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CHAPTER 32

Latin America: Revolution and Reaction into the 21st Century

CHAPTER SUMMARY

In Latin America, much of the 20th century witnessed a struggle between the forces of revolution

and reaction. The focus of this chapter and the next is on third world nations, which display

great diversity and cultural emphasis. In the second half of the 20th century, Latin America took

an intermediate position between the nations of the North Atlantic and those of Africa and Asia.

Investments often came from the West, and Latin America was vulnerable to the world financial

system. Throughout the 20th century, it grappled with issues of social justice, cultural

autonomy, and economic security. Workers’ organizations emerged as a political force.

Explosive urban growth and emigration were often key concerns. Overall, the economy and

politics were subject to broad shifts. Although much of Latin America was subject to the

rhetoric of social and political change, remarkable little change actually occurred. At the same

time, significant transformations took place in education, social services, women’s rights, and the

role of industry.

Latin America After World War II. The end of World War II was not a critical event since

the region was only modestly involved. Brazil helped the U.S. steel industry during the war and

that sector grew to compete directly with the U.S. by the 1970s. A new round of political

agitation occurred after the war. Several authoritarian regimes were challenged; one key

example was Argentina.

Mexico and the PRI. Mexico continued to be controlled by the PRI but by the end of the 20th

century its hold began to loosen. In 2000, Vicente Fox, of the PAN party, won national election.

A guerrilla movement popped up in the 1990s; meanwhile, the government joined NAFTA in an

effort to spur economic growth.

Radical Options in the 1950s. The most important development in the decade after World War

II was a surge of radical unrest, often of a socialist nature, and the cold war framework came into

play. Of note were events in Bolivia, Guatemala, and Cuba.

Guatemala: Reform and United States Intervention. This nation had some of the region’s

worst problems, including illiteracy, poor health, and high mortality. Its economy depended

almost exclusively on bananas and coffee. When leaders challenged the hegemony of U.S.

economic interests with radical proposals, the latter nation intervened and backed a pro-U.S.

regime, which rose to power. A series of military governments failed to resolve the nation’s

many woes.

The Cuban Revolution: Socialism in the Caribbean. Although the island had periods of

prosperity, the world market for sugar, Cuba’s main export, revealed the tenuous nature of its

economy. A growing disparity between middle and lower economic classes underscored the

nation’s problems. Batista’s rule delivered little on promised reforms, and opposition rose in

various sectors. One of his opponents was Fidel Castro, who pledged real democracy, justice,

and prosperity for all. Castro and Che Guevara gained support from many sides and overthrew

Batista. Castro established collective farms, confiscated property, and set up a Communist

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system of repression supported by the U.S.S.R. A U.S.-sponsored intervention failed and the

Cuban Missile Crisis became one of the most important events of the Cold War. Since the fall of

Communism in Europe, Cuba has become one of the last bastions of that system, but the model

of revolution and successful resistance to U.S. pressure was attractive to rebels in other Latin

American nations.

The Search for Reform and the Military Option. A common theme in Latin America in this

era was the political influence of the Catholic church. Liberation theology combined Catholic

and socialist concepts to promote change, but this system was criticized by Pope John Paul II.

The church did play an important role in the fall of Paraguay’s dictator in the 1980s.

Out of the Barracks: Soldiers Take Power. The success of the Cuban Revolution impressed

and worried those who feared revolutionary change in a Communist mode. Military officers

often saw themselves as above politics and best equipped to solve their nation’s ills. Many times

these leaders had the support of the U.S. In Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, and Peru,

governments were taken over by military-based rulers with repressive authoritarian inclinations.

All these regimes were nationalistic but approached economic problems differently; however, the

result—little or no growth—was a common theme.

The New Democratic Trends. The 1970s and 1980s witnessed an increase in democratization

in many Latin American countries, including Argentina, Brazil, Peru, Nicaragua, Guatemala, and

Panama, but not without problems. Leftist rebel groups continued to agitate in some of them, as

in Colombia and Peru. Cuba remained Communist, but under what appeared to be fewer

restrictions. Economies continued to struggle, with inflation as a common problem. Despite

difficulties, by the 1990s it appeared democratic trends were well established.

The United States and Latin America: Continuing Presence. After World War I, the U.S.

was clearly the dominant power in the Western Hemisphere. In South America private

investments by U.S. companies and loans from the government were the chief means of

influence. Military intervention became a common means of protecting U.S. interests in Latin

America—more than 30 occurred before 1933—and contributed to nationalist reaction. The

grounds for these interventions were economic, political, strategic, and ideological. The U.S.

Good Neighbor Policy of the 1930s and the Alliance for Progress of the 1960s sought to

ameliorate tensions. In the 1970s, the U.S.-built and operated Panama Canal was ceded to the

Panamanian government. In 1990, that country’s dictator was overthrown by U.S. forces.

In Depth: Human Rights in the 20th Century. Human rights violations occured in Latin

America in the 1960s and later mirrored actions in other parts of the world. The concept of

human rights may go back to the ancient Greeks. Belief in natural law led to the protection of

minorities in the 19th century in Europe and the United States. In the 20th century, the United

Nations issued a Universal Declaration of Human Rights, but included little power of

enforcement. What seemed obvious to Western sensibilities was less so in other regions, partly

because of economic and/or cultural differences. One big argument had been over what exactly

constitutes human rights. Differing political ideologies place different priorities over protecting

human rights and employ different strategies to do so.

Societies in Search of Change. Societal relations changed slowly in Latin America. Women’s

status was, however, closer to those of western Europe than Africa. There were many changes,

but discrimination continues.

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Slow Change in Women’s Roles. Women were denied the vote until 1929 in Ecuador. By the

1950s, most of the region allowed female franchise. Feminist movements pushed for inclusion

into elected offices. Industrial jobs expanded to include women. Shifts in attitudes about

women’s roles developed more slowly. Overall, as in many other areas, by the beginning of the

21st century, Latin America was in the intermediate position between industrialized and

developing nations where the status of women was concerned.

The Movement of People. Latin America’s population soared in comparison to North America.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the major population trend was immigration into Latin

America, but long-term trends show migration within and through the region. Illegal

immigration from Central America into Mexico and from Mexico into the United States was a

major regional issue. Legal migration from Haiti and Cuba because of political dissatisfaction to

the U.S. was another big event. Rapid and massive urban growth was yet another common

theme in Latin America is this era; in 1999, the region was the most urbanized of the developing

world. Problems related to this rapid growth remain. Nationalist and populist politics weakened

the ability of the working class to operate effectively in politics.

Cultural Reflections of Despair and Hope. The vast majority of Latin Americans are Catholic,

but Protestants are making inroads. Music and dance are important parts of popular culture and

are influential world-wide. Writers gained world recognition, especially those who penned

social criticism and/or employed “magical realism.”

Global Connections: Struggling Toward the Future in a Global Economy. As Latin

America entered the 21st century, it continued to seek economic, social, and political growth and

stability. New forms of politics were tried, but many long-standing problems remained.

Nevertheless, Latin America was the most advanced region of the “developing” world and in the

1990s its economies grew considerably. Cultural issues remained unresolved and Latin

America’s global position became increasingly complex.

KEY TERMS

Third World: The developing nations and regions, including Latin America.

PRI: Party of the Industrialized Revolution. The political party in Mexico that dominated in the

20th century.

Zapatistas: Armed guerrilla movement in the Chiapas region of Mexico in the 1990s.

NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement. Non-tariff policy between the U.S., Canada,

and Mexico that began in the 1990s.

Juan José Arevalo: Elected president of Guatemala in the 1940s. His attempts at reform

brought him into conflict with the United Fruit Company.

United Fruit Company: U.S. corporation that controlled the banana trade in much of Latin

America. It was the largest foreign-based corporation in that region and it influenced political

and social concerns.

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Fulgencio Batista: Authoritarian ruler of Cuba until overthrown by Castro.

Fidel Castro: Communist dictator of Cuba since 1959. Backed up by Soviet regime. The

Cuban Revolution he led inspired others to attempt similar models in Latin America.

“Che” Guevara: Militant Argentine revolutionary who assisted Castro in Cuba and was killed

attempting a similar revolt in Bolivia.

Liberation Theology: A combination of Catholic theology and socialism, promoted (but not

employed) in Latin America by some clergy and fewer politicians.

Salvador Allende: Socialist leader of Chile; overthrown by military junta in 1973.

Sandinista party: Leftist political group in Nicaragua backed by the U.S.S.R. Ousted in

elections in 1990.

Augusto Sandino: Led resistance against U.S. influence in Nicaragua in the 1930s.

Banana republics: Term used to describe Latin American nations with corrupt governments.

Good Neighbor Policy: U.S. policy toward Latin America, begun in the 1930s, that promised

less intervention.

Alliance for Progress: U.S. policy toward Latin America, begun in the 1960s, that promised

economic aid.

Favelas: Brazilian term for shantytowns.

Jorge Luis Borges and Gabriel García Marquez: writers rejecting traditional form as

unsuitable for representing reality; turned to “magical realism.”

LESSON SUGGESTIONS

Leader Analysis Fidel Castro

Conflict Analysis Cuban Missile Crisis

Change Analysis Trend toward democracy

Societal Comparison Latin American, African, and European attitudes toward women

Document Analysis The People Speak

Inner/Outer Circle In Depth: Human Rights in the 20th Century

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LECTURE SUGGESTIONS

Trace the ebb and flow of pro-socialist governments in Latin America in the 20th century.

Various government leaders proposed and, in many cases, implemented socialist policies to

varying degrees, the greatest extent in Cuba. For years it appeared the Cuban model would be

repeated in other nations but democracy took hold and was clearly on the rise by the end of the

century.

Evaluate the relationship between the U.S. and Latin American nations in the 20th century.

Intervention into Latin American nations was a common U.S. policy before and throughout the

20th century, from Panama before World War I to Panama after the cold war, with many

countries recipients of U.S. intervention in between. Attempts to mollify relations were of some

use. Immigration matters were another concern between the U.S. and Latin America.

CLASS DISCUSSION SUGGESTIONS

Describe the political and economic reasons for the United States’ interventions in Latin

America.

After World War I, the U.S. was clearly the dominant power in the Western Hemisphere. In

South America, private investments by U.S. companies and loans from the government were the

chief means of influence. Military intervention became a common means of protecting U.S.

interests. The grounds for these interventions were economic, political, strategic, and ideological.

The U.S. Good Neighbor Policy of the 1930s and the Alliance for Progress of the 1960s sought

to ameliorate tensions.

Evaluate the reasons why the Cuban Revolution did not spread to other areas of Latin

America.

Cuba has become one of the last bastions of that system, but the model of revolution and

successful resistance to U.S. pressure was attractive to rebels in other Latin American nations.

However, the United States has either used intervention or containment to deal with the

insurrections.

Describe the political, economic, and social factors that placed this region between the

developed and third worlds.

United States programs such as the Good Neighbor Program and Alliance for Progress aimed to

develop the region and foster a cozy relationship between the countries and the United States.

The first world has tried to send aid while neglecting to deal with social issues, or being

concerned with how the relationship affected first-world social issues.

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Trace the status of women in this region during the 20th century.

Latin American women’s status was closer to those of western Europe than Africa. There were

many changes, but discrimination continues. Women were denied the vote until 1929 in Ecuador.

By the 1950s, most of the region allowed female franchise. Feminist movements pushed for

inclusion into elected offices. Industrial jobs expanded to include women. Shifts in attitudes

about women’s roles developed more slowly. Overall, as in many other areas, by the beginning

of the 21st century, Latin America was in the intermediate position between industrialized and

developing nations where the status of women was concerned.

Appraise the social factors that slowed the advancement of women.

Inequalities in the workplace and politics are commonplace in Latin America. There are still

lingering social prejudices that are cultural and transcend time and place.

Identify the problems that faced Latin America as the 20th century ended.

As Latin America entered the 21st century, it continued to seek economic, social, and political

growth and stability. New forms of politics were tried, but many long-standing problems

remained. There are no easy solutions in this region. Nevertheless, Latin America was the most

advanced region of the “developing” world and in the 1990s its economies grew considerably.

Cultural issues remained unresolved and Latin America’s global position became increasingly

complex.

Trace the factors that led to the spread of democracy throughout the region.

Several factors have led to the spread of democracy throughout the region, including the

following: movement of people within the region, the end of the cold war, United States aid and

trade, and the internationalization of the labor markets and trade markets.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE: Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or

answers the question.

1. The islands disputed between Great Britain and Argentina were the

A) Falklands.

B) Easter.

C) West Indies.

D) Antilles.

E) Bahamas.

2. The U.S. corporation that yielded great power in Latin America in the banana industry was

A) American Banana Corporation.

B) Fruit Company of California.

C) United Fruit Company.

D) Bananas “R” Us.

E) Fruit, Incorporated.

3. He worked with Castro in the Cuban Revolution:

A) Batista

B) Arbenz

C) Arevalo

D) Guevara

E) Allende

4. The socialist president of Chile who was overthrown by the military in 1973 was

A) Peron.

B) Romero.

C) da Camara.

D) Allende.

E) Batista.

5. Internal military forces did NOT overthrow governments in the 20th century in which of these

nations?

A) Peru

B) Mexico

C) Brazil

D) Argentina

E) Uruguay

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6. Which of these nations did NOT experience direct U.S. military intervention in the 20th

century?

A) Haiti

B) Nicaragua

C) Dominican Republic

D) Cuba

E) Peru

7. What was the name of the U.S. policy toward Latin America that promised to deal more fairly

with Latin America and stop direct intervention?

A) Good Neighbor Policy

B) Alliance for Progress

C) Peace Corps

D) NAFTA

E) Pan American Conference

8. Comparatively speaking, the status of Latin American women was in many ways closer to

which other region?

A) Western Europe

B) East Asia

C) South Africa

D) North Africa

E) Central Asia

9. In Latin American, women made up what percentage of the legislators by the mid-1990s?

A) 1

B) 4

C) 9

D) 22

E) 44

10. Which Latin American country was NOT a major source of immigration to the United

States?

A) Cuba

B) Haiti

C) Mexico

D) Venezuela

E) Nicaragua

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SHORT ANSWER. Write the word or phrase that best completes each statement or

answers the question.

1. The developing nations are often referred to as the ______________________.

2. In the 1990s, the U.S., Canada, and Mexico formed an economic agreement called

________________.

3. The U.S. governmental agency known as the _______________ trained dissidents to

invade Guatemala and later Cuba.

4. The authoritarian leader of Cuba before the Castro-led revolution was _____________.

5. An economic, social, and political movement in Latin America that fused Catholic

theology and socialism was known as ____________________.

6. The Marxist government in Nicaragua that was removed in an election in 1990 was led

by the _____________ party.

7. Corrupt governments led by strongmen and funded by export of tropical products were

known as _________________.

8. In 1948, the United Nations listed basic liberties to all people with the publication of

the ___________________.

9. Inequalities based on ________________ continued in some places in Latin America

into the 21st century.

10.The Argentine dance made popular worldwide in the early 20th century was the

______________.

TRUE/FALSE. Write “T” if the statement is true and “F” if the statement is false.

1. In Mexico in 1994, a rebel movement that called itself Chiapas showed that key social

issues remained unresolved.

2. In Latin America, successes in political democratization, economic development, and

social reforms led to consideration of radical solutions to national issues.

3. Cuba’s efforts to industrialize in the 1960s were largely unsuccessful.

4. The United States invaded Panama and ousted its dictator Manuel

Noriega.

5. After World War I, the United States emerged as the dominant power in Latin

America.

6. The Alliance for Progress was Jimmy Carter’s policy for cooperation in the Latin America.

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7. Population growth, urbanization, and worker migration continued to challenge political

leaders in Latin America during the late 20th

century.

8. The role of women in in Latin America changed slowly in the 20th century.

9. Latin America stands in an intermediate position between industrial and developing

nations in terms of social and economic conditions.

10. During the 20th century there was little movement in Latin America from rural to

urban areas.

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ANSWER KEY

Multiple Choice

1. A 6. E

2. C 7. A

3. D 8. A

4. D 9. C

5. B 10.D

Short Answer

1. Answer: third world countries

2. Answer: NAFTA

3. Answer: CIA

4. Answer: Batista

5. Answer: Liberation theology

6. Answer: Sandinista

7. Answer: banana republics

8. Answer: Declaration of Human Rights

9. Answer: ethnicity

10.Answer: Tango

True/False

1. F 6. F

2. F 7. T

3. T 8. T

4. T 9. T

5. T 10. F

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CHAPTER 32

TIMELINE

Insert the following events into the timeline. This should help you to compare important

historical events chronologically.

Cuban Missile Crisis Falkland Islands war

Allende overthrown Good Neighbor Policy

Sandinistas lose power in Nicaragua Castro takes over Cuba

____ 1933

____ 1959

____ 1962

____ 1973

____ 1982

____ 1989

TERMS, PEOPLE, EVENTS

The following terms, people and events are important to your understanding of the

chapter. On a separate sheet of paper, define each one.

Bay of Pigs Cuban Revolution Fr. Camilo Torres

Che Guevara PRI Getulio Vargas

Dom Helder da Camara Archbishop Oscar Romero Sendero Luminoso

Falkland Islands United Fruit Company Salvador Allende

Fidel Castro Zapatistas Alliance for Progress

Fulgencio Batista Sandinistas liberation theology

Jacobo Arbenz 26th of July Movement barbudos

Juan Peron Good Neighbor Policy Hugo Chávez

Manuel Noriega Lula populist nationalism

Pablo Neruda Jimmy Carter third world

Falkland War Zapatistas spiritual socialism

Grenada Banana republics National Action Party

U.N. Declaration of Human Rights Vicente Fox

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MAP EXERCISE

The following exercise is intended to clarify the geophysical environment and the spatial

relationships among the important objects and places mentioned in the chapter. Locate the

following places on the map.

Panama El Salvador

Dominican Republic Cuba

Nicaragua Haiti

What economic and political reasons did the United States employ as rationale for

intervening militarily in the above nations?