2018 Production Of Gelatin From Animal Byproducts

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Chemical engineering Thesis and Dissertations

2018

Production Of Gelatin From Animal Byproducts

Solomon, Tewodros

http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/11112

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Bahir Dar Institute Of Technology

Faculty Of Chemical & Food Engineering

Chemical Engineering Department

Production Of Gelatin From Animal Byproducts

Thesis Submitted To Bahir Dar Institute Of Technology In Partial Fulfillment

For The Award Of Bachelor Of Science Degree In Chemical Engineering

Tewodros Solomon…..….……..……..0601655

Senait Shita…………..….…………....0601460

Tilahun Aytenew……………………..0601675

Adviser: Mr. Gemechu Kassa

June 2018

Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Declaration

This research entitled by production of gelatin from animal byproducts is our own original work.

Wherever contribution of others are involved, every effort is made to indicate this clearly, with

due reference to the literature, and acknowledgment of collaborative research and discussions. The

work is done under the guidance of Mr. Gemechu Kassa.

We want everyone to know that this project is prepared by our own effort and no one else is neither

involved in its preparation nor it is copied.

Name of Adviser Signature Date

Mr. Gemechu Kassa …….…………… ....………….

Name of Students Signature Date

Tewodros Solomon ………………….. …….….…...

Senait Shita ………………….. ………..…...

Tilahun Aytenew ………………….. ………..…...

Acknowledgment

Before all, we would like to thank the almighty God for helping us finish this work. It gives us a

great pleasure to acknowledge our advisor Mr. Gemechu Kassa for his guidance, collaboration,

advice and critical comments during this study. We would also like to express our sincere gratitude

to Mr. Asnake for his collaboration in providing the things we needed and for allowing us to stay

in the laboratory and finish our work even at lunchtimes. Last but not least, we would love to thank

all the lab personnel at Food Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, Amhara Design & Supervision Works

Enterprise and Blue Nile Water Institute for supporting us both by idea and materials, and finally

our friends for supporting us in the manual work and the encouragement throughout this work.

Executive Summary

Gelatin is derived from animal by-products through partial hydrolysis of collagen. It is applicable

to food, pharmaceutical, and some other industries. Our reason behind the idea of producing gelatin

is the fact that gelatin is difficult to be easily accessed to many industries found in our country due

to its price (on average $6.67 per kg in the international market). In our work, type-A gelatin was

produced to be used as food additive. The process consists of raw material collection, inspection,

size reduction, pretreatment, and characterization. Some of the characterized parameters include

moisture, protein and nitrogen content, viscosity, pH, iron, zinc etc. Their average results are

10.862%, 96.37%, 15.103%, 35.34 mps, 5.55, 3.604 ppm and 1.72 ppm respectively. Except for

the amount of gelatin produced, the other quality parameters are independent of extraction time

and temperature unless there are experimental errors. For the plant design part, we assumed 1000

kg/h of raw material feed to the units, clearly calculated the material and energy balance in detail,

and equipment sizing with proper elaboration. The plant feasibility study resulted in net profit of

150,717 USD, Rate of Return value of 17.568 % and a payback period of 5.69 years.

List of Acronyms

A.A – Addis Ababa

BiT – Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

BS – Bones and Skins

Cp - Specific Heat

FCI - Fixed Capital Cost

g – grams

GHG - Green House Gases

HR - Human Resource

LDPE - Low-Density Polyethylene

M.B - Material Balance

mm – millimeter

PEC - Equipment Purchasing Cost

PFD - Process Flow Diagram

RM - Raw Material

Rs - Indian Rupee

SG - Specific Gravity

TCI - Total Capital Investment

T - tonnes

TMC - Total Manufacturing Cost

USD - United States Dollar

WC - Working Capital

Table of Contents

Declaration……………………………………………………………………………………...i

Acknowledgment……………………………………………………………………………….ii

i

Executive Summary………………………………………………….……...…………………iv

Chapter 1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….1

1.1 Background………………………………………………………………………..………..1

1.2 Statement of Problem……………………………………………………………..………..3

1.3 Objectives………………………………………………………………………..…………3

1.4 Significance of the Study………………………………………………….……..…………4

1.5 Scope of the Project………………………………………………….………..……………4

1.6 Outcome of the Project……………………………………………………..………………4

Chapter 2 Literature Review…………………………………………………………………..14

2.1 Historical Background……………………………………………………………..……….6

2.2 Physical & Chemical Properties…………………….……………………………..……….6

2.3 Basic Raw Materials………………………………………………………………..………8

2.4 Gelatin Production………………………………………………………………..………...9

2.5 Worldwide Production Trends of Gelatin…………………………………………………10

2.6 Uses of Gelatin…………………………………………………………………………….12

Chapter 3 Methodology……………………………………………………………………….22

3. 1 Chemicals & Equipments………………………………………………………………...14

3.1.1 Chemicals ..................................................................................................................... 14

3.1.2 Equipment .................................................................................................................... 14

3.2 Methods……………………………………………………………………………………15

3.2.1 Experimental Procedures ............................................................................................. 15

3.3 Characterization…………………………………………………………………………...21

3.4 Experimental Design………………………………………………………………………35

Chapter 4 Results & Discussions……………………………………………………….……..36

4.1 Laboratory Results………………………………………………………………………...28

Chapter 5 Plant Design for the Production of Gelatin………………………………………...40

5.1 Introduction………………………………………………….…………………………….32

5.2 Mode of Operation…………………………………….…………………………………..32

5.3 Capacity of the Plant………………………………………………………………………32

5.4 Plant Design & Process Synthesis………………………………………………………...32

5.5 Product Demand Assessment……………………………………………………………..32

5.6 The Manufacturing Process……………………………………………………………….33

5.7 Material & Energy Balance……………………………………………………………….35

5.7.2 Energy Balance………………………………………………………………………….43

Chapter 6 Economic Evaluation of the Feasibility Design…..………………………………..61

6.1 Utilities……………………………………………………………….……………………53

6.2 Human Resource (HR) Requirement……………………………….……………………..53

6.3 Engineering……………………………………………………….……………………….55

6.4 Total Production Cost of the Plant…………………………….………………………….57

6.5 General Exchange…………………………………………………………………………58

6.6 Determination of Unit Cost of Production………………………………………………...59

6.7 Profitability Analysis……………………………………………………………………...60

6.8 Cash Flow…………………………………………………………………………………61

6.9 Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)………………………………………………………62

Chapter 7 Conclusion & Recommendation…………………………………………………...74

7.1 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………...66

7.2 Recommendation………………………………………………………………………….67

List of Tables

Table 2. 1 Standard Quality Parameters of Gelatin ...................................................................... 10

Table 2. 2 Generalized application of gelatin in different areas of production ............................ 13

Table 3. 1 Experimental Design…………………………………………………………………27

Table 4. 1 The experimental results in comparison with the standard values…………………...28

Table 5. 1 Gelatin Import Demand of Ethiopia………………………………………………….33

Table 6. 1 Utilities Requirement & Cost………………………………………………………...53

Table 6. 2 Human Resource Requirement & Labor Cost ............................................................. 53

Table 6. 3 List of Machinery & Equipment .................................................................................. 55

Table 6. 4 Costs that Constitute the Total Capital Investment ..................................................... 56

Table 6. 5 Annual Raw Materials Requirement & Cost ............................................................... 57

List of Figures

Fig 3. 1 Sun drying for moisture removal ..................................................................................... 16

Fig 3. 2 Size reduction by using stone .......................................................................................... 16

Fig 3. 3 Acid and alkaline treatment ............................................................................................. 17

Fig 3. 4 washing to remove surface attached chemicals & bad odor ............................................ 18

Fig 3. 5 The Autoclave used in the extraction of gelatin .............................................................. 19

Fig 3. 6 Sample inside the extractor.............................................................................................. 19

Fig 3. 7 Sample cooling prior to filtration .................................................................................... 20

Fig 3. 8 The gelatin - water mixture ............................................................................................. 20

Fig 3. 9 The remaining bones after extraction .............................................................................. 21

Fig 3. 10 Sample before entering into the oven ............................................................................ 22

Fig 3. 11 Moisture removal inside the oven ................................................................................. 22

Fig 3. 12 Kjeldahl Digester used in Protein & Nitrogen Content determination .......................... 23

Fig 3. 13 the soxhlet extractor used in fat content determination ................................................. 25

Fig 3. 14 Sample cooling prior to fat content calculation ............................................................. 26

Fig 4. 1 Effect of Extraction Temperature on Yield……………………………………………..30

Fig 4. 2 Effect of Extraction Time on Yield……………………………………………………..31

Fig 6. 1 Cash flow diagram………………………………………………………………………61

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Food industries use a variety of raw materials; some as the major raw material and the rest as

additives. From those raw materials; some are organic and the others inorganic depending on the

product specification and methodology. There are different organic raw materials which would be

consumed directly in food and non-food processing industries, from those raw materials; gelatin

is one of the most widely used ingredients. It is an important raw material in many factories used

as a main or additive substance to the final specific product. But, unlike other organic raw

materials, it can't be easily accessed as the raw materials. Therefore, it has to be produced before

using it.

