation.Solidwastedisposalcomprisedthesmallestsourceofemissions.

In2016,Bloomingtonproduced,directlyandthroughenergyconsumption,approximately1,375,237metrictonsofcarbondioxideequivalentinemissions.Ofthistotal,849,669metrictonswereemittedthroughthegenerationofelectricityforBloomingtonconsumption;340,663resultedfromnaturalgascombustionandleakage;20,900fromon-siteenergygeneration(usingcoalandfueloil);116,790fromthetransportationsector;and47,214fromwastedisposal.Intermsofscopes,385,100metrictonsofgreenhousegasescountedtowardsScope1emissions(emissionstakingplacewithincityboundaries,excludingthegenerationofpowertofeedthepowergrid);849,669towardsScope2(emissionsresultingfromgrid-suppliedpower,regardlessofwheretheywereproduced),and140,468towardsScope3(emissionsoccurringoutsidecityboundariesbutoccurringasaresultofactivitiescarriedoutbythecity).

Asimilargreenhousegasemissionsinventorywascarriedoutin2009byBloomington’sEnvironmentalCommissionusingdatafor2006.Comparisonoftheresultsofthesetwoinventories(adjustingforgapslaterfoundinthereportfor2006)showsanoveralldecreaseinemissionsbetween2006and2016,withemissionsdecreasinginnearlyallsectors.Atotalof1,582,515metrictonsofcarbondioxideequivalent(afigurewhichexcludessomesectorsforwhichdatawasnotavailable)wereemittedin2006,showingabouta13percent(ifnotmore)decreaseoverthepasttenyears.ThebiggestreasonsforthedecreaseinemissionsareIndiana’sgradualreductionofcoaluseinelectricitygeneration,decreasedenergyuseinmanyBloomingtonsectors,andtheinstallationofamethanecapturingsystematBloomington’smainwastedestination.

Grid-suppliedelectricity

Naturalgas

On-sitegenera4onTransporta4on

Waste

EMISSIONSBYSOURCETYPE(METRICTONSOFCARBONDIOXIDEEQUIVALENTS)

Introduction InMay2017,theCityofBloomingtonjoinedover300othercitiesacrossthecountryindeclaringitscommitmenttoupholdingthetermsofthe2015ParisClimateAgreement,evenintheabsenceofsupportatthefederallevel.Asoneofthesignatoriesfirsttothe2006USMayorsClimateProtectionAgreementandnowtothislatestcommitmenttoworldwideclimateaction,thecityhasundertakenavarietyofactivitiesaimedatreducingemissions,including(butnotlimitedto)increasingenergyefficiency,promotingactiveformsoftransportation,andinvestinginrenewableenergy.

Measuringemissionsfacilitatesstrategiceffortstoreducethem.Tothisend,Bloomingtoncarriedoutitsfirstgreenhousegasinventoryin2009studyingemissionsfrom2006,andaftertenyears,asecondoneisoverdue.

ThisinventoryfollowsthemethodologylaidoutbytheGlobalProtocolforCommunity-ScaleGreenhouseGasEmissionInventories,describedbelow.Itfindsanoverallreductioningreenhousegasemissionsofapproximately13%,from1,582,515metrictonsofcarbondioxideequivalentto1,375,237.Nearlyeverysectorexperiencedareductioninemissions.

Methodology Inplanningandputtingtogetheradetailedinventory,astandardmethodologyandprocessishighlyuseful,ifnotnecessary.Trackingemissionscanoftenbechallengingandmessy,withthepotentialforomissionsanddouble-counting.Amongotherthings,communitiesmustsetgeographicandtemporalboundariesandclearlydefinetheinventoryscope.

Inordertofacilitatecomparisonandplanningacrosslargenumbersofcommunities,aconsistentapproachisneeded.Twopredominantapproachesexistinmeasuringgreenhousegasemissions:consumption-basedapproaches,focusingontheemissionsassociatedwiththeconsumptionofgoodsandservicesbycityresidents,andproduction-basedapproaches,focusingonemissionsdirectlyproducedbyactivitiestakingplaceinthecity.Thisinventorytakesaproduction-basedapproach.Whileconsumption-basedapproachescanshedlightonemissionsthatotherwisewouldgounaccountedfor(suchasemissionsfrominternationaltrade),theyalsoinvolveagreatdegreeofuncertainty,asemissionsoccurringthroughoutawidegeographicalscalemustbeaccountedfor.Furthermore,production-basedapproachesminimizetheriskofdouble-countingemissionsandallowforeasiercross-comparability,astheyestablishgeographicboundariesfortheareaunderstudy.

Specifically,thisinventoryusestheGlobalProtocolforCommunity-ScaleGreenhouseGasEmissionInventories(GPC).DevelopedbytheWorldResourcesInstitute(WRI),ICLEI-LocalGovernmentsforSustainability,andC40CitiesClimateLeadershipGroup1,theGPCdividesemissionsbysectorandprovidesareportingframework.Thisframeworkisbasedonthe2006guidelinesoftheInternationalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC),andistheofficiallyadoptedprotocolforgreenhousegasinventoriesbytheInternationalCompactofMayors.2

TheGPCdividesemissionsintofivesectors,basedontypeofactivity,andthreescopes,definedbygeographicarea.Thesectorsare:

1http://www.c40.org/programmes/the-global-protocol-for-community-scale-greenhouse-gas-emission-inventories-gpc2https://www.compactofmayors.org2https://www.compactofmayors.org

• Stationaryenergy• Transportation• Waste• Industrialprocessesandproductuse(IPPU)• Agriculture,forestry,andotherlanduse(AFOLU)

Thescopes(anyofwhichcanincludeanyofthesectors),areScope1,Scope2,andScope3,describedinthetableandimagebelow.

Table 1: Scopes

Scope DescriptionandwhatitincludesScope1(territorialemissions) Emissionsphysicallytakingplaceinsidethecity;

emissionsfromindustrialprocesses(excludingtheelectricityusedtopowerthem);Transportationwithincityboundaries;Wasteproducedandtreatedinsidethecity

Scope2 Grid-suppliedenergyconsumedinsidethecity,regardlessofwhereitwasgenerated

Scope3 Otheremissionsoccurringoutsidethecitybroughtaboutbycityresidents’activitiesandoperations;Wastetreatedoutsidethecity;Transportationtoorfromthecityoccurringpartiallyoutsidecityboundaries(wherebythesegmentinsidethecityfallsintoScope1andthatoutsidethecityintoScope3)

Figure 1: Sectors classified by scopes3

3Source:http://www.c40.org/programmes/the-global-protocol-for-community-scale-greenhouse-gas-emission-inventories-gpc

Astotalemissionsaretypicallynotmeasureddirectly,inventoriesmakeuseofactivitydataandemissionsfactors,whicharebasedonempiricaldataandpublishedbyentitiessuchastheEPAandInternationalPanelonClimateChange.Theseemissionsfactorsprovidethevolumeoftotalpollutantemittedfromastandardizedunitofactivity,suchascarbondioxideemissionsperkilowatt-hourofelectricityusedorpergallonofgasolinecombusted.Alltheemissionsfactorsusedinthisinventory,unlessotherwisespecified,wereobtainedfromtheEPAdocument“EmissionFactorsforGreenhouseGasInventories,”4lastupdatedonApril4th,2014.

TheGPCcallsforreportingofthesamesevengasesrequiredfornationalinventoriesintheKyotoProtocol:carbondioxide(CO2),methane(CH4),nitrousoxide(N2O),hydrofluorocarbons(HFCs),perfluorocarbons(PFCs),sulfurhexafluoride(SF6),andnitrogentrifluoride(NF3).Additionally,giventhatdifferentgaseshavedifferentglobalwarmingpotentials(GWPs)duetodifferentchemicalproperties(withallothergaseslistedhavingaGWPmuchhigherthancarbondioxide),allgasesareconvertedtocarbondioxideequivalents(CO2-e’s)tobettershowthefullgreenhouseeffect.However,datawasnotavailableforallgasesinallsectors,andcertaingases(suchassulfurhexafluoride)havealimitedrangeofemissionandarethereforenotapplicableincertainsectors.Mostemittingactivitieslistedinthisreporthaveemissionsfactorsforcarbondioxide,methane,andnitrousoxide.TheglobalwarmingpotentialsusedforthisreportcomefromtheIPCCFifthAssessmentReport(thelatestreportpublishedtodate):28CO2-eforCH4and265CO2-eforN2O.

UseoftheGPCrepresentsachangefromBloomington’spreviousgreenhousegasinventory,whichdoesnotdivideemissionsbyscope.However,sincethe2006protocoldividesemissionssectorsroughlythesamewayastheGPC(i.e.waste,transportation,energy,etc.),comparisonbetweenthetwoinventoriesisnotparticularlydifficult.Unlessotherwisenoted,themassesofemittedgases(CO2,CH4,andN2O)aswellasCO2-equivalents(CO2-e)aregiveninmetrictons.Whenprovidedandunlessotherwisestated,themassesofCH4andN2OemittedareabsolutemetrictonsofCH4andN2O,nottheirequivalentCO2-equivalent;thetotalsumofCO2-equivalentsresultingfromemissionsofthosegasesarelaterprovidedunderneath.

Forpurposesofsimplicity,theterms“greenhousegas”and“emissions”areusedsynonymouslythroughoutthisreport,unlessotherwisestated.

Scope 1 Scope1consistsofemissionsfromenergygeneratedandusedlocally(thatis,notfromthegrid),heatingfromcombustiontakingplaceonsite,emissionsresultingfromindustrialprocesses,locallandusepractices,transportationhappeningwithincityboundaries,andwasteproductstreatedlocally.

Stationary Energy Stationaryenergyincludesnaturalgasusedforheating(asitiscombustedlocally,evenifprovidedfromdistantsources).AllnaturalgasusedinBloomingtonisprovidedbyVectrenandismeasuredintherms.

ThedataprovidedbyVectrenrecordsgasusagebyzipcode;sincemostBloomingtonzipcodesalsoincludeareasoutsidethecitylimits,thedatadoesnotperfectlyreflectusewithinthecityproper.However,zipcodeboundariesarenotcoterminouswithcountieseither,soitisimpossiblewiththedataavailabletocalculatewithcompleteaccuracynaturalgasusagefortheentiretyofMonroeCountywithoutincludingsomeuseinsurroundingcounties.Thezipcodesprovided(47401,47402,47403,47404,47405,47406,47407,and

4https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-07/documents/emission-factors_2014.pdf

47408)accountforallofthecityofBloomingtonandmostoftheremainderofMonroeCounty(excludingEllettsville).

Todeterminetheemissionscausedbynaturalgasheatingsystems,thisinventoryusesthecorrespondingemissionsfactorprovidedontheEPAemissionstable.In2016,atotalof46,591,522thermsofnaturalgaswereconsumedintheBloomingtonarea,accordingtodataprovidedbyVectren.5Thisyieldedatotalof247,028metrictonsofCO2released,dividedbysectorasfollows.

Table 2: Natural gas emissions factors

Emittedgas CO2 CH4 N2OOriginalemissionsfactorprovided

53.06kg/mmBtu6 1.0g/mmBtu7 0.1g/mmBtu

Emissionsfactorinmetrictonspertherm(mt/therm)

.0053metrictonspertherm

≈0.00metrictonspertherm8

≈0.00metrictonspertherm9

Table 3: Bloomington natural gas usage, 2016**

Commercial Industrial Residential Transportation10 Companyuse Total

Thermsofnaturalgasused

8,741,491 61,267 15,437,766 21,494,550 856,447 46,591,522

ResultingCO2

emissions(inmetrictons)

46,371 325 81,893 114,023 4,543 247,156

ResultingCH4

emissionsinmetrictons

0.87 0.0061 1.54 2.15 0.09 4.66

ResultingN2Oemissionsinmetrictons

0.09 0.00061 0.15 0.21 0.0086 0.47

TotalinmetrictonsofCO2-e

46,419 325 81,977 114,140 4,548 247,409

**SumsofemissionsdonotaddupbecauseCH4andN2OemissionsareprovidedintheoriginalmassandnotconvertedtoCO2-equivalentuntilthefinalrow.

5ReceivedfromNickKessleronJanuary11,2017fromnkessler@vectren.com,personalcorrespondence.6TheabbreviationmmBtustandsforonemillionBritishthermalunits,aunitofheat;onemmBtuisapproximatelyequivalenttotentherms.7Again,methaneandnitrousoxideemissionsaremuchlowerthancarbondioxideemissions.8Moreprecisely,10x10-8metrictons9Moreprecisely,10x10-9metrictons10Transportationinthiscontextreferstobulkpurchasesbylargefacilitiesandinstitutions,notnaturalgasusedforthepurposesoftransportation.ThisincludesnaturalgasusedbyIndianaUniversity.

Figure 2: Natural gas consumption by sector, 2016

**Industrialsalesisnotvisibleinthepiegraphbecauseofitsextremelysmallshare(lessthan.1%oftotalemissions).Industry-relatednaturalgasusagemayalsofallundertransportation,commercial,and/orcompanyuse.

IndianaUniversity-Bloomingtonhasacentralheatingplantthatcanusebothcoalandnaturalgas.Inthenot-so-distantpastithadreliedprimarilyoncoal,amuchmorepollutingfossilfuelthannaturalgaswhencombusted.However,inrecentyearsIU’suseofcoalhasgonedownduetothedecreasingpriceofnaturalgasrelativetocoal.In2016,8,872tonsofbituminousSouthernIndianacoalwereburned,representingapproximately15%ofthetotalfuelusedbytheheatingplant11.UsingtheemissionsfactorsprovidedbytheEPA,IU’scentralheatingplantproducedatotalof20,801CO2-equivalentsfromcoal,brokendowninTable4.

Table 4: Coal emissions

Gas CO2 CH4 N2OEmissionsfactor 2325kgCO2pershortton

ofcoal274gCH4pershorttonofcoal

40gN2Opershorttonofcoal

Totalmetrictonsemitted

20,627 2.43

0.35

TotalmetrictonsinCO2-equivalents

20,627

68.07

106

Thecentralheatingplantalsoused9,661gallonsof#1distillatelow-sulfurfueloil.UsingtheemissionsfactorsprovidedbytheEPAtable,wecalculated98.67metrictonsofCO2-equivalent,brokendownasshowninTable5.

11ObtainedthroughcorrespondencewithMakaylaBonneyoftheIndianaUniversityOfficeofSustainabilityandMarkMenefeeofIndianaUniversityFacilityOperations

Naturalgasconsumpmonbysector

Commercial Industrialsales Residenmal Transportamon(bulksales) Companyuse

Table 5: Fuel oil emissions

Gas CO2 CH4 N2OEmissionsfactors 10.18kgCO2pergallon 0.42gCH4pergallon 0.08gN2OpergallonTotalmetrictonsemitted

98.35 .0041 .00073

TotalmetrictonsofthatgasinCO2-equivalents

98.35 0.11 0.20

Other Scope 1 generation Emissionsresultingfromtheuseofgeneratorson-sitetoproduceelectricityfallintoScope1—StationaryEnergy.VariousestablishmentsandresidencesinBloomingtonhavegenerators,themajorityofwhichusedieselfuel.12However,themajorityofthesegeneratorsareonlyrunwhentestingorduringemergencies,whengridpowerisdisconnected.Theoverallamountofemissionsthattheseproduce,inlightofthetotalamountofelectricalpowerandresultingemissionsusedthroughoutBloomington,isquitesmall.Furthermore,dataforthesegeneratorsaredifficulttoobtain.Therefore,on-siteelectricalgeneration(excludingthatatIU)isnotincludedinthisinventory.

Industrial Processes and Product Use TheBloomingtonareacontainsseveralindustrialandmanufacturingenterprises,whichcontributetoScope1emissionsunderIndustrialProcessesandProductUse(IPPU).Industrialemissionscanbeofvarioustypesandfromvarioussources,withtwotypespredominating:emissionsresultingfromenergyuseandthoseresultingfromchemicalreactionsinvolvedinmanufacturing.Emissionsresultingfromenergyuse(whichmakeupthelargestshareofindustrialemissions)arereportedunderScope2(unlesstheenergyisproducedon-site,inwhichcaseitwouldbeunderScope1stationaryenergy).Onlynon-energy-relatedemissions,suchasthosefromchemicalreactions,arelistedunderIPPU.Certainindustrialprocesses,suchasmetalorammoniaproduction,generatelargeamountsofemissionsduethespecificchemicalreactionsinvolved;however,othertypesofmanufacturingdonotproducesignificantemissionsasidefromenergy.Additionalemissionsresult,amongotherthings,fromsolventuseandrefrigeration,andthefluorinatedgasesusedinrefrigerationhaveGWP’sthatcanbethousandsoftimesthatofCO2.However,theoverallamountoftheseemissions,evenexpressedinCO2-equivalents,isstillextremelysmallincomparisontothoseresultingfromenergygenerationanduse.13

12InformationonelectricgeneratorsobtainedthroughcommunicationwithJeffHonakerofDukeEnergy.13GlobalProtocolforCommunity-ScaleGreenhouseGasEmissionInventories

Image1:IndianaUniversityCentralHeatingPlant

Bloomingtonhasseveralsmallandmid-sizemanufacturingfirms,14andthesewereconsideredwhenpreparingthisinventorywithpotentialmajoremittersidentified.Onlyahandfuloffirmsweredeemedtohavethepotentialforlargeamountsofemissions(suchasmetalproducers).Whenfurtherinvestigated,eventhesewerefoundtobetoosmalltocontributeasignificantamounttoBloomington’soverallemissions.TheEPArequiresfacilitiesgeneratingover25,000metrictonsofCO2-eayeartoreporttheiremissionsintheEPA’sGreenhouseGasReportingProgram(GHGRP).OnlytwofacilitiesinMonroeCounty,IndianaUniversityandtheMonroeCountyLandfill,reporttotheGHGRP.Becauseofthis,onecanreasonablyassumethatnootherindividualsourceinMonroeCountyproducesmorethan25,000annualmetrictonsofCO2-e.Furthermore,even25,000metrictonsofCO2-eisactuallyquitesmallincomparisontotheemissionsresultingfromenergyproduction(justelectricityconsumptioninBloomingtoncommercialestablishmentsamountedto240,000metrictonsCO2-e,nearlytentimesasmuch).Evenaggregated,Bloomington’sindustriesdonotproducemorethanafewpercentagepointsatmostofBloomington’stotalgreenhousegasemissions.Asdataforindustrialemissionswasunavailableandwouldhaveentailedveryroughestimations,thisinventorydoesnotincludethem(excludinggrid-suppliedenergy,whichisincludedinScope2).Thisisconsistentwiththeapproachinthe2006inventoryaswell.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use AnothersectordefinedintheGPCisAgriculture,ForestryandOtherLandUse(AFOLU).AswithIPPU,itsshareintotalemissionsismostlikelynegligible.WhileBloomingtondoeshavesomeagriculturalactivitiestakingplacewithincitylimits,theseactivitieshaveaverylowcarbonintensity.Furthermore,carbonreleasedintotheatmospherebynaturalcycles(suchasdecay)isnotincludedintheGPC.FewdatawereavailableforthissectorwithinBloomingtoncitylimits;therefore,itwasexcludedfromtheinventoryasinthe2006inventory.

In-boundary transportation Givenitsmobilenature,transportationpresentsaparticularchallengetocalculatingemissions.TheGPCsuggestsafewdifferentstrategiesforestimatingemissions.Oneapproachisfindingthetotalamountofvehiclefuelsaleswithinthelimitsofacommunity.Thisapproachyieldsanaccuratenumber(asopposedtoanestimate)andallowsfortheaggregationofseveralcommunities’saleswithoutdouble-counting;however,itisimpossibletoknowhowmuchofthefuelboughtinacommunitywasexpendedwithinthatcommunityandhowmuchfuelboughtoutsidewasconsumedinside.

Anotherwaytocalculatetransportation-relatedemissionsistoestimatethetotalamountofmilesdrivenbyallvehicleswithinanarea.This,likeothermannersofcalculatingtransportation-relatedemissions,stillencounterstheissueofambiguityregardingtripsthatcrosscityboundaries.Furthermore,giventhehighlydecentralizedactivityofthousandsofvehicles,eachwiththeirownschedules,routines,androutes,itisimpossibletoobtainanythingmorethanaroughestimateofmilestraveled.

Nevertheless,becausedatafortotalfuelsalesinMonroeCountyorBloomingtonwasnotavailable,thisinventorycalculatesemissionsusingestimatesofmilestraveledbyvehicles(thelatterapproach).OnemethodusedthroughouttheU.S.toobtaintheseestimatesisthecalculationofVehicularMilesTraveled(VMT),obtainedbycountingthenumberofcarspassingthroughobservationpointsplacedondifferenttypesofroads(highways,cityroads,ruralroads,etc.)overagiventimeperiod(suchasaday).Theseestimatescanthenbeusedtocalculateaverageemissionsbytakingintoaccountthecompositionofthevehiclefleetinthe

14DataonBloomingtonmanufacturingenterpriseswasprovidedbytheBloomingtonEconomicDevelopmentCorporation.

city(thetypes,models,andyearsofproductionofvehicles)becauseaveragefuelefficiencyvariesbyvehicleattributes.

Specificallyinthecaseofthisinventory,weuseddataobtainedfromtheIndianaDepartmentofTransportation(INDOT),whichprovidesVMTcalculationsforallIndianacountiesthrough2015.County-leveltotalsareavailableonthewebsite,andcity-specificdatawasobtainedthroughemailcorrespondence.Dataforvehiclefleetcomposition(i.e.models,yearsofmanufacturing,etc.)wasunavailableforthecountyandstatelevel;however,theEPAprovidesanestimateoftheaveragefuelefficiencyforallvehiclesatthenationallevel.

INDOThasmodifiedthewayitmeasuresVMTsince2006.Amongotherthings,ithasincreasedthenumberofroadsobservedandfurtherdividedroadsbylocationandtype.Becauseofthis,thereisnodirectwaytocomparethe2015datatothatfor2006.AlthoughthenewmeasurementsyieldalowerVMTforBloomingtonthanthatgivenin2006,theVMTinMonroeCountybytypeofroadhasactuallyremainednearlyconstant(itispossiblethattheVMTdatafor2006alsoincludedroadsinothercitiesinMonroeCounty,suchasEllettsville).

INDOTprovidestotalVMTbydayaswellasVMTspecificallyforcommercialvehicles15,allowingforthebreakdownofVMTintocommercialandnon-commercialvehiclesbysubtractingcommercialvehiclesfromthetotal(highlyusefulgiventhelargedifferencesinfuelefficiency).Repeatingthemethodologyusedinthe2006inventory,thesenumbersweremultipliedby323insteadof365toobtainannualtotalVMTbecauseofthesignificantdropinBloomington’spopulationduringthesummer(whenmostIndianaUniversitystudentsleave).EmissionsfactorsobtainedfromtheEPA’swebsitewerethenmultipliedbyfuelefficiencyaveragesobtainedfromthemostrecentversionoftheFederalHighwayAdministration’sTableVM-1.TheVM-1(obtainedontheFHWAwebsite)listsaveragefuelefficiencyin2015forlight-dutyvehiclesas22.0milespergallonofmotorfuel,andthatforlarger

vehiclesas6.4milespergallonofmotorfuel16.DividingannualVMTforeachvehicletypebytheaveragefuelefficiencygivesanestimateofgallonsusedbyeachtypeofvehicle.Onanational 15Commercialvehicles,aspercommunicationwithGregoryKatteroftheINDOT,consistofFHWASchemeFClasses4-13.Thisincludesbuses,largetrucks,andallotheron-roadvehicleswithatleastsixtiresand/ormorethantwoaxles.Classes1-3(i.e.non-commercialvehiclesinthissense)consistofmotorcycles,four-wheeltwo-axlecars,vans,pick-uptrucks,andothervehicleshavingfourtiresandtwoaxles.ThisdistinctionisnearlysynonymouswiththedistinctioninFHWATableVM-1betweenlight-dutyvehicles(i.e.non-commercialvehicles)andothervehicles,savefortheexclusionofmotorcyclesinthelight-dutycategory.Admittingthisinconsistency,thisreporttreatsthesecategoriesassynonymousforthepurposeofdeterminingfuelefficiency.FormoreinformationonFHWAvehicleclassesseetheFHWAVehicleClassificationSchemeFReport.16Seehttps://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/statistics/2015/vm1.cfm.AsstatedinFootnote15,thereisasmalldifferencebetweenthecategorizationusedbytheINDOTandthatusedintableVM-1inlistingfuelefficiency.

Image2:CarsonWestTappRoad

level,about22%ofmotorfuelsalesweredieselin2013(thelatestyearforwhichdataisavailable)17.AstheFHWAprovidesanaverageformotorfueloverall,itwaspossibletomultiplythetotalnumberofgallonsofmotorfuelconsumedbytheshareofdieselinordertoobtainthetotalamountofdieselsales.18Then,theemissionfactorsprovidedbytheEPAforgasoline,8.87kgCO2pergallon,anddiesel,10.21kgCO2pergallon,givesanestimatefortotalemissions.Theresultingemissionsarethensummedanddividedbyproportionofmilestraveledbyeachvehicletypetodivideemissionsbyvehicletype.

Foreachvehicletype(i.e.commercialornon-commercial):

Totalmilestraveled*1/averagefuelefficiency(i.e.milespergallon)=totalgallonsoffuelconsumed

Totalgallonsoffuelconsumed*.78*8.87kgCO2pergallonofgasoline=totalkgofCO2emittedfromgasoline

Totalgallonsoffuelconsumed*.22*10.21kgCO2pergallonofdiesel=totalkgofCO2emittedfromdiesel

TotalkgofCO2emittedfromgasoline+TotalkgofCO2emittedfromdiesel=totalCO2emissionsinkg(fromthatvehicletype)

Table 6: Vehicle emissions

Non-commercialvehicles CommercialvehiclesMilestraveledperdayin2015

719,421 45,163

Totalmilestraveledin2015

232,372,983 14,587,649

Gallonsofmotorfuelconsumed

10,562,408 2,279,320

Percentageoftotalgallonsoffuelused

82.25% 18.75%

Totalemissionsbyvehicletype(metrictonsCO2)

96,061 20,730

TheGPCalsoincludesoff-roadvehicleuse,suchastheuseofmechanizedfarmequipment,watervehicles,andlawnmowers,inin-boundarytransportation.GivenBloomington’sprimarilyurbancharacteristics,inadditiontothedifficultyofestimatingoff-roadvehicleuse,emissionsresultingfromthesevehicleswerenotincludedinthisinventory.

Scope 2 Scope2consistsofenergy(mainlyelectricity,butalsosteam,heat,cooling,etc.)obtainedfromthepowergrid(notgeneratedonsite).Emissionsgeneratedfromgrid-providedelectricityconsumedin2016were

17https://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/bts_fact_sheets/oct_2015/html/figure_03_text.html18Thisapproachadmittedlymakesseveralassumptions.ThenationalproportionofdieselsalesmaydifferfromthatinBloomington,andthiscalculationdoesnottakeintoaccountotherfuelsthatmaybeusedincars,suchascompressednaturalgasorelectricity.Furthermore,theproportionofdieselusedinheavy-dutyvehiclesandthatusedinlight-weightvehiclesdifferssignificantlybutisnotacknowledgedhere.However,giventhelikelysmallshareofelectriccarsinBloomington,andthefactthatthefuelefficiencyaveragesforbothtypesofvehiclesincludebothtypesoffuels,furtherdetailinthiscalculationwasdeemedunnecessary,especiallygiventheambiguityalreadypresentinVMTandcityfleetcomposition.

calculatedusingdataprovidedbyDukeEnergy,MonroeCounty’spredominantelectricalsupplier(supplyingnearlyeveryoneinthecityandmostpeopleinthecounty).ThedatafortheBloomingtonDistrict(whichincludesEllettsville)showedanaggregatetotalof1,346,720,346kilowatthoursconsumedin2016.

Thecarbonfootprintofelectricalpowervariessignificantlydependingonitssource.Furthermore,sincetheelectricityfurnishedbyproviderslikeDukecanbegeneratedatanynumberofregionalpowerplants(andnotjustthoseownedbytheproviderortheplantnearesttotheuser),itisnecessarytoobtainaregionalaverageforthecompositionofelectricitysources.

AccordingtotheEnergyInformationAdministration,inIndianathelargestsourceofelectricalpoweriscoal(currentlygeneratingabout70%ofelectricitybutfallinginshare)followedbyanincreasingshareofnaturalgas(currentlyatabout20%).Renewables(wind,solar,biomass,hydroelectric,andgeothermalenergy)makeupabout6%ofIndiana’stotalenergymix.19RegionalcarbonestimatescomefromtheEPA’seGRIDpublication.Here,theEPAdividestheU.S.intosubregionswithanaveragecarbonfootprintforeverykilowattofelectricityconsumedinthatregion;thisfootprinttakesintoaccountthemixofsourcesusedinanyoneregion.ThelatestversionofeGRID,theeGRID2014v2,givesthefollowingfootprintfortheRFCWregion,whichincludesIndiana20.

Table 7: Emissions factors for electricity-related emissions

Gasemitted CO2 CH4 N2OOriginalemissionsfactorprovided 1,380.9lb/MWh 150.2lb/GWh21 22.0lb/GWhEmissionsfactorinmetrictons 0.63metrictons/

MWh≈0.00metrictons/MWh22

≈0.00metrictons/MWh23

Usingtheseestimates,electricityuseandtheresultingemissionsarebrokendownbysectorsinTable8.

Table 8: Bloomington electricity usage, 2016**

Type of account Commercial Govt. Industrial Residential Unknown Totals

Kilowatt hours consumed

381,395,225 300,100,840 170,656,456 481,897,282 12,670,543 1,346,720,346

Metric tons of CO2 released

238,893 187,973 106,893 301,844 7,936 843,539

Metric tons of CH4 released

25.98 20.45 11.63 32.83 0.86 91.75

Metric tons of N2O released

3.81 2.99 1.70 4.81 0.13 13.44

Total sum of CO2-e 240,629 189,339 107,670 304,037 7,994 849,669**Sums of emissions do not add up because CH4 emissions and N2O emissions are shown in their original mass and not converted to CO2-equivalent until the final row.

19https://www.eia.gov/state/analysis.php?sid=IN20https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2017-02/documents/egrid2014_summarytables_v2.pdf21Methaneandnitrousoxideemissionsaremuchlowerperunitofelectricityproducedthancarbondioxide;therefore,theconversionisgiveningigawatthours(equivalenttomillionsofkilowatthours)insteadofkilowatthours.22Moreprecisely,6.81x10-8metrictons23Moreprecisely,9.98x10-9metrictons

Figure 3: Emissions by sector of electricity usage

Scope 3 Scope3consistsofemissionstakingplaceoutsidecitylimitsbutproducedasaresultofthecity’sactivities(excludingelectricitygeneration).Thisincludesemissionsresultingfromwastedisposalandtreatment,lossesfromtransmissionanddistributionofenergy,andcity-relatedtransportationoccurringoutsidecitylimits(suchastripstoand/orfromthecity).

Waste Wasteproducts,bothresidentialandcommercial,compriseanothersignificantsourceofgreenhousegasemissions.Organicwasteinlandfillsdecomposesovertime,releasingmethane.Eventhoughmanylandfillsarenotlocatedwithincityboundaries,cityresidentsandbusinessesareultimatelythesourceoftheresultingemissions,andtheseemissionsarethusincludedinScope3.

TheGPCprovidesfortwowaysofcalculatingemissionscausedbywaste:firstorderofdecay(FOD),whichexaminesactualemissionsoveragivenyearfromwastedepositedovertime(aswastedecomposesslowlyandreleasesmethaneforseveralyearsafteritisdeposited),andmethanecommitment,whichestimatestheamountofmethanethatwilleventuallybereleasedfromwastedepositedduringagivenyear.WhileFODmethodsaremoreaccurateregardingactualemissionsinanygivenyear,methanecommitmentgivesabetterunderstandingofthelong-termimpactsofresidents’wastepatternswithinagivenyear.Becauseofthesedifferences,methanecommitmentwasselectedasthepreferredmethodforthisinventory.

DataforwasteproducedinBloomingtonwasdifficulttofind.Themunicipalgovernment,whichtrackswastecollected,providessanitationservicesforsingle-familyhomesandresidentialcomplexesofuptofourindividualunits.However,itdoesnotprovidecollectiontounitslargerthanthatnortocommercialestablishments.RepublicServices,aprivatecompany,servicesmuchoftheremainderofBloomingtonand

Emissionsbysectorofelectricityusage

Commercial Government Industrial Residenmal Unknown

MonroeCounty,excludingprivatehaulersthatmayhavecontractswithindividualcompanies.BothRepublicandtheCityofBloomington’sSanitationDepartmenttransporttheirwastetoSycamoreRidgeLandfillnearTerreHaute,Indianawherethewasteisweighedandrecordedbycountyoforigin.However,someRepublicpickuproutesinBloomington(andthatwouldthusberecordedasoriginatinginMonroeCounty)alsoenterothercounties,andtheresidentsofsurroundingcountiescandepositwasteinBloomingtoncollectioncenters.Assuch,thereisnowayofquantifyingwithcompleteaccuracytheamountofwastegeneratedinthecityofBloomington(orinMonroeCountyforthatmatter).ThereisaMonroeCountyLandfill,whichreportsitsemissionstotheEPA.However,thelandfillisclosedandhasnotacceptedwastesince2004;theemissionsreportedreflectonlywastethathasaccumulatedandbeendecomposingfrompreviousyears.Therefore,theseemissionsarenotincluded.

SincewastedataforMonroeCountyisnotperfectlyinlinewithcountyboundaries,somesimplificationisnecessary,andsomedegreeoferrorisinevitable.ItispossiblethatsomewastegeneratedinMonroeCountycouldalsoendupattributedtoothercounties,socalculationsusethedataforwastelistedasoriginatinginMonroeCounty,butfornoothercounty.Dataforwastebycountyoforigin,classifiedbytypeofwaste,canbeobtainedontheIndianaDepartmentofEnvironmentalManagement’sOfficeofLandQualitypage24.

AfewotherdestinationsbesidesSycamoreRidgeLandfillalsoreceivewastefromMonroeCounty,thoughinmuchsmalleramounts.Alllandfillsthatreceivedover1,000cumulativetonsofwastein2016wereincluded,yieldingSycamoreRidge,MedoraLandfillinMedora,Indiana,andSouthSideLandfillinIndianapolis,coveringover99.8%ofallthewasteproducedinMonroeCounty.Atotalof140,675tonsofmunicipalsolidwaste,4,390tonsofconstructionanddemolitiondebris,and20,753tonsofnon-municipal“other”waste(suchassolidresiduefromwastewatertreatmentorindustrialwaste)fromMonroeCountywasdepositedintheselandfillsin201625.

InformationforsolidwastecompositionwasestimatedbasedonastudyofIndianalandfillscarriedoutbyPurdue-CalumetUniversityin2012.Thisstudyexaminedlandfillsofdifferenttypes(urban,suburban,rural,andmixed).Thedatagivenforurban/suburbanlandfillswasusedhere,asMonroeCountywaste(thedataavailable)comesfromacombinationofurban,suburban,andruralresidences.Thestudybreaksdownwastebypercentagesformixedurban/suburbanlandfillsasfollows(notallcategoriesarelistedhere).2627

24http://www.in.gov/idem/landquality/2406.htm.2016.Specificallyseehttp://www.in.gov/idem/landquality/files/sw_quarterly_report_2016.txt25ThetonsprovidedbytheIDEMlandfillreportsareinshorttons;thesewereconvertedintometrictonsbeforecalculatingemissions.26http://www.in.gov/idem/recycle/files/msw_characterizarion_study.pdf27ItispossiblethatBloomington’swastepatternsdiffersignificantlyfromothercitiesinIndianaduetoitshighproportionofstudentresidents.However,thereisnodatatoaddressthis.

Image3:SycamoreRidgeLandfill

Table 9: Landfill composition in urban/suburban landfills in Indiana

Typeofmaterial AveragepercentageoftotallandfillPaper 29.63Plastic 15.95Metal 5.41Glass 3.37Yardwaste 8.0428Foodwaste 10.91Wood 6.27Textiles/leather 4.99Demolition/renovation/constructiondebris 3.80Fines/supermix 1.44

FormulastoestimateemissionsfromlandfillswereprovidedbytheGPCpublication.TheIPCC2006Guidelines(whichformthebasisformuchoftheGPC)statethatCO2emissionsfromorganicsolidwastearetypicallynotcountedastheyarepartofnaturalprocessesandrecordedunderAFOLU.Methane,however,isnotnaturallyreleasedinsuchlargeamountsfromdecompositionoforganicmatter.Tocalculatemethaneemissions,onemustfirstfindtheDegradableOrganicContent(DOC)ofthewastematter.ThisiscalculatedfromthecompositionofthewasteusingtheformulaprovidedbytheGPC.

DOC=(0.15×A)+(0.2×B)+(0.4×C)+(0.43×D)+(0.24×E)+(0.15×F)

A=FractionofsolidwastethatisfoodB=FractionofsolidwastethatisgardenwasteandotherplantdebrisC=FractionofsolidwastethatispaperD=FractionofsolidwastethatiswoodE=FractionofsolidwastethatistextilesF=Fractionofsolidwastethatisindustrialwaste

(Equation8.1fromGPC)

TheDOCisthenusedtocalculatethemethanegenerationpotential(L0).

L0=MCF×DOC×DOCF×F×16/12

MCF=methanecorrectionfactorbasedonlandfilltype(1.0formanagedlandfills)DOCF=fractionofDOCthatisultimatelydegraded(assumedtoequal0.6)F=fractionofmethaneinlandfillgas(usuallyshownas0.5)

(Equation8.4fromGPC)

Themethanegenerationpotentialthenisusedtocalculatethetotalamountofmethanegenerated,basedonthemassofwasteproduced(measuredhereinmetrictons).

CH4emissions(inmetrictons)=MSWX×L0×(1-frec)×(1-OX)

28AspercorrespondencewiththedirectorofBloomington’ssanitationprogram,Bloomington’sshareofyardwasteislowerthan7percentbecausemostisdivertedviatheyardwastecollectionandcompostingprogram;therefore,ashareof5percentwasassumed.

MSWX=massofsolidwastesenttolandfillinyearexamined(metrictons)frec=fractionofmethanerecoveredatthelandfill(flaredorenergyrecovered)OX=oxidationfactor(0.1forwell-managedlandfills)

(Equation8.3fromGPC)

ThestudybyPurdue-CalumetonlyexaminedMunicipalSolidWaste;therefore,thepercentageswerereadjustedtoaccountfortheothertypesofwaste(i.e.non-municipalsolidwaste,foundrywaste,etc.)collected.Theseothercategoriesofwastewereincludedunderindustrialwaste,whichwascalculatedasthesumofallcategoriesotherthanmunicipalsolidwasteplustheshareofmunicipalsolidwastethatwasconstruction-relateddebrisandfines/supermixwaste.ThisyieldsabreakdownoutlinedinTable10.

Table 10: Landfill composition adjusted for other categories of waste

Typeofmaterial ReadjustedpercentageofshareoftotallandfillFood 9.26Garden 4.24Paper 25.14Wood 5.32Textiles/leather 4.23Industrial* 4.45

Insertingthesepercentages(asfractions)intoEquation8.1yieldsthefollowingDOC:0.16.UsingthisDOCinEquation8.1,Equation8.4yieldsthefollowingmethanegenerationpotential:0.065.

Usingthismethanegenerationpotential,Equation8.3canbeusedtofindthetotalmassofmethaneemissions.BothSycamoreRidgeandSouthSidelandfillshaveagasextractionsystemwithanassumed75%collectionefficiency;MedoraLandfilldoesnot,asitisnotrequiredtobecauseofitslowertotalemissions.Assumingthateachlandfillhasthesamewastecomposition(apotentiallyproblematicassumption,butthebestonegiventhelimiteddata),insertingthevolumeofMonroeCountywastedepositedateachlandfillintoEquation8.3yieldsanaggregateestimateof2,918metrictonsofmethanereleasedforMonroeCounty.Assumingthatcountyresidentsproducethesameamountofwastepercapitaregardlessofwheretheylive,thisamountcanbescaledbytheshareofMonroeCounty’spopulationlivingwithinBloomingtonlimits.In2016,Bloomington’spopulationwasestimatedat84,067,or58%ofMonroeCounty’spopulationof145,49629.ScaleddowntoreflectBloomington’sproportionofthepopulation,weestimatethatBloomingtonproducesabout1,686metrictonsofmethanefromitswaste;expressedinCO2-equivalents,thisyields47,214metrictons.

Wastewatertreatmentisalsoasourceofemissions.However,Bloomingtonitselfhasnoheavyindustrythatwouldaddsignificantlytowastewateremissions,andemissionsresultingfromsewagetreatmentonlycontributeafractionofapercenttototalemissionsinmanyothercities;therefore,itwasdeemedunnecessarytoinvestigatethesefurther,especiallygiventhelimitedrangeofactionscitiescantakewithregardtosewage.

Natural gas distribution and transmission losses Emissionsresultingfromlossesandleaksinnaturalgastransmissionanddistributioncanbealessobviousbutsignificantsourceofemissions.TobestestimatetheamountofleakageassociatedwithBloomington’s

29https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/monroecountyindiana,bloomingtoncityindiana#viewtop

gasusage,wedividedtheamountofleakageestimatedatanation-widelevelbytheamountoftotalnaturalgasconsumptionnationwide,thenappliedthisratiotoBloomington’stotalconsumption.The2015nationalEPAGreenhouseGasInventoryprovidestheseestimatesforbothmethane(alreadyinCO2-equivalent)andcarbondioxideleaked(giventhatnaturalgasconsistsprimarilyofmethanebutalsoothergases,includingcarbondioxide).30

Table 11: Emissions from natural gas leakage

Gas Methane CarbondioxideLeakagenationwidein2014inCO2-equivalent

176.1millionmetrictons 42.4millionmetrictons

Ratiotototalamountofnaturalgasconsumed

.00065metrictonspertherm .00016metrictonspertherm

RatiomultipliedbyBloomingtonconsumption

30,064metrictonsinCO2-equivalent

7,238metrictonsinCO2-equivalent

Thisyieldsatotalof37,302metrictonsofCO2-equivalentreleasedintotheatmospherebynaturalleakage.

Studiesbyvariousbodies,includingtheNationalAcademyofEngineering31andtheEnvironmentalDefenseFund32,estimatethattheEPAunderestimatesleakagebyafactorof1.5ifnotmore.WedecidedtoaveragetheestimateprovidedbytheEPA’smethodologyandthatbyotherstudies,thereforemultiplyingtheleakageemissionsby1.25.Thisyieldsanestimateof46,627metrictonsofCO2-equivalent.

Out-of-boundary transportation Scope3alsoincludescity-relatedtransportationoccurringoutsideofcitylimits.Suchtransportationwouldincluderoadtravelbycityresidentstootherlocations,airtravelbycityresidentsleavingorcomingtothecity,transportationofgoodstoorfromthecity,andothertypesofrelatedtravel,suchasfreight.Althoughthisaspectofthetransportationsectorwouldbeasignificantsourceofemissions,duetothecomplexcalculationsandhighlyimpreciseestimatesthatwouldbeinvolved,out-of-boundarytransportationisnotincludedinthisinventory.

Total greenhouse gas emissions in 2016 In2016,atotal1,375,237metrictonsofCO2-equivalentwereemittedinBloomington.Theseweredividedbyscopeandsourcetypeasfollows:

Table 12: Greenhouse gas emissions by scope

Emissions by scope (metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent) Scope1 385,100Scope2 849,669Scope3 93,841

30https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-04/documents/us-ghg-inventory-2016-main-text.pdf31https://www.nae.edu/Publications/Bridge/140630/140642.aspx32http://www.edf.org/sites/default/files/methane_studies_fact_sheet.pdf

Figure 4: Greenhouse gas emissions by scope

Table 13: Greenhouse gas emissions by type of source

Emissionsbysourcetype(inmetrictonsofcarbondioxideequivalent)

Grid-suppliedelectricity* 849,669Naturalgas(combustion+leakage)* 340,663On-sitegeneration* 20,900Transportation 116,790Waste 47,214*Emissionsfromgrid-suppliedelectricity,naturalgasusageandleakage,andotheron-siteenergygenerationallcounttowardthestationarycombustionsectorbutfallunderdifferentscopes.

Figure 5: Greenhouse gas emissions by type of source

Emissionsbyscope

Scope1 Scope2 Scope3

Grid-suppliedelectricity

Naturalgas

On-sitegenera4onTransporta4on

Waste

EMISSIONSBYSOURCETYPE(METRICTONSOFCARBONDIOXIDEEQUIVALENTS)

Discussion Oneofthemostimportantpurposesgreenhousegasinventoriescanserveiscomparisonacrossdifferentyearstotrackimprovementsandtrends.Apartialgreenhousegasinventorywasreleasedbythecity’sEnvironmentalCommissionin2009usingdatafrom2006,andamorerecentonewasreleasedin2014aspartofthecity’sEnvironmentalActionPlan.Thisupdated2016reportseekstobuildoffthepreviousreportsandunderstandtrendstakingplaceandareasforimprovement.

Oneissuecomplicatingcomparisonbetweenthetwoinventoriesisinconsistenciesindatacollectionanddifferentmethodologies.Whenthe2006inventorywasdeveloped,theEnvironmentalCommissionhadaccesstosoftwareprovidedbyICLEI,whichgreatlyfacilitatedcalculations,butalsomadethesourceanduseofemissionsfactorslesstransparent;incontrast,whenthecurrentinventorywaswritten,themunicipalgovernmenthadnoaccesstothesamesoftware(asthelicensewasnotrenewed),andthushadtousemethodologiesandemissionsfactorsprovidedbytheGPC,EPA,andadoptedfromothercities’inventories.AssumingthattheICLEIsoftwareitselfandtheresearchersdevelopingthe2016inventorylargelyreliedonthesamesources(EPA,nationalaverages,IPCC,etc.),itisunlikelythatthisdifferencewouldresultinlargediscrepancies,butitisimportanttomakenoteofnonetheless.

Second,the2006inventorydoesnothavecompletedataforallsectors,causingsignificantunderestimation.Inothersectors,thenumbersprovidedbythe2006reportdiffersignificantlyfromthenumbersfor2006consumptioninthedatausedtocompilethecurrentinventory(thatis,thedatawewereablefor2006duringthepresentinventoryeffortdidn’tmatchthenumbersincludedinthe2006inventory).Theseissuesareaddressedandcorrectedwhentheyappearinthisdiscussion.

Energy The2006reportdoesnotdivideenergy-relatedemissionsbytype(grid-suppliedvs.stationaryenergy),dividingtheminsteadbysector.Becauseofthat,itiseasiertoaggregateenergy-relatedemissionsforbothyearsandcomparethem.Theaggregatefromthe2006reportforemissionsfromenergyusageacrossallsectorsis588,853metrictonsofCO2-equivalent;incomparison,thecurrentreportfound1,164,605metrictonsofCO2-equivalent.However,the2006inventoryonlyconsideredcertainsectorsandthereforesignificantlyunderestimatedtotalBloomingtonemissions.

AccordingtothespreadsheetsusedforthecurrentreportprovidedbyVectrenandDuke,totalenergyusagein2008consistedof41,973,045thermsofnaturalgasand1,517,734,078kilowatt-hoursofelectricityin2008(2008wasusedforbothtypesofenergybecausetheDukeEnergyspreadsheetonlygoesbackto2008).Convertingalltokilowatt-hoursasdoneinthe2006report(usingtheconversionfactorof1therm=29.3001kilowatt-hours),thisyields2,747,548,487kilowatt-hoursofenergyin2008.In2016,thesamespreadsheetsshow46,591,522thermsofnaturalgasand1,346,720,346kilowatt-hoursofelectricityconsumed,oratotal2,711,856,600kilowatt-hoursofenergyconsumed.Thisisactuallya1.3%decreaseintotalenergyusagefrom2008to2016.Itishighlyunlikelythatenergyusedoubledbetween2006and2008andthendecreasedby1.3%;whatismorelikelyisthatthe2006inventoryexcludedcertainusersandtypesofuseinBloomington.The2006inventorylistsenergyusagefromthreedifferentsectors:residential,commercial,andindustrial.However,theinformationprovidedbyDukeEnergyandVectrendividesBloomingtonenergyuseintofivetosixsectors:residential,commercial,industrial,government,andunknown(i.e.unknownorunspecifiedusers,whichuseanextremelysmallshareofBloomington’selectricity,wellundertwopercent)forDuke,andresidential,commercial,industrial,transportation(bulksales),andcompanyuseforVectren.

Toverifythatthe2006inventorydoesexcludecertainsectors(anddoesnotjustsubsumethemunderothers),wecomparedtheusagenumbersforthesectorslistedinthe2006reporttothenumbersforthosesectorsinthespreadsheetsused.SinceonlytheVectrenspreadsheetgoesbackto2006,andsincethe2006inventorydividesenergyusebysourcefuel(i.e.coalornaturalgas)andnotprovider(i.e.DukeorVectren),itisimpossibletojustcheckwhetherthenaturalgasnumbersmatch(asnaturalgasisnotsolelyprovidedbyVectrenbutalsocontributestoelectricitygenerationthroughDuke).Therefore,2008energyusageinthesethreesectorswascombinedtocomparewiththesectorslistedinthe2006inventory(whileVectrendidprovidedatabackto2006,Dukeprovidedbackto2008,andforthesakeofconsistency2008wasusedforbothsectors).Bloomington’senergyusageacrossthecommercial,residential,andindustrialsectorsin2008totaled2,040,299,376kilowatt-hours;thesumofenergyuseacrossthesectorsgiveninthe2006inventoryequals1,875,338,987kilowatt-hours.Thisisonlyan8%difference,suggestingthatthe2006inventoryonlytookthesethreesectorsintoaccountanddidnotincludeotheronesinitscalculations.Assuch,totalenergyusage(acrossallsectorsprovidedbybothVectrenandDuke)in2008,2,747,548,487kilowatt-hours,islikelymuchmorereflectiveoftotalenergyusagein2006thanthenumbersprovidedinthe2006inventoryitself.Consequently,totalenergy-relatedemissionsfor2008areamuchbetterbaselineforcomparison.Thesecanbecalculatedusingemissionsfactorsfornaturalgasandregionalelectricityproduction(thelatterobtainedfromtheeGRIDspreadsheet).Asthemake-upofsourcesusedtogenerateelectricitychangesovertime(withcoal,forinstance,beingslowlyreplacedbynaturalgas),eGRIDprovidesupdateddataeveryfewyears.Themostaccurateemissionsfactorsfor2008canbefoundoneGRID’spublicationfortheyear2007.Usingtheemissionsfactorsprovidedinthisedition(plusemissionsfactorsfornaturalgasusage),wegetatotal1,296,798metrictonsofCO2-equivalentsemittedin2008fromenergyusage.Comparingthesetwoyears,weseea10%REDUCTIONinenergy-relatedemissions.Thisreduction,however,islikelyhigherifthechangeincoalconsumptionbyIndianaUniversityistakenintoaccount;IndianaUniversityhasincreasinglyusednaturalgasinplaceofcoaltopoweritsCentralHeatingPlant.However,sincethe2016dataincludesboththecoal(whichdecreased)andnaturalgas(whichincreased)usedbyIU,whilethe2008dataonlyincludesthenaturalgasused,thedatashowsanincreaseinnaturalgas-relatedemissionswithoutshowingthecorrespondingdecreaseincoal-relatedones(coalusagedataforIUisnotavailablebefore2009).Assuch,thereductionofenergy-relatedemissionsisalmostcertainlyhigherthan10%.

Transportation Anothersectorwithsignificantdiscrepanciesbetweenthetwoyearsistransportation.Boththe2006and2016inventoriesuseVMTestimatesprovidedbytheIndianaDepartmentofTransportation.However,thenumbersreportedforBloomingtonVMTinthe2006reportdonotalignwiththosefor2006inthespreadsheetusedforthecurrentinventory.ThewayVMTismeasuredinIndianawasupdatedin200933,makingitdifficulttocomparecurrentdatawithdataavailableinyearsbefore2009.Thespreadsheetusedtocreatethisreportgoesbackto2006,sothecurrentspreadsheetcanbeusedinlieuofthedatafromthe2006reporttounderstandanychange.

TheVMTspreadsheetusedforthecurrentreportliststotaldailyVMTbycounty,dividingVMTintostateroadsandcityand/orcountyroads.In2011,theINDOTstarteddividingcityandcountyroads,andsince2012alsoprovidesthetotalcommercialvehiclemilestraveledasasubsetoftotalvehiclemilestraveled.TheINDOT-provided2016VMToncityroadsinMonroeCounty;BloomingtonVMTforthatyearcouldthenbeusedtoapproximatethatforpreviousyearsbydividingBloomingtonVMTbytotalcityroadVMTorMonroeCountyVMT.Doingso,wefounddailyBloomingtonVMTin2006tobe746,064,or240,978,672inannualVMT(ifdailyVMTismultipliedby323,asdoneearlierinthisreport).2016dailyVMTinBloomingtonwas

33AspercorrespondencewithGregoryKatteroftheINDOT.

764,923,givinganannualVMTof247,070,129.Thisislessthanathree-percentchange;furthermore,dailyVMToscillatessomewhatbyyear,andtheredoesnotseemeitheranupwardordownwardtrend.Saveforsmallimprovementsinfuelefficiency,thisdoesnotseemtobeasectorwhereemissionshave(orshouldbeexpectedtohave)changedmuch.

AccordingtostatisticspublishedbytheBureauofTransportationStatistics34andtheEnergyInformationAdministration35,averagefueleconomyofvehiclesin2006was20.4milespergallonforlight-dutyvehiclesand5.9mpgforheavy-dutytrucks.Assumingthatvehiclefleetcomposition(i.e.proportionoflight-dutyandheavy-dutyvehicles)inBloomingtonhasremainedconstantoverthepastdecade,usingthesamemethodaswhenestimating2016emissions36,weestimateatotalof123,977metrictonsofCO2-equivalentsfromtransportationin2006,comparedto116,791metrictonsin2016.Thisisabouta6%decrease.

Solid waste Emissionsresultingfromsolidwastemanagementareremarkablysimilarbetweenthetworeports,showinglessthanasevenpercentincrease.Thisissurprisingbecausethe2016reporttakesintoaccounttheemissionsreductionsresultingfromtheimplementationofthemethane-capturingsystematSycamoreRidgeLandfill.MonroeCountygeneratedatotalof146,126shorttons(U.S.tons)ofsolidwastein2006(asperthe2006inventory),andatotalof140,675tonsin2016.However,giventhatamethane-capturingsystemwasinstalledstartingin2008andiscurrentlyactive,methaneemissions(andthusoverallgreenhousegasemissions)shouldbemuchlower.ItislikelythatthecalculationscarriedoutbytheICLEIsoftwareforthe2006inventoryresultedinanunderestimationofcarbonemissionsforthatyear(furthermore,astheequationsusedinthe2006reportarenotprovidedexplicitly,itisimpossibletofindtheexactsourceofthediscrepancy).Thesimilaritybetweenthetwonumbersshouldnotbereadasreflectiveoftheactualchangeinemissions,asitisalmostcertainthatgreenhousegasemissionsfromBloomington’ssolidwastedisposalhavedecreasedsignificantly.Whilethe2016inventorydoesnottakeintoaccountthecarbondioxideresultingfromflaringlandfillgas,theresultingemissionsshouldnonethelessbemuchlowerthanbeforeflaring,giventhedifferencesinglobalwarmingpotentialbetweencarbondioxideandmethane.Furthermore,whilethe2016inventorydoesnotaccountforthetransportationofwastetolandfillsnorforemissionofanygreenhousegasotherthanmethaneresultingfromlandfillgasleakage,neitherdoesthe2006inventory.

Inthissituation,amuchbetterwayofcalculatingreductionsinwaste-relatedemissionsisbyestimatingtheexpectedreductionduetothecollectionsystem.Wecancalculatearoughestimateoftheexpectedreductionsinwaste-relatedemissionsmakingthefollowingassumptions**:

• A75%collectionefficiencyoftheinstalledlandfillgascollectionsystem• Wastestreamcompositionhasnotchangedmuchsince2006• A1-to-1methane-carbondioxideconversionratioonthemolecularlevel(asperthe

methanecombustionequationCH4+2O2àCO2+2H2O)• Completecombustionofmethaneflared

**Theseassumptions,particularlythelattertwo,areadmittedlyveryoversimplified;therearelikelymanymorechemicalreactionsinvolved,andcompletecombustionisahighlyunlikelyassumption.However,giventheinformationandresources

34https://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_04_23.html35https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/annual/showtext.php?t=ptb020836Theshareofdieselandgasolinevehicleswasthesamein2006asin2013,themostrecentyearforwhichdataisavailable.

available,itwasdecidedthatthiscalculationwouldstillyieldamuchbetterestimateofemissionsreductionsthancomparisonofthetworeports.

Emissionreductionestimationmethodology:

2006:100%(amountoflandfillgasemittedasmethane)*16.04grams(massofonemoleofmethane)*28(globalwarmingpotentialofmethane)=449.12gramsofCO2-equivalentfromonemoleofmethaneproducedinthe

landfill

2016:[25%(amountoflandfillgasemittedasmethane)*16.04grams(massofonemoleofmethane)*28(globalwarmingpotentialofmethane)+75%*44.01grams(massofonemoleofcarbondioxide)*1(globalwarmingpotentialofcarbondioxide)]*.90(percentageofwastegoingtoSycamoreRidgeandSouthSideLandfill,bothofwhichhavemethanecapturesystems)+100%(amountoflandfillgasemittedasmethane)*16.04grams(massofonemoleofmethane)*28(globalwarmingpotentialofmethane)*.10(percentageofwastegoingtoMedoraLandfill,whichdoesnothaveamethanecapturesystem)=175.67gramsofCO2-equivalentfromonemoleof

methaneproducedinthelandfill,aftertheinstallationofthemethanecollectionsystem

Percentchangefrom2006to2016:(175.67–449.12)/449.12=-0.61;a61%decrease

Usingthisestimateddecrease,wecanretroactivelycalculatewaste-relatedemissionsfrom2006:

47,214metrictonsofCO2-equivalent(2016emissions)/(1-.61)(amountofthedecrease)=120,708metrictonsofCO2-equivalentemittedfromsolidwastedisposalin2006

Natural gas leakage Although,incomparisontootherareas,leakagefromnaturalgassystemsisanareaoverwhichBloomingtonhasmuchlesscontrol,comparisonacrossyearsisstillusefulforthepurposesofviewingtotalemissionreductions.The2016EPANationalGreenhouseGasInventory,documentingemissionsfrom1990to2014,doesnotexplicitlyaddressleakagein2006,butitdoesfor2005;2005emissionswerechosenheretoapproximate2006emissions.Themostupdatedversionoftheinventoryestimatesemissionsfromnaturalgassystemsleakagein2005at177.3millionmetrictonsofCO2-eofmethaneand30.1millionmetrictonsofCO2.DividedbytotalU.S.consumptionin2005,22,014,434millioncubicfeet,thisyieldsaratioof.00078metrictonsofCO2-eofmethaneperthermofnaturalgasconsumedand.00013metrictonsofCO2perthermofnaturalgas.MultipliedbyBloomingtonusage,thisyieldsatotalof32,825.45metrictonsofCO2-equivalent.Multipliedbythe1.25factortoaccountforpossibleEPAunderestimation,wegetanestimateof41,032metrictonsofCO2-equivalentsemittedfromtransmissionanddistributionlossesfromnaturalgassystemsin2005.Thisshowsa14%increaseinindirectemissionsfromnaturalgasusagebetween2005and2016.

Overall change in emissions Bloomington’stotalestimatedemissionsin2006are1,582,515metrictonsofCO2-equivalent;in2016emissionswereestimatedat1,375,237metrictons.Thisshowsa13%decreaseingreenhousegasemissionsfrom2006to2016,withemissionsfallinginallareasexceptintransmissionanddistributionofnaturalgas,wheretherewasasmallincrease.Thereasonsforthisfallinemissionsarenumerousanddiscussedbelow.

Table 14: Bloomington emissions in 2006 and 2016

Year 2006 2016Energy 1,296,798 1,164,605

Transportation 123,977 116,791

Solidwaste 120,708 47,214

Naturalgasleakage 41,032 46,627

Total 1,582,515 1,375,237

Figure 6: Bloomington emissions in 2006 and 2016

Table 15: Yearly greenhouse gas emissions per capita (in metric tons CO2-equivalent)**

Year 2006 2016

Emissions(metrictons) 20.05 16.36

**Seesectionbelowtitled“EfficiencyImprovements”forexplanationofhowpopulationwascalculated

0

200000

400000

600000

800000

1000000

1200000

1400000

1600000

1800000

energy transportamon solidwaste naturalgasleakage total

Metricto

nsofcarbo

ndioxideeq

uivalentemissions

Sectors

Greenhousegasemissionsin2006and2016bysector

2006 2016

Figure 7: Greenhouse gas emissions per capita

Change in energy mix ThedecreaseinBloomington’senergy-relatedemissionsfollowsthenationaltrend.AccordingtoEIAreports,U.S.carbondioxideemissionsrelatedtoenergydropped12%between2005and2015.37Thislargelyhastodowiththedecreaseduseofcoalandincreaseduseofnaturalgas,amuchlesscarbon-intensivefuel,inelectricgeneration.ThischangeisreflectedinthedifferenceinemissionsfactorsprovidedintheeGRID’s2007and2014editions:eGRID’seditionfor2007emissionsgivesanemissionsfactorof1,559.94poundsofCO2-equivalentpermegawatt-hourconsumedofelectricityintheRFCWestRegion(whereIndianaislocated),whilethatfor2014givesanemissionsfactorof1390.9poundsofCO2-equivalentpermegawatt-hourofelectricity,showingan11%dropinoverallemissionsperunitofelectricityconsumed(interestingly,methaneemissionsperunitofelectricityconsumedexperiencedasignificantrisebetweenthesetwoyears,likelyaresultoftheincreaseduseofnaturalgasforelectricityproduction).InBloomingtonspecifically,asstatedabove,IndianaUniversityhasincreasinglyusednaturalgasinsteadofcoalforitsCentralHeatingPlantduetoitscurrentlylowerprice,contributingtoadropinemissions.

Efficiency improvements AnotherfactorcontributingtodecreasesinemissionsbothinBloomingtonandnationwideliesinenergyefficiencyimprovements.Between2008and2016,Bloomington’spopulationincreasedbyaboutsixpercent38;however,consumptionofpurchasedelectricityduringthesametimedecreasedby11%.Assuch,therehasbeenadecreaseinenergyconsumptionpercapitainBloomington.Theclearestdecreaseinenergyusehasbeenthemunicipalgovernment,whichhaspursuedenergy-savingpoliciesofvarioustypes,includinginstallationofLEDlights,motionsensors,andHVACupgradesinitsbuildings.Overall,municipalelectricityusehasdecreasedby19%between2008and2016.Theresidentialsectorhasalsoseensomedecreasesinelectricityconsumption,withconsumptionnearly10%lowerin2016thanin2008,thoughthereislessconsistentofatrend.Inparticular,theMonroeCountyEnergyChallenge,initiallystartedaspartofanationalcompetition,hasactivelyworkedtopromoteenergyefficiencyinBloomington,spreadingawarenessofitsimportanceandconductingfreeenergyassessmentsandhomeweatherizationvisits,amongotherthings. 37https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=26152#38Bloomington’spopulationchangewasestimatedbymultiplyingMonroeCounty’s2006population(availableintheU.S.CensusBureau’sintercensaltables)bythepercentageofMonroeCounty’sresidentslivinginBloomingtonin2006(providedinthe2006inventory),thencomparingthattothe2016population.

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Tosomeextent,theseimprovementsreflectnationwideimprovementsinenergyefficiencyinvariousareas.Whileimprovementsinsomeareas,suchasadoptionofcertainindustrialtechnologies,havebeenextremelysmall,otherareashaveseensignificantimprovements.Boththemunicipalandresidentialsectorshaveseendecreasesinenergyuse(withthemunicipalsectorinparticularseeingbigimprovements).Togetherwithchangesinhowelectricityisproduced,theseefficiencygainshavecontributedtoa14%decreaseingreenhousegasemissionsperdollarofGDPbetween2006and2014andasimilardecreaseinemissionspercapitaduringthesameperiod39.

Figure 8: Bloomington electricity usage

**Notethatthey-axisdoesnotextendtozero,sothedownwardtrendmayseemgreaterthanitactuallyis.

Thisdownwardtrendisstatisticallysignificant,withat-valueof2.75(surpassingthecriticalvalue2.365).

Fuel efficiency improvements WhileimprovementsinaveragefuelefficiencydidhaveaneffectonBloomington’stransportation-relatedemissions,thisimprovementwasmuchsmallerthanthatseeninothersectors:ameresixpercent.Whilefuelefficiencystandardshavesteadilyincreasedfornewcarmodels(surpassing50mpginthe2025modelyear),

39https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-us-greenhouse-gas-emissions

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Image5:TheEnergyBus,ajointinitiativeoftheMonroeCountyEnergyChallengeandSouth-CentralCommunityActionProgram

theseresultinaslowerdecreaseinemissionsdueto(asistobeexpected)slowerautomobilereplacementrates.

Methane capture Thesectorthatexperiencedthelargestdecreaseinemissionswasthesolidwastesector,witha68%decreasesimplyduetotheinstallationofalandfillgasextractionsystematSycamoreRidgeLandfill.WhilenotBloomington’slargestemittingsector,thissectordoesdemonstratethatsomesimple(oratleaststraightforward,albeitexpensive)stepscanhavesignificantimpactsindecreasingemissions.

Comparison to targets Whileinitselfanencouragingfinding,Bloomington’sreductioninemissionsshouldbecomparedtobroaderemissionstargetsandgoalstojudgeitsperformance.The2006reportsetemissionsgoalsfortheyear2012,inlinewiththeU.S.Mayors’ClimateProtectionAgreement,basedonretroactivelycalculated1990emissions.Duetothequestionablevalidityofthe1990estimates,performanceintermsofthisgoal(a7%reductioninemissionsby2012using1990asabaseline)isnotassessedhere;instead,nationaltargetsformorerecentyearsareused.

In2011,theU.S.setapreliminarygoal(inconformitywithanticipatedlegislation)ofreducingeconomy-wideemissionsby17%from2005levelsby202040.InpreparationfortheParisAgreement,itsetanintendednationallydeterminedcontribution(INDC)ofreducingemissionsby26-28%by2025,againusing2005asabaseline41.Boththeseproposalsdesignedtoalignwiththewidelyagreed-upongoalofreducinggreenhousegasemissionsby80%from2000levelsby2050.Thislong-termgoal,accordingtowidespreadscientificconsensususedtoinformtheParistalks,wouldresultina50%chanceofpreventingaverageglobaltemperaturesfromrisingmorethan2°C(3.6°F)anda67%changeofpreventingariseofmorethan3°C42.

Bloomingtonhastakenstepstomeetthesegoals,butcouldmakeamuchmoresignificantcommitment.Whiletherearemoderateyearlyfluctuationsinemissionsduetodifferencesinweatherfromyeartoyear,therehasbeenageneraldownwardtrend,largelyasaresultofefficiencyimprovementsanddecreasedrelianceoncoal,asdiscussedabove–bothareaswherethecommunityhasonlylimitedimpact.Soalthoughthesefindingsareencouraging,theyshouldnotbereceivedwithcomplacency.

Globally,emissionreductiongoalshavefailednumeroustimesinthepast(makingsubsequentgoalsincreasinglyurgent).Furthermore,eventhe80%reductiongoalfor2050leavesasignificantrisk(50%)oftemperaturesincreasingbymorethan2°C,widelyconsideredathreshold,thesurpassingofwhichcanleadtofar-reachingandcatastrophicchangesinweatherpatternsandsea-levelrise,amongotherthings.Evenlessthana2°Cchangeisconsidereddangerousinmanyestimations;the1°Cincreasethatwehaveexperiencedsincepre-industriallevelshasalreadyresultedinsignificantconsequencesformanyecosystemsandmillionsofpeoplearoundtheworld.Itisworthwhiletomentionthat,whileemissionspercapitaintheU.S.(andspecificallyinBloomington)havebeendecreasing,theyarestillmuchhigherthanthoseinmanyotherindustrializedcountries.U.S.percapitaemissionsin2013wereapproximately16.4metrictonsofcarbondioxideperyear(slightlyhigherthantheBloomingtonlevel),incomparisonto9.2inGermanyand7.1intheU.K.Furthermore,itisimportanttonotethatmuchoftheemissionsreductionachievedinBloomingtonisduetothereplacementofcoalwithnaturalgasinresponsetomarketprices.Ifpricesrevert(anadmittedlyunlikelyscenario),thisprogresscouldstagnateorbereversed. 40http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2011/sb/eng/inf01r01.pdf41http://www.wri.org/blog/2015/04/us-climate-commitment-should-spur-other-countries-act42http://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/legacy/assets/documents/global_warming/emissions-target-fact-sheet.pdf

Whendiscussingemissionsreductions,itisimportanttoacknowledgeemissionsunaccountedforinofficialinventoriesbutoverwhichcityresidentsstillhaveinfluence.Many(ifnotmost)goodsandservicesconsumedintheBloomingtonareaoriginateelsewhere,andasaresultmanyoftheemissionsassociatedwiththeirproductionandprovisionarenotaccountedforinthisinventory,althoughBloomingtonresidentsdobenefitfromtheirconsumption.Asstatedintheinventory’sintroduction,compilingaconsumption-basedemissionsinventorywasoutsideofthepurviewandscopeofthisproject(whichdoesnot,ofcourse,excludethepossibilityofsuchaprojectbeingdoneinthefuture).However,ifcarriedout,itwouldlikelyshowamuchhighertotalforgreenhousegasemissions,asitwouldexposethehighdegreeofemissionsassociatedwithmanygeographicallyseparatedproductionchains.Nonetheless,residentscanstilltakeindividualandcollectivestepstoreducethistypeofconsumption-relatedemission,including(butnotlimitedto)reducingmeatconsumption,reducingfoodwaste,andlimitingpurchasesofgoodsknowntobeassociatedwithhighlevelsofdeforestation(suchasproductscontainingpalmoil).

Whilethepurposeofthisinventoryisnottoprescribeaplanofaction,thetrendsitpresentscanbeusedasthefoundationforabroadercommunityplanningefforttodirectlocalactionandcontributetoglobaleffortslongintothefuture.