Gelatin is a traditional water-soluble functional protein of high interest and value, having

the ability to form transparent gels under specific conditions. It is generally obtained by heat

dissolution at alkaline or acidic conditions and partial hydrolysis of collagen in animal skins,

bones, and tendons. It presents in structure with variable physical properties and chemical

heterogeneity due to the differences in collagen sources and preparation techniques [1].

Gelatin has a long period of production background, the earliest production was in Holland around

1685 and then shortly followed by England in 1700. The first commercial production of gelatin

appears to have been in Massachusetts, the USA in 1808 [2]. Gelatin finds its application in food

industries as clarification agent, stabilizer, and protective coating material. Tonnages of gelatin

have been used annually in the food industry, especially in desserts, candies, bakery products,

jellied meat, ice cream, and dairy products. The amount of gelatin that is applicable in the

pharmaceutical industry is not negligible as far as the manufacture of pharmaceutical capsules,

ointments, cosmetics, tablet coating and emulsions are concerned. It is also applicable to

photography and some specialized industries.

Gelatin has been around for centuries, history says it was first used in Egyptian times. Traces of

gelatin were found in a Pharaoh’s grave in the form of glue. The word “gelatin” comes originally

from the Latin word “gelatus” that means “jellied, or frozen.”

History's first references to gelatin were in 1682, however, it wasn't until the 1900's that gelatin

became a household name. Gelatin is used in many different industries. In the health industry, we

use it for [3].

Strengthening hair, skin, and nails

Skin elasticity

Connective tissue production

Bone and joint health

Promotion and stimulation of cell growth in joint cartilage

Restoring mobility of the joints by decreasing inflammation which can reduce pain (like

the pain experienced from arthritis).

The worldwide production amount of gelatin is about 375,000 - 400,000 tonnes per year (830×106

up to 880×106 lb/a) [2]. On a commercial scale, gelatin is made from by-products of the meat and

leather industries. Most gelatin is derived from pork skins and cattle bones or splits of cattle hides

[4]. Fish by-products may also be used because they eliminate some of the religious obstacles

surrounding gelatin consumption [5].

But in our case, our intention is producing gelatin from animal byproducts (specifically cattle

bones) since the raw materials are considered as waste and thrown away every day. In addition,

it's cheap, easily available and doesn't contradict the social and religious beliefs of our community.

Other by-products include pigskin, cattle hides, and bones which are considered as waste both in

the slaughterhouse and butcher shop. But, consideration has to be made on the selection of raw

materials from social, religious, economic and environmental point of view.

It is a valuable product that is derived from animal by-products obtained through partial hydrolysis

of collagen originated from cartilages, bones, white connective tissues, tendons, and skins of

animals. Collagen is distinctive in that it usually contains a high level of cyclic amino acids,

proline, and hydroxyl proline.

Collagen consists of three helical polypeptide chains wound around each other and connected by

intermolecular crosslinks. Gelatin which is derived from an acid-treated process is called type-A

and gelatin from an alkali-treated process is known as type-B [1].

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatin#cite_note-8

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/By-product

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leather

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatin#cite_note-gc-9

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatin#cite_note-Cole-5

It is translucent, brittle, colorless or slightly yellow, nearly tasteless and odorless solid substance.

Nowadays, gelatin is usually available in granular powder form, although it is possible to produce

a sheet based on the requirement to meet the product specification.

Currently, most of the commercial gelatin is sourced from beef bone, hide, and pigskin. More

recently, pig bone is being used. In 2016 GC, it is reported that the worldwide gelatin production

as; 42.11% of gelatin from pigskin, 29.35% from bovine hide, 24.63% sourced from bone and the

remaining 1% from other raw materials like fish and chicken [6].

1.2 Statement of Problem

Gelatin is a multi-functional food substance that is derived from collagen obtained from various

animal body parts. It is highly consumed by many industries such as sugar, beverage, cosmetic,

photographic, pharmaceutical and food processing industries. But, its price (on average Rs 450 or

$ 6.67 per kg in the international market) [7] has made it difficult to be easily available and

applicable to many industries found in our country. So, we came up with the idea of producing

good quality gelatin with minimum cost using animal by-products as a major raw material which

is easily found in slaughterhouses and butcher shops for the purpose of using it as a food additive.

This can resolve issues regarding its utilization and distribution throughout different industries

found in Ethiopia.

1.3 Objectives

General Objective

The main objective of this research is producing good quality gelatin from animal by-products

(mainly bones)

Specific Objectives

To see the effect of time and temperature on the production of gelatin

To characterize our product

Plant design for the production of gelatin

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study has helped us in emphasizing the use of this product related to its availability and basic

properties. In addition, it enabled us in analyzing the pre-requirement that should be fulfilled so

that, someone can produce gelatin.

We’ve also discovered that gelatin is an important product which is irreplaceable with some other

products due to its versatile application in foodstuff and other processing industries. Having these

facts in mind, it’s obvious that gelatin plant should be constructed and start producing this product

here in our country.

In this study, both the gelatin consumption rate and production procedures are discussed briefly.

Producing gelatin can contribute to the country’s economy by saving foreign currency and meeting

the demand and supply of its users. Proper implementation of this program will bring foreign

currency to Ethiopia instead of import expenses and this will encourage small sector investment

to take part that in turn helps the government directly or indirectly. Thus, what we have to do is

advancing the gelatin production mechanism which is expressed in terms of quality and quantity.

From an environmental point of view, both the gelatin production mechanism and the product

itself are environmentally friendly.

1.5 Scope of the Project

Gelatin production from animal skin and bone through better process technology, with

standardized quality, acceptable quantity and fair price is the scope of this project.

1.6 Outcome of the Project

It is known that gelatin is a very important product that is used in different foodstuff industries.

The problem is how to possibly satisfy the requirement of this product for the needing companies.

This problem is being addressed by importing it from abroad to stabilize the demand and supply.

But, importing by itself imposes some issues to the market because price fluctuations regularly

occur in the international market. This high cost of import directly affects the gelatin consuming

local companies, and indirectly the government, because it brings a negative influence on the

taxation system.

The reason is, when local industries are forced to buy gelatin with high cost, they will limit their

production capacity by reducing the gelatin intake rates since it’s an ingredient to produce a

specific product. This condition, in turn, forces the government to collect low tax from those

industries. This situation economically affects the government and the industry sector that is

caused by importation of gelatin. Therefore, to resolve this and other problems, we have to be at

least self-support in terms of gelatin product supply.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Historical Background

The earliest production of gelatin appears to have been in Holland around 1685 and then followed

by England in 1700. The first commercial production of the gelatin product in the USA began

around 1808. This implies the production of gelatin is about 333 years old in Holland [8]. This

product has been produced for a long period of time as we can see its history and some sources say

the primary gelatin producer is the US followed by Great Britain. The total worldwide gelatin

production is about 375,000 - 400,000 metric tons per year [2].

2.2 Physical & Chemical Properties

Gelatin is nearly tasteless and odorless substance. It is a vitreous, brittle solid faintly yellow in

color. It contains 8 - 13% moisture and has a relative density of 1.3 - 1.4. When gelatin granules

are soaked in cold water, they hydrate into discrete, swollen particles. On being warmed, these

swollen particles dissolve to form a solution. This method of preparing gelatin solutions is

preferred, especially where high concentrations are desired. The behavior of gelatin solutions is

influenced by temperature, concentration, and pH, a method of manufacture, thermal history, and

ash content [9].

Gelatin is soluble in aqueous solutions of polyhydric alcohols such as glycerol and propylene

glycol. Highly polar, hydrogen-bonding and organic solvents in which gelatin will dissolve are

acetic acids, trifluoroethanol, and formamide. It is insoluble in less polar organic solvents such as

benzene, acetone, primary alcohols, and dimethylformamide [10]. Gelatin stored in air-tight

containers at room temperature remains unchanged for long periods of time.

When dry gelatin is heated above 45°C in air at relatively high humidity (above 60% RH), it

gradually loses its ability to swell and dissolve [11]. When sterile solutions of gelatin are stored in

cold conditions, they became indefinitely stable; but at elevated temperatures, the solutions are

susceptible to hydrolysis.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatin#cite_note-8

It is a mixture of peptides and proteins produced by partial hydrolysis of collagen extracted from

the skin, bones and connective tissue of animals such as domesticated cattle, chicken, pigs, and fish.

The mechanical property of gelatin gel is sensitive to temperature variation. Two of gelatin's most

useful properties, gel strength, and viscosity; are gradually weakened on prolonged heating in

solution above approximately 40°C. Degradation may also be brought by extreme soft pH and

photolytic enzymes including those which may result from the presence of microorganisms [12].

Gel Strength is the ability to form thermo-reversible gels in water. When an aqueous solution of

gelatin with a concentration greater than approximately 0.5% is cooled to approximately 35 - 40oC

it first increases in viscosity, and later forms gels. The rigidity & strength of gel depends upon

gelatin concentration, the intrinsic strength of gelatin, pH, temperature, and presence of additives.

The gel-forming quality of gelatin is a significant physical parameter [13].

The first step in gelation is a formation of locally ordered regions caused by the partial random

return (renaturation) of gelatin to collagen-like helices (collagen fold). Next, a continuous fibrillar

three-dimensional network of fringed micelles forms throughout the system probably due to non-

specific bond formation between the more ordered segments of chains. Hydrophobic, hydrogen and

electrostatic bond may be involved in the cross bonding. Since these bonds are disrupted on heating,

the gelatin is thermo-reversible [13].

Formation of cross bonds is the slowest part of the process. So, under ideal conditions, the strength

of gel increases with time as more cross bonds are formed. The gel-forming quality of gelatin is a

significant physical parameter. The measurement of this property is very important for indication

of the amount of gelatin required by a particular application [13].

Viscosity is the measure of the intermolecular friction that indicates the basic property of gelatin

which is suited for the specific task.

Molecular weight distribution plays an important role in the effect of viscosity than it does on gel

strength [14]. The viscosity of gelatin solution increases with increasing gelatin concentration and

decreasing temperature.

2.3 Basic Raw Materials

Gelatin is protein obtained by boiling skin, tendons, ligaments, and bones with water. It is usually

obtained from cows or pigs. The basic raw material is the animal slaughterhouse wastes mainly

the neck and face part of the skin including the leg bone and chemicals like H2SO4, Ca (OH)2 and

HCl [15]. Utilities for the production of gelatin are mainly water and electricity. Starting from the

pretreatment section to separation process and the end product packaging, water plays a significant

role in smoothing the whole production. On the other hand, all machines and equipment in gelatin

production require energy, electricity was the only source.

2.3.1 Quantity of Solid Waste from Slaughter Houses

The quantity of solid waste generated from the bovine, goat, sheep and pig slaughterhouses is as

follows; average solid waste generation from the bovine slaughterhouse is 275 kg/tone of total live

weight killed (TLWK) which is equivalent to 27.5% of the animal weight. In case of goat and sheep

slaughterhouse, average waste generation from pig slaughtering is 2.3 kg/head equivalent to 4% of

animal weight [16].

2.3.2 Stacking Of Hides & Skins

After the hide is removed from the animal, it should be cured quickly to avoid decomposition by

bacteria and enzymes. There are four basic treatments. One is air-drying, the second curing with

salt, the third and fourth are curing by mixer and raceway respectively. Salt curing is often used

for the rawhides. The quality of cured hides and skins is usually based on their moisture and salt

content. The moisture level of hides should be in the range of 40 - 48% if they are to remain in

good condition for storage and shipping [17].

2.3.3 Utilization of Hides & Skin

Animal hides have been used for shelters, clothing and as containers by human beings since

prehistoric times. The hides represent a remarkable portion of the weight of the live animal, from

4% to 11% (e.g. cattle: 5.1 - 8.5%, average: 7.0%; sheep: 11.0 - 11.7%; swine: 3.0 - 8.0%). Hides

and skins are generally one of the most valuable by-products from animals. This byproduct has a

high concentration of collagen, which is used to extract gelatin.

Examples of finished products from the hides of cattle, pigs and sheep pelts are leather shoes, bags,

rawhide, athletic equipment, reformed sausage casing, cosmetic products, sausage skins, edible

gelatin and glue [18].

2.4 Gelatin Production

An explanation of the gelatin production process will help in understanding the properties which

exist among the several types and grades. As described in the introduction, gelatin is derived from

collagen by hydrolysis which is the principal constituent of connective tissues and bones of

vertebrate animals [1]. Collagen is distinctive in that it contains an unusually high level of the

cyclic amino acids proline and hydroxyl proline [4]. Collagen consists of three helical polypeptide

chains wound around each other and connected by intermolecular crosslinks [2].

There are several varieties of gelatin, the composition of which depends on the source of collagen

and the hydrolytic treatment used. Gelatin can be produced from cattle bones, cattle hides, and

pork skins. Several alternative sources include poultry and fish. Extraneous substances, such as

minerals (in the case of bone), fats and albuminoids (found in skin) are removed by chemical and

physical treatment to give purified collagen. These pretreated materials are then hydrolyzed to

gelatin which is soluble in hot water.

2.4.1 Production of type-A gelatin

The raw material is first washed with cold water and soaked in cold dilute mineral acid for several

hours until maximum swelling has occurred. Hydrochloric and Sulfuric acid is most commonly

employed. The remaining acid is then drained off and the material is again washed several times

with cold water. The skin is then ready for extraction with hot water [8].

The pH, time, temperature and number of extraction vary from process to process depending on

the desired product needed, type of equipment employed, the timing of operations, and economics.

Although continuous extractions are used by some producers, the most common method (for both

type-A and type-B) is discrete batch fractions [1]. The extraction is normally carried out in stainless

steel vessels equipped with provisions for heating with temperature control. The number of

extraction varies, but from 3 - 6 is typical. The first extraction generally takes place at 100 - 110oC,

subsequent extractions being made with successive increases in temperature from 5 - 50oC [19].

The final extraction is carried out close to the boiling point. Extracts are kept separate, analyzed,

and subsequently blended to meet the various customer specification. The initial extraction usually

provides a superior product, compared with subsequent extractions [19].

2.4.2 Product Quality of Gelatin

Gelatin quality is determined by how much gelatin is fit to its specified final users. The quality

parameter may be its moisture content, gel strength or viscosity. For industries that use gelatin as a

raw material; such as food processing companies, the main quality parameter is gel strength which

acquires all of the other parameters. Therefore, the gel strength of this product will be monitored

for better quality and suitable product delivery [19].

Table 2. 1 Standard Quality Parameters of Gelatin

Parameters Type A Type B

pH 3.8 - 5.5 5.0 - 7.5

Viscosity (mps) 15 - 75 20 - 75

Ash 0.3 - 2.0 0.5 - 2.0

Moisture (%) 10.5 ± 1.5 10.5 ± 1.5

Fat (%) 0 0

Ash (%) 0.5 ± 0.4 1.5± 0.5

Iron (ppm) 4 ± 2 15 ± 3

Zinc (ppm) 1.5 ± 0.5 5 ± 3

Nitrogen (%) 16.2 ± 0.3 16.2 ± 0.3

Calcium (ppm) 90 ± 30 900 ± 100

Potassium (ppm) 125 ± 50 330 ± 50

(Source: Gelatin Handbook, Gelatin Manufacturers Institute of America)

2.5 Worldwide Production Trends of Gelatin

This product has been produced for a long period of time as we can see from its history. Literature

sated that the primary gelatin producer is the US followed by Great Britain. The total worldwide

gelatin production is about 375,000 - 400,000 metric tons per year [1].

Nowadays, many countries throughout the world are producing this product. But in our continent

Africa, it is not that much practical. Africa, mainly Ethiopia, have the potential or raw material for

the production of this product which is still being dumped as a waste.

Gelatin for commercial sale basis can be made from a byproduct of meat and leather industries.

More recently, fish and domesticated cattle by-products are being considered as acceptable for

gelatin production from the religious point of view. The raw material is prepared by different curing,

acid and alkali-treatment processes which are employed to extract the dried collagen hydrolysate.

There are many processes at which collagen can be converted to gelatin, they all have several factors

in common. The inter-molecular and intra-molecular bonds which stabilize insoluble collagen must

be broken and the hydrogen bonds which stabilize the collagen helix must also be broken. [2] The

general gelatin manufacturing steps consists of three main stages. They are; [5]

1. Pretreatment - preparing the raw material to be ready for extraction by removing impurities

which may result in negative effects on the physical and chemical properties of the final product. If

the raw material for gelatin production is bone, dilute acid solutions are used to remove calcium

and other salts. Hot water or several solvents may be used in order to reduce the fat content. If the

raw material consists of hides and skins; size reduction, washing, removal of hair and degreasing

are necessary to prepare the hides and skins for the main extraction steps.

Collagen hydrolysis is performed by using, acid, alkali, and enzymatic hydrolysis. Acid treatment

is especially suitable for less cross-linked materials (e.g. pig skin), this gelatin is known as type-A.

Whereas, alkali treatment is suitable for more complex collagen such as collagen found in bovine

hides and requires more time, this kind of gelatin is called type-B. Finally, enzymatic hydrolysis

of collagen for gelatin extraction is relatively new, and the treatment time is shorter than that of

alkali treatment process. In addition, the result is pure product due to complete conversion that

results in better physical properties of the final product [8].

2. The Main Extraction Step - this is usually done with hot water or dilute acid solution as a multi-

stage extraction to hydrolyze collagen into gelatin. After the pretreatment step, the partially purified

collagen is converted into gelatin by extraction with either water or acid solutions at appropriate

temperatures.

The extraction step will be either in neutral or less acidic pH condition, and the extraction

temperature is usually increased in the later extraction step. In this step, minimum thermal

degradation of extracted gelatin is considered [9].

3. Refining, Recovery & Treatment Stage - in between, there are many sub-sectional procedures

including filtration, clarification, evaporation, sterilization, drying, cutting, grinding and sifting to

remove the water from gelatin solution, to blend the extracted gelatin, and to obtain dried, blended

and ground final product. These operations are concentration-dependent and also dependent on the

particular gelatin which is going to be produced. Gelatin degradation should be avoided and

minimized, therefore the lowest temperature possible is used in the recovery process [10].

2.6 Uses of Gelatin

It is one of the most useful chemical product which can be utilized in many industries due to its

property and application. Gelatin is most widely used as food additive which is prepared in the form

of desserts, aspic, trifles, marshmallows, candy corn, bears, wine, and fruit snacks and jelly babies.

Its consumption in food industry provides many useful properties to the foodstuff like stability,

consistency and enhancing elasticity. Examples: as a thickener and stabilizer in some products

(cakes, ice cream, yogurt, cheese, margarine, shampoos, face masks and other cosmetics), as a fat

substituent to simulate the mouth-feel of fat and reduce the energy content of the food. In addition,

it can be used in the clarification of juice, such as apple juice and vinegar [20].

Gelatin produced from bone is primarily used for pharmaceutical purposes like suspending and

encapsulating agent and tablet binder [21]. Other areas include photographic plates and films, as a

substitute in rubber manufacturing, for the manufacture of printer inks and plastic compounds [22].

In addition, gelatin has an adverse use in the area of bio-engineering; some of its application are

coating of cell culture plates to improve cell attachment for a variety of cell type, addition to PCR

to help stabilize Taq DNA polymerase, component of culture media for species differentiation,

generation of scaffolds for tissue engineering application and used as a delivery vehicle for the

release of bioactive molecules [23].

It is possible to say it has no any negative effect on the health of consumers, by referring, the

scientific steering committee (SSC), which confirmed that the risk of bone-derived gelatin is very

low or almost negligible [24].

Technical Uses

Certain professional and theatrical lighting equipment use color gels to change beam color.

Gelatin contains shells of pharmaceutical capsules in order to make them easier to swallow

(Hypromellose is a vegetarian-acceptable alternative to gelatin, but it is more expensive to

produce).

Unrefined gelatins are used to produce animal glues such as hide glue.

It is used to hold silver halide crystals in an emulsion in virtually all photographic film and

photographic papers.

It makes beta-carotene water soluble that brings a yellow color to any soft drinks containing

beta-carotene.

Used as a binder of match heads and sandpaper.

Table 2. 2 Generalized application of gelatin in different areas of production

Material

Application

Gel Former Gelled desserts, lunch meats, confectionery, pate, aspics

Whipping Agent Marshmallows, nougats, mousses, whipped cream

Protective Colloid Ice cream, confectionery, frozen desserts

Binding Agent Meat rolls, canned meats, cheeses, dairy product

Clarifying Agent Beer, wine, fruit juices, vinegar

Film Former Coating for fruits, meats deli items

Thickener Powdered drink mixes, sauces, soups, puddings, jellies, syrups,

dairy product

Process Aid Flavors, oils, vitamins, microencapsulation

Emulsifier Cream soups, sauces, flavorings, meat pastes, whipped cream

Stabilizer Cream cheese, chocolate milk, yogurt, icings, cream fillings,

frozen desserts

Adhesive Agent To bind frostings to baked goods and seasonings to the meat product

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3. 1 Chemicals & Equipment

3.1.1 Chemicals

Water: was very important throughout this work and was used for washing, degreasing,

boiling, characterization…

Sulphuric acid (97%): used in the pretreatment of bones

Calcium Hydroxide: to eliminate odor

Sodium Hydroxide (98%): for neutralization

Hydrochloric acid: to adjust pH of the sample

Acetic acid: used in the characterization of our product

Potassium sulfate: used as a catalyst

Copper sulfate: used as a catalyst

Hexane: for fat content determination

Detergent: for cleaning

Boric Acid: to capture NH3 from the sample

3.1.2 Equipment

Oven: for moisture removal

Soxhlet: used in the fat content determination

Autoclave (pressure cooker): for extraction (boiling)

Evaporator: for evaporation and hexane recovery

Tea Strainer: used for filtration

Kjeldhal Digester: used in protein content determination

pH meter: to measure pH

Distillation: used in the determination of Nitrogen content

Furnace: used in ash content determination

Viscometer: to measure viscosity

Polypropylene plastics: for storage

Beaker: used for preparing a solution

Heater: auxiliary for the soxhlet

Storage glasses: for storage

Aluminum foil: used to hold the sample inside of the oven

Knife: used for cutting

Stone: for size reduction

3.2 Methods

We have already stated that gelatin can be produced in two ways; the one which is derived from

an acid-treated process called type-A and gelatin from an alkali-treated process known as type-B.

For this research, we only employed type-A method because it requires less time (not more than

two weeks) than B-type (requires more than 7 weeks) [19]. Type-A production method is more

preferable for studies like ours that are expected to be finished in three months or less.

3.2.1 Experimental Procedures

a. Raw Material Collection: the raw material for our work was collected from the student’s

cafeteria. The fresh meat was originally bought for Easter festivity and the bones were

considered as waste. Thus, we collected these thrown bones and made them useful again

b. Inspection & Cutting: once the samples were collected in the cafeteria, our next job was

inspecting if there were any unnecessary parts included, we sorted them out properly.

c. Drying: sun drying was employed for 5 days to remove the inside moisture and save other

unnecessary thermal energy wastage like oven drying. Fig 3.1 below shows how we dried the

sample bones only by sunlight.

Fig 3. 1 Sun drying for moisture removal

d. Size Reduction: as shown in the figure above, the bones are too large for the experimental

steps like soaking and boiling. So, we reduced them into smaller ones because smaller sized

particles are easy for handling and further processing. As shown in fig 3.2 below, it was done

through mechanical means; by using stone.

Fig 3. 2 Size reduction by using stone

e. Pretreatment (Degreasing): the bones were rinsed in excessive water to remove impurities.

Degreasing was done by soaking the bones in hot water for 60 minutes to reduce the fat content.

After that, the samples were cut with a knife into smaller pieces and then they were allowed to

dry again to remove the remaining moisture [8].

f. Acid & Alkaline Treatment: the samples were treated with diluted HCl to control the pH,

and degreased with a solvent to ensure the optimum breakdown of the collagen into gelatin.

The hydrated lime solution was produced (around 74 g/mol of Ca (OH)2 dissolved in 1 liter of

water) and the sample bones were soaked in the hydrated lime solution for three days to

eliminate odor and all traces of hair and flesh attached to the bones [4].

Fig 3. 3 Acid and alkaline treatment

g. Washing: after acid and alkaline treatment, washing is introduced for the purpose of removing

the surface attached chemicals (acid and alkali) and eliminating the bad odor. Fig 3.4 shows

the samples before and after washing.

Fig 3. 4 washing to remove surface attached chemicals & bad odor

h. Extraction (Boiling): the pieces of bones were loaded into the autoclave (extractor unit) and

boiled with distilled water at a temperature of 105oC, 120 oC & 135 oC and at an extraction

time of 2, 3 and 4 hours respectively. In this step, there was a formation of a liquid mixture

that now contains gelatin. The following figures clearly describe the situation.

Fig 3. 5 The Autoclave used in the extraction of gelatin

Fig 3. 6 Sample inside the extractor

After the samples were properly inserted into the extractor, the unit was closed carefully to

avoid unnecessary steam leakage and probably any other hazard that may happen due to lack

of precaution and follow up.

i. Filtration: after extraction, the samples are taken out of the extractor and were allowed to cool

down for almost 3 - 4 hours. Fig 3.7 shows the sample while cooling

Fig 3. 7 Sample cooling prior to filtration

The first step in filtration was separating the liquid mixture and bones. Fig 3.8 and fig 3.9 show

the liquid mixture and the remaining bones respectively.

Fig 3. 8 The gelatin - water mixture

Fig 3. 9 The remaining bones after extraction

After a couple of hours, the gelatin became solidified and started floating up in the water. Then we

properly managed in separating the gelatin from the water with the help of tea strainer. The

remaining water and bones that came out of the extraction were not useful anymore and were

assumed as waste. Thus we discharged them properly.

3.3 Characterization

The quality of produced gelatin was ascertained by determining the following quality parameters.

These parameters are; moisture content, pH, ash content, viscosity, Fat (%), Iron (ppm), Zinc

(ppm), Nitrogen (%), Calcium (ppm) and Potassium (ppm).

a. Moisture Content Determination

The produced gelatin is further heat treated to achieve the desired moisture level and make it easy

to create the desired shape before packing. The process took place by weighing 5g of three samples

in an Aluminum foil and they were heated in an oven at a temperature of 110oC for two hours. The

samples were then cooled to room temperature and weighed. The moisture content was calculated

by using equation 1;

Moisture Content (wet basis) =(Minitial − Mdried) ∗ 100%

Minitial. . … (1)

Fig 3. 10 Sample before entering into the oven

Fig 3. 11 Moisture removal inside the oven

b. pH Determination: pH meter was directly inserted into the beaker containing the gelatin

solution and the reading value was recorded. The solution was prepared by dissolving the

solidified gelatin (15%) in hot water.

c. Ash Content Determination: 5 grams of gelatin sample was weighed in a crucible. The

crucible and its content were heated to 500oC for 3 hours in a furnace. The dried gelatin was

allowed to cool at a room temperature and the remaining weight was measured. Ash content

of gelatin is calculated by using the expression:

Ash Content (%) =(Mass of dried gelatin sample) ∗ 100%

Original mass of gelatin sample… … … … (2)

d. Viscosity Determination: just like pH test, the solution was prepared by dissolving the 15%

solidified gelatin in hot water and the viscosity profile of the gelatin was obtained through a

direct measuring device called viscometer.

e. Protein Content Determination: according to AACC, 2000 (Method number 46.30), the

samples were analyzed for crude protein from each treatment using the micro Kjeldahl method.

A sample having 3 grams of weight was added into a Kjeldahl digestion flask and catalyst

mixture (K2SO4 mixed with anhydrous CuSO4 in the ratio of 10:1) of 2.0 g was also added.

After addition of 15 ml of H2SO4, the digestion flask was placed in the digester and the

temperature was brought to 350oC and allowed to digest for 100 minutes until the digestion

was complete [25].

The flask was removed from the digester and allowed to cool. After cooling, the content in the

flask was diluted by 30 ml of distilled water followed by 25 ml. Concentrated 40% NaOH was

added into the digestion flask to neutralize the acid and make the solution slightly alkaline.

Fig 3. 12 Kjeldahl Digester used in Protein & Nitrogen Content determination

The contents were distilled immediately by inserting the digestion tube line into the receiver flask

that contains 30 ml of 4% Boric Acid solution. We were able to collect about 150 ml of distillate.

Finally, the distillate was titrated by a standard acid (0.1N HCl). The Nitrogen (%) was calculated

by using eq (3) and the Nitrogen (%) was converted to protein (%) by using an appropriate

conversion factor. Protein content was calculated by using eq (4).

Nitrogen (%) =(T × 0.1 × 20 × 0.014) × 100 (%)

Weight Of Sample… … … (3)

And protein content is calculated from eq (4)

Protein (%) = F x N (%) = 6.38 x N (%) …….……… (4)

Where:

T = Volume of HCl (ml) used for titration

NHCl = Normality of HCl (0.1N)

ms = sample weight on dry matter basis,

mw = molecular weight of Nitrogen (14.00 g/mol)

Dilution factor = 20

N = Nitrogen (%)

F = Conversion Factor

P = Protein (%).

f. Fat Content Determination: The crude fat analysis was determined by Soxhlet extraction

method according to AACC, 2000 (Method number 30.25) [26]. Three grams of sample was

weighed and added into a thimble. A cleaned and dried thimble containing 3 g sample was

placed into the soxhlet unit. 250 ml hexane was measured and the samples contained in the

thimble were extracted with Hexane in the soxhlet extractor for 2 hours.

After the extraction was completed, the mixture containing extracted fat was transferred into a pre-

weighed beaker (Mi) and the beaker with extracted fat was placed in a fume hood to evaporate the

solvent on a steam bath until no odor of the solvent is detected. The beaker with the sample was

dried in an oven for 30 minutes at 100oC. Finally, the beaker with its content was taken out of the

oven, cooled in a desiccator and weighed (Mf).

Fig 3. 13 the soxhlet extractor used in fat content determination

Fig 3. 14 Sample cooling prior to fat content calculation

The amount of fat in samples was calculated using Eq (5)

Fat (%) =(Mf − Mi) × 100%

m … … … … . (5)

Where:

m = sample weight (g)

Mi = weight of beaker (g)

Mf = mass of sample with beaker (g)

g. Determination of Zinc, Iron, Potassium, and Calcium: the value of these four metals was

determined in Amhara design and supervision works enterprise. The solution used for these

tests was made from Acetic acid and 10% gelatin.

3.4 Experimental Design

Table 3. 1 Experimental Design

t1 t2 t3

T1 X1 X4 X7

T2 X2 X5 X8

T3 X3 X6 X9

Where

T1 = 105oC t1 = 2 hrs

T2 = 120oC t2 = 3 hrs

T3 = 135oC t3 = 4 hrs

Thus, X1 means result obtained at 2 hrs and 105oC. The remaining values from X2 up to X9 are

combinations of their resulting match in the table.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Laboratory Results

Table 4. 1 The experimental results in comparison with the standard values

Parameters

Standard

Values

X1

X2

X3

X4

X5

X6

X7

X8

X9

pH 3.8 - 5.5 5. 39 5.43 5.6 5.56 5.62 5.71 5.48 5.52 5.69

Viscosity (mps) 15 - 75 35.13 35 34.75 35.59 35.34 35 36.34 35.71 35.22

Ash (%) 0.5 ± 0.4 3.2 2.92 2.8 4.3 4.08 3.76 4.46 4.31 4.06

Moisture (%) 10.5 ± 1.5 11.21 11.01 10.88 11 10.76 10.61 10.92 10.83 10.54

Fat (%) 0 0.108 0.101 0.084 0.103 0.096 0.073 0.092 0.067 0.043

Iron (ppm) 4 ± 2 3.02 3.44 3.73 3.16 3.58 3.89 3.44 3.95 4.23

Zinc (ppm) 1.5 ± 0.5 1.686 1.695 1.702 1.7 1.707 1.709 1.704 1.707 1.709

Nitrogen (%) 16.2 ± 0.3 14.91 14.98 15.064 15.034 15.086 15.14 15.17 15.246 15.305

Protein (%) 95 – 98.5 95.18 95.63 96.11 95.92 96.25 96.58 96.78 97.27 97.65

Calcium (ppm) 90 ± 30 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

Potassium (ppm) 125 ± 50 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75

Amount (grams) 27 27.9 28.8 27.6 28.5 30 28.5 29.4 32

Yield (%) 9 9.3 9.6 9.2 9.5 10 9.5 9.8 10.67

Yield (%) =(Amount of gelatin extracted) × 100 %

Weight of Bones used… … … … (6)

4.2 Discussions

The results shown in Table 4.1 were obtained in two ways. The first was the results that are either

tested here in laboratories found at BiT or those which were obtained through calculation. They

are viscosity, moisture, fat, ash, protein and nitrogen content. The second division of quality

parameter characterization was done at Amhara design and supervision works enterprise. These

parameters are Iron, Zinc, potassium and Calcium content.

As we can see from table 4.1 above, variable extraction time and temperature have clearly affected

the amount of gelatin produced. From the twelve (12) parameters, ten (10) of them have shown a

slight difference but the other two were not able to show a difference. According to some literature

[22], they say; if the raw material used and production mechanism is the same (type-A for our

case), some quality parameters will show a little or no difference at all no matter the extraction

time and temperature.

4.2.1 Effect of Temperature

Temperature is one of the most important parameters affecting the extraction efficiencies.

As the temperature rises, there is a marked and systematic decrease in the viscosity and surface

tension. Thus, the extraction must be carried out at the highest permitted temperature. It should be

mentioned that increasing the extraction temperature above a certain value gives rise to the

degradation of the produced gelatin components. The maximum permitted extraction temperature

must be obtained experimentally for different plant materials. Regarding the extraction of gelatin,

it has been shown that temperatures between 105 and 150oC are the best conditions [12].

Experimental results from table 4.1 justify that variation of temperature affects most of the

parameters including pH, viscosity, ash content, protein content, Nitrogen content, fat content,

moisture content, iron, zinc, and yield while calcium and potassium content remained constant.

Fig 4. 1 Effect of Extraction Temperature on Yield

4.2.2 Effect of Time

In the same principle just like temperature, extraction time is also a major factor that affects the

quality and quantity of the produced gelatin. Increasing the extraction time has led to a quantitative

decrease in viscosity, ash content, moisture content and fat content. Thus, the extraction must be

carried out at the optimum retention time. In other words, increasing the extraction time above a

certain value also degrades some valuable components of the produced gelatin. The feasible

extraction time is between 2 and 4 hours [12].

In case of increasing extraction time; calcium and potassium content also remained constant while

pH, iron content, zinc content, nitrogen content, protein content, and yield showed a slight increase

in their value. But this doesn’t necessarily mean increasing extraction time always increases their

value.

9

9.3

9.6

9.2

9.5

10

9.5

9.8

10.67

8.8

9

9.2

9.4

9.6

9.8

10

10.2

10.4

10.6

10.8

100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140

Yie

ld %

Temperature, oC

Effect of Extraction Temperature on Yield

Fig 4. 2 Effect of Extraction Time on Yield

9

9.3

9.6

9.2

9.5

10

9.5

9.8

10.67

8.8

9

9.2

9.4

9.6

9.8

10

10.2

10.4

10.6

10.8

1.8 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.3

Yie

ld %

Extraction Time, h

Effect of Extraction Time on Yield

CHAPTER FIVE

PLANT DESIGN FOR GELATIN PRODUCTION

5.1 Introduction

This plant is intended to produce A-type Gelatin. The production program is stated as:

2 batches/day

4 h/batch

1,000 kg/h

300 days/year

5.2 Mode of Operation

This plant will operate in continuous production with batch wise extraction step. The extraction

section is the backbone of the plant.

5.3 Capacity of the Plant

The total installed plant capacity is 2400 tonnes per year

5.4 Plant Design & Process Synthesis

For this plant design step, the values of the raw material amount, efficiency and equipment

purchasing cost of each unit operation are taken from literature. This design is a feasibility study,

therefore, uncertainties are expected and they will be corrected in the detailed design step.

5.5 Product Demand Assessment

5.5.1 Market Study

Gelatin is an essential product that can be consumed by different industries as a basic raw material

to the final product and also as an additive to many other products. Its best quality in physical and

chemical property aggravates its demand and utilization in many industries, mainly food based

ones. From those gelatin uptake factories, sugar industries are categorized as moderate consumers.

Since there is no any gelatin producing company in Ethiopia; all of the country’s demand has been

met by importing it from other foreign countries. Ethiopia’s gelatin import data from 2004 - 2013

is given in the following table below [27].

Table 5. 1 Gelatin Import Demand of Ethiopia

Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Quantity (T)

82.3

97.4

116.8

94.05

219.6

190.1

177.9

217.4

211.5

187.9

(Source: Ethiopian Revenues & Customs Authority)

5.6 The Manufacturing Process

The steps in the manufacturing involve isolation and refinement of the insoluble gelatin. The gelatin

is further processed by chemical adjustment, filtration for clarification and drying to yield a product

of some predetermined quality. The flowchart below clearly describes every process step in gelatin

production.

Fig 5. 1 PFD of Gelatin Production

a. Inspection & Cutting - Once the animal parts arrive at the food processing plant, they are

inspected for quality. Rotted parts will be discarded, then, the bones, tissues, and skins are

loaded into chopping machines that cut the parts into small pieces of about 1 - 2.7 cm in

diameter.

b. Degreasing & Roasting - The animal parts are passed under high-pressure water sprays to wash

away debris. They are then degreased by soaking them in hot water to reduce the fat content to

about 2%. Then the degreased bone and skin will be fed to the dryer where BS is roasted for

approximately 30 minutes at about 100oC.

c. Acid & Alkaline Treatment - The animal parts are soaked in a vat of lime or some other type

of acid or alkali for approximately five days up to five weeks. This process removes most of

the minerals and bacteria's and facilitates the release of collagen. The acid wash is typically a

4% HCl with pH of less than 1.5. The calcium hydroxide which is used to soak this material is

about pH above 7.

d. Boiling - The pieces of bone, tissue, and skin are loaded into large aluminum extractors and

boiled in distilled water. A tube running from the extractor allows workers to draw off the liquid

that now contains gelatin. The liquid is sterilized by flash-heating it to about 140oC for

approximately four seconds.

e. Evaporating & Grinding - From the extractor, the liquid is piped through a filter to separate

out bits of bone, tissue or skin that are still attached. From the filter, the liquid is piped into

evaporators, machines that separate the liquid from the solid gelatin. The liquid is piped out and

discarded. The gelatin is passed through machines that press it into sheets. Depending on its

final application, the gelatin sheets are passed through a grinder that reduces them to a fine

powder.

f. Packing - The packing process is automated, with the present amount of gelatin poured into

overhead funnels through which the gelatin flows down into bags made of polypropylene plastic

with vacuum sealing.

5.7 Material & Energy Balance

5.7.1 Material Balance

Let’s take 1,000 kg/h of feed to the purifier as a basis, assume an equal proportion of bone and

skin is fed from each chopper.

Basis = 1,000 kg/h

A. Chopper

In both choppers, only size reduction takes place, therefore the amount of feed to the chopper is

the same as that of the amount leaving it.

B. Purifier

- Assuming 98% efficiency

From the literature review, almost 2% of the bone and skin are considered to be debris. The mass

of debris within the feed can be calculated as:

= 0.02*1,000 = 20 kg/h

The pressurized water to remove this debris is assumed to be 150% excess to the mass of debris

itself,

Water feed = 2.5 * 20 = 50 kg/h

Assume only 30% of pressurized water will leave with the raw material and the rest will be taken

over with impurities or debris. Taking general material around the purifier unit:

INPUT = OUTPUT, since there is no any chemical reaction

Debris-free treated raw materials:

= 0.98 * [(1,000 – 50) – 20 – ((100-30)/100) * 50] = 876 kg/h

C. Degreasing Unit

Assume 99% efficiency

The hot water content in this unit before feeding the raw material:

Assuming 10% excess to the degreasing water

Hot water = 1.1 * 50 = 55 kg/h

From the literature review, only 15% of the feed bone and skin will be fat after purification.

But the value is not fixed.

In this unit the fat content will be reduce to 2%

Fat content in the feed = 0.15 * (876 - 50) = 123.9 kg/h

Reduced fat = 0.02 * (876 - 50) = 16.52 kg/h

Removed fat = 123.9 - 16.52 = 107.38 kg/h

- Taking the general material balance around this unit

Input = Output

Treated BS = 0.99 * ((876 + 55) – 107.38) = 814.31 kg/h

D. Dryer

95% efficiency is assumed

water leaving in the vapor = 0.9 * (0.95/0.99 * 0.98) * (50 + 55) = 88.868 kg/h

Taking overall mass balance around this unit: Input = Output

Dried BS = 814.31 – 88.868 = 725.44 kg/h

E. Liming Tank (Soaking)

We take 15% of Ca (OHs) 2 and it is stated that this chemical is diluted to 10% by weight of water,

Mass of Ca (OH) 2 = 0.15 * 725.44 = 108.816 kg/h

Water (dissolution) is 10 wt% of calcium hydroxide:

Mole fraction of water, Xw = (10/18) / [(10/18) + (90/74)] = 0.024

Mass flow rate of water for dilution = 0.024 * 108.816 = 2.611584 kg/h

The BS will socked with this lime solution for five weeks

Taking general material balance over the liming tank: Input = Output

Output = BS = 725.44 + 108.816 +2.611584 = 836.867584 kg/h

F. Neutralization Tank

The lime will be neutralized and impurities will be removed by using HCl,

Required HCl is 10% excess for neutralization amount:

Stoichiometric neutralization reaction: (assuming full conversion)

2HCl + Ca (OH) 2 = CaCl2 + 2H2O

Ca (OH) 2 = 108.816 kg/h, calculated in liming tank material balance section.

Required, HCl = (2 * 36 * 108.816) / 74 = 105.875 kg/h

The feed HCl = 1.1 * 105.875 = 116.4625 kg/h

Product of neutralization reaction:

CaCl2 = 108.816 * 110/74 = 161.75 kg/h and

H2O = 161.75 * 18/110 = 24.468 kg/h

Taking general material balance over this unit:

Input - output + generation - consumption = Accumulation

Assuming continuous flow rate of the raw material, the accumulation term becomes zero.

Rearranging this equation for the output:

Output = Input + Generation - Consumption

= (836.867584 + 116.4625) + (161.75 + 24.468) – (105.875 + 24.468) = 1220.955 kg/h

This output amount of BS mixture is feed to the boiler.

G. Boiler Tank (Extractor)

Taking 99% efficiency

From the literature part, the distilled water feed rate is 50% excess to the feed hot water in the

degreasing unit hot water flow rate:

Distilled water = 1.5 * 55 = 82.5 kg/h

Solid waste will be 40% of the dried output BS in the drier unit: which is calculated as 8,125

kg/h.

Solid waste = 0.4 * 725.44 = 290.176 kg/h

But, the amount of liquid HCl, Ca(OH)2 dilute, leaving with this solid waste is assumed to

be: 1% of the total feed steam

= 0.01 * 1220.955 = 12.20955 kg/h

Taking the general material balance around this unit

Input = Output

Liquid out = 0.99 * {(1220.955 + 82.5) – 290.176)} = 1000.244 kg/h

H. Flash Unit

In this unit operation, the liquid solution is exposed to 140oC for four seconds.

The literature stated that, as the liquid is heated to 140oC and 3%, the produced water in the

neutralization reaction is evaporated and released as waste:

From the stoichiometry reaction, the calculated water is 24.468 kg/h,

Vapor = 0.03 * 24.468 = 0.734 kg/h

- Taking overall material balance on this unit

Input = Output

Liquid = 1000.244 - 0.734 = 999.51 kg/h

I. Filter

Assuming 99% of filtration efficiency

In the filter cake, all CaCl2 and some bits of bones and skins will be accumulated and separated

easily.

The bone or skin bit accounts = 20% of excess HCl by weight

= 0.2 * (116.4625 – 105.2875) = 2.235 kg/h

Filter cake = 161.75 + 2.235 = 163.985 kg/h

Taking general material balance around this unit operation

Input = Output

Clear liquid = 0.9 * (999.51 - 163.985) = 751.9725 kg/h

J. Evaporator

Assume 98% efficiency

The literature states 60% of the overall water in the process production will be evaporated in this

unit operation. Taking overall water balance of the process

- In the purifier water with BS RM

= (30/100) * 50 = 15 kg/h, as stated in the material balance of this unit

- Water in the degreasing unit: = 55 kg/h

- Drier (Roasting Unit): vapor = 88.868 kg/h

- Liming tank: water feed = 2.611584 kg/h

- Neutralization tank: water produced = 24.468 kg/h

- Boiling unit: water feed = 82.5 kg/h

- Flash: vapor = 0.734 kg/h

Now let’s take the general material balance of water: Input = Output

The remaining water (X):

15 + 55 + 2.611584 + 24.468 + 82.5 = 0.734 + 88.868 + X

X = 179.6 – 89.6 = 90 kg/h

According to the literature review, let’s assume the water leaving with solid waste and filter

cake is assumed to be 20%, X.

The remaining water fed with the gelatin to the evaporator = (1 - 0.2) * 90 = 72 kg/h

Water leaving with solid waste = 0.2 * 90 = 18 kg/h

Total mass of gelatin and water solution feed to the evaporator = 751.9725 kg/h

water free gelatin = 751.9725 - 72 = 679.9725 kg/h

Mole fraction of water: Xw = 72 /751.9725 = 0.095748

From this, the duty of evaporator is to reduce the water to the mole fraction of 0.02,

Mass of water leaving the evaporator as vapor = (0.095748 - 0.02) * 751.9725 = 56.96 kg/h

And the remaining = 72 – 56.96 = 15.04 kg/h, this amount of water will leave with the liquor

Liquor = 0.98 * (679.9725 + 15.04) = 695.0125 kg/h

The vapor 56.96 kg/h should be condensed before releasing it. It is possible to condense it and

recycled it to the production process.

K. Presser

99.85% efficiency is assumed for this unit operation

From the literature review, water which is liquor will further be removed by pressing mechanism,

it is assumed that 95% of water content will be removed on this unit.

Water = 0.95 * 15.04 = 14.28 kg/h

Now it is possible to take general material balance around this unit: Input = Output

Gelatin (sheet form) = 0.998 * (695.0125 - 14.28) = 672.8961 kg/h

Further unit operations like sterilization and flavoring are optional based on the customer demand.

L. Grinder

In this unit operations, only size reduction will take place, which means the feed mass is necessarily

the same as the mass of leaving this unit:

M. Packing Unit

This unit is used to pack the ground gelatin product by using plastic or paper package.

Assume 750g of gelatin is packed in a single plastic:

The required number of plastic bags:

= (672.8961 kg/h) / (0.75 kg) = 897 plastic/h, will be fed to the packing machine

5.7.2 Energy Balance

Let’s assume that 200oC is available in the steam box for assimilation:

i. Degreasing Unit Hot Water Heater: shell & tube heat exchanger can be employed

From M.B, water flow rate = 55 kg/h

Assuming perfectly insulated heat transfer system: Qhot = Qcold

mcCpc∆Tc = mhCph∆Th ……… (1)

The specific heat of water, Cpc = 4.22 kJ/kg.k and steam, Cph = 1.87 kJ/kg.k

∆Th = Thi – Tho

Tho = Thi - ∆Th …… (2)

Combining equation (1) and (2): Tho = Thi – (mcCpc∆Tc) / mhCph∆Th

= 200 - {55 * 4.22 * (90 - 25)} / (50 * 1.87) = 39oC

The amount of heat absorbed by hot water:

Qcold = mcCpc∆Tc = (55/3600) * 4.22 * (90 – 25) = 4.19 kW, the amount of heat will be in steam

ii. Dryer (Roasting Unit)

Steam is required to heat the surface of the drier directly to approximately 100oC.

Heat duty: Q = UA∆Tlm

Assuming the surface is Teflon, with the overall all heat transfer coefficient of U = 1000 w/m2 oC

with heating Diameter = 1.5 m and Length = 4.5 m

Heat transfer Area will be:

A = 3.14 * D * L = 3.14 * 1.5 * 4.5 = 21.2 m2

Logarithmic mean temperature: ∆T1 = 200 - 25 = 175oC and ∆T2 = 101 - 100 = 1oC

∆Tlm = (∆T1 - ∆T2) / ln (∆T1 /∆T2) = (175 - 1) / ln (175/1) = 340C

Heat duty: Q = UA∆Tlm = 1000 * 21.2 * 34 = 720.8 kW, this heat remains for 30 min

iii. Boiler (BS)

Assume water as the heat sink for easing calculation.

Assuming completely insulation, or the amount of heat at the hot stream is the same as that is

absorbed.

Qhot = Qcold

Qhot = mhCph∆Th = (400/3600) * 1.87 * (200 - 30) = 35.322 kW

Qcold = mcCpc∆Tc = (82.5/3600) * 4.22 * (100 - 25) = 7.253 kW, this amount of heat is absorbed

from the steam by distilled water only.

The difference, 35.322 – 7.253 = 28.069 kW, this amount of heat will be absorbed by the skin,

HCl, CaCl2, and the bits of raw material (bone and skin).

iv. Flash

Assuming perfectly insulated heat transfer system.

Qhot = Qcold

mcCpc∆Tc = mhCph∆Th

∆Tc = mhCph∆Th / mcCpc = Tco - Tci

Tco = Tci + mhCph∆Th / mcCpc

Tco = 25 + (600 * 1.87 * (140 – 100)/ (287.6 * 4.22) = 370C

v. Evaporation

Assuming completely insulated heating system

Qcold = Qsensible + Qlatent

In this unit operation, both phase change and latent heat will exist, this will occur only in water:

Latent heat of vaporization for water, λ = 2257 kJ/kg

Qcold = mcCpc∆Tc + mv λ = (90/360) * 4.22 * (80 – 26) + (18 /360) * 2257 = 169.82 kW

Qhot = Qcold = mcCpc∆Tc = mhCph∆Th

Tho = Thi – Qcold / mhCph

= 200 - (169.82 kW)/ ((300/360) * 1.87) = 200 - 109 = 91oC

The amount of heat required in the steam (hot stream):

Qhot = mhCph∆Th = (300/360) * 1.87 * (200 - 91) = 170 kW,

This value shows us, the amount of the heat from the hot stream is the same as which is absorbed

in the cold stream or heat sink. Our assumption of perfect insulation is true.

vi. Boiler Energy Balance & Sizing Calculation

Feed water flow rate and property:

mw = 90 kg/h

Tci = 25oC

Tco = 350oC

Cpw = 4.22 kJ/kg.k

Furnace oil physical property value:

Heating value (HV) = 1000 cal/g

Density (Doil) = 991 kg/m3

To determine the required flow rate of furnace oil for this boiler, first we assume there is no any

heat loss, which means the amount of heat generated by burning fuel is directly and completely

consumed by water. So, let’s calculate the amount of heat absorbed in the boiler:

Qcold = mcCpc∆Tc = (90/360) * 4.22 * (350 – 25) = 342.875 kW

Now, let us determine the flow rate of furnace oil first by determining the heating value:

Heating value of oil = 1000 cal/g * 4.184 J/cal = 4184 kJ/kg

Flow rate of oil: moil = 342.875 kW/ (4184 kJ/kg) = 0.0819 kg/s

Oil volume for this flow rate: V = moil/Doil = 0.0819 kg/s * (3600 s/h)/ (0.991 kg/L) = 297.5 L/h

For annual requirement: V = 297.5 L/h * 24 h/day * 300 days/yr = 2,142,000 L/yr

To determine the outlet temperature of the gas burned from furnace oil:

Perfectly insulated heating system

Qcold = Qhot

Qhot = moil Cpoil ∆Toil

Tho = Thi + (Q/ moilCpoil) = 25 + (342.875 kW/ (0.0819 kg/s*1.8) = 2,350.8oC

5.8 Equipment Sizing

Data used for design are directly referred from the literature review:

Density of calcium hydroxide (DCal) = 22200 kg/m3

Density of calcium chloride (DCl) = 2150 kg/m3

Density of HCl (DHCl) = 1268 kg/m3

Density of bone (Dbon) = 3160 kg/m3

Density of gelatin (Dgel) = 980 kg/m3

Density of skin (DSk) = 900 kg/m3

1. Chopping Machine

a. Bone Chopping Unit

Feed Mass of bone, m = 500 kg/h

Dbon = 3160 kg/m3

The required volume: V = m/Dbon = 500/3160 = 0.16 m3/h

Taking 10% as a safety factor, for batch the volume = 0.16 * 4 h/batch * 1.1 = 0.704 m3

Constriction of material could be carbon steel.

b. Skin Chopping Unit

Feed Mass, m = 500 kg/h

Dsk = 900 kg/m3

The volume will be: V = m/Dsk = 500/900 = 0.555 m3/h

Taking 10% safety factor, the volume for batch = 0.555 * 4 h/batch * 1.1 = 2.44 m3

Material of construction can be carbon steel.

2. Purifier Unit

Total volume is the sum of the volume occupied by pressurized water, feed raw material (BS) and

raw material mixture density with equal proportion as it is stated in the material balance section of

this unit operation. It can be determined as.

Dmix1 = 0.5 * Dbon + 0.5 * Dsk = 0.5 * 3160 + 0.5 * 900 = 2,030 kg/m3

Total required volume, (mass of each component are referred in the material balance section)

V = mw/Dw + mrm/Dmix = (50/1000) + (1,000/2,030) = 0.54 m3/h

Taking 10% safety factor, the required volume for batch = 0.54 * 4 h/batch * 1.1 = 2.376 m3

The material of construction is carbon steel

3. Degreasing Unit

Total volume is the sum of volume of hot water and feed raw material (BS)

V = mw/Dw + mrm/Dmix = (55/1000) + (876/2,030) = 0.486 m3/h

Taking 10% safety factor, the required volume for batch

= 0.486 * 4 h/batch * 1.1 = 2.1384 m3

The construction of material for this unit is carbon steel

4. Dryer (Roasting) Unit

To calculate the volume of this unit operation, first we have to calculate the mole fraction of hot

water that will be fed in to this unit:

Hot water, m = 55 kg/h

Feed raw material (BS) = 876 kg/h

Mole fraction of water: Xw = 55 / (55 + 876) = 0.059

Mixture density: Dmix2 = 0.059 * 1000 + (1 - 0.059) * 2,030 = 1,969 kg/m3

Volume, V = m/Dmix2 = (876 + 55)/ 1,969 = 0.4728 m3/h

Adding 10% as safety factor, the volume required for batch

= 0.4728 * 4 h/batch * 1.1 = 2.08 m3


5. Liming Tank

Total volume is the sum of calcium hydroxide, water and feed raw material (TBS).

V = (mCal/Dcal) + (mw/Dw) + (mrm/Dmix2)

V = (108.816 /2,200) + (2.611584 /1000) + (725.44/1,969) = 0.42 m3/h

Adding 10% as safety factor and the required volume for a single batch:

= 0.42 * 4h/batch * 1.1 = 1.848 m3

Material of construction is carbon steel with glass lined surface

6. Neutralization Tank

Total required volume of this unit is the sum of volume of HCl and the feed raw material

(TBS), but the feed mixture density should be determined first:

Mole fraction of Calcium Hydroxide in the mixture,

XCal = 108.816/ (108.816 + 725.44) = 0.13

Density of mixture: Dmix3 = XCal * Dcal + (1 - XCal) * Dmix2

= 0.13 * 2200kg/m3 + (1 - 0.13) * 1,969 = 2,000 kg/m3

Now, the volume is: V = (mHCl/DHCl) + (mrm/Dmix3)

= (116.4625/1268) + (836.867584/2,000) = 0.51 m3/h

Adding 10% as safety factor, the required volume = 0.51 * 4 h/batch * 1.1 = 2.244 m3

Material of construction is carbon steel with glass lined surface

7. Boiling Tank

Volume of this unit is the sum of distilled water and the feed raw material (TBS).

From the neutralization unit mole fraction of HCl and feed TBS mixture:

XHCl = 105.875 / (105.875 + 836.867584) = 0.112

Mixture density: Dmix4 = XHCl * DHCl + (1 - XHCl) * Dmix3

= 0.112 * 1268 + (1 - 0.112) * 2,000 = 1,918 kg/m3

Volume: V = mrm/Dmix4 + mdist.wat/Dw = (1220.955/1,918) + (82.5/1000) = 0.72 m3/h

Adding 10% as safety factor, the volume of this unit for a batch:

= 0.72 * 4 h/batch * 1.1 = 3.168 m3

Material of construction for this unit is aluminum

8. Flash Unit

To determine the volume of this unit, first we have to determine mixture density of feed to this

unit. To do that, the primary task is calculating the mole fraction of water in the feed steam:

Mole fraction of water: Xw = 82.5/ (1220.955 + 82.5) = 0.0633

Mixture density: Dmix5 = Xw * DW + (1- Xw) * Dmix4

= 0.0633 * 1000 + (1 - 0.0633)*1,918 = 1,860 kg/m3

Volume of this unit can be calculated as:

V = mrm/Dmix5 = (287.6/1,860) = 0.1546 m3/h

Taking 10% safety factor, the volume required = 0.1546 * 4 h/batch * 1.1 = 0.68 m3

Material of construction is carbon steel

9. Filter Unit

Volume: V = mrm/Dmix5 = 999.51/1,860 = 0.53737 m3/h

Adding 10% as safety factor and the required volume for a batch

= 0.53737 * 4 h/batch * 1.1 = 2.364 m3

Material of construction is carbon steel

10. Evaporator Unit

Volume of the evaporator: V = mrm/Dmix5 = 751.9725/1,860 = 0.404 m3/h

Adding 10% safety factor and the required volume for a batch,

= 0.404 * 4 h/batch * 1.1 = 1.7776 m3


11. Presser Unit

Volume: V = mrm/Dmix5 = 695.0125/1,860 = 0.3736 m3/h

Adding 10% as safety factor and the required volume for a batch

= 0.3736 * 4 h/batch * 1.1 = 1.64 m3

Material of construction is aluminum

12. Grinder Unit

Assuming pure gelatin will be fed to this unit, the volume of this unit is:

V = mgel/Dgel = 672.8961/980 = 0.68662 m3/h

Adding 10% safety factor, the required volume for this unit,

= 0.68662 * 4 h/batch * 1.1 = 3 m3

The material of construction is aluminum

13. Packing Machine

Assume the packing material is LDPE, low density plastic bag: polyethylene (C2H4)n

Density of LDPE, Dpol = 910 kg/m3

Polyethylene of 900 g packing, assume mass of the packing plastic is 200g

Mass of plastic = (200/1000) * 897 = 179.4 kg/h

V = mgel/Dgel + mpol/Dpol = (672.8961/980) + (179.4/910) = 0.8837 m3/h

Adding 10% safety factor, the required volume = 0.8837 * 4 h/batch * 1.1 = 3.8886 m3

Material of construction is aluminum (Al).

14. Boiler Sizing

We assumed water and furnace oil will be fed in counter-current flow arrangement. This

volume of the boiler is the sum of the feed water and furnace oil,

V = mw/Dw + moil/Doil = (900/1000) + ((0.0819*3600)/991) = 1.2 m3/h

Adding 10% as a safety factor, the required volume for a batch:

= 1.2 * 4 h/batch * 1.1 = 5.28 m3

The material of construction is carbon steel with insulators

CHAPTER 6

ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE FEASIBILITY DESIGN

6.1 Utilities

The major utilities of the project are electricity and water. The total annual cost of utilities is

estimated at $ 440,077.2. Annual requirement and cost of utilities is indicated in the table below

Table 6. 1 Utilities Requirement & Cost

No

Description

Unit

Qty.

Cost ($)

Annual Cost ($)

1 Electricity kWh 600,000 0.0175 10,500

2 Water m3 7,848.8 0.15 1,177.2

3 Furnace oil m3 21,420 20 428,400

Total 440,077.2

6.2 Human Resource (HR) Requirement

This project requires 30 labor persons. The total annual cost of labor is estimated at $38,525. The

list of human resource and the annual cost of labor is indicated in the table below

Table 6. 2 Human Resource Requirement & Labor Cost

No. Description No. Monthly Salary ($) Annual Salary ($)

1. General Manager 1 300 3,600

2. Secretary 1 70 840

3. Marketing Officer 1 120 1,440

4. Purchaser 1 115 1,380

5. Senior Accountant 1 120 1,440

No. Description No. Monthly Salary ($) Annual Salary ($)

6. Cashier 1 40 480

7. Production Head 1 200 2,400

8. Quality Control Head 1 150 1,800

9 Chemists 2 200 2,400

10 Senior Mechanic 2 200 2,400

11 Mechanic 2 200 2,400

12 Senior Electrician and

instrument technician

2 120 1,440

13 Electrician and instrument

technician

2 120 1,440

14 Operators 2 270 3,240

15 Laborers 5 200 2,400

16 Drivers 2 80 960

17 Guards 2 70 840

18 Messenger & Cleaner 1 20 240

Sub Total 30 2,595 33,500

Benefit (15% Basic Salary) 389 5,025

Grand Total 2,984 38,525

6.3 Engineering

6.3.1 Machinery & Equipment

The total machinery purchasing cost is estimated at about $406,500. The cost of each unit operation

is taken from different websites. [28] The list of machinery and equipment of gelatin production

project is depicted in the following table

Table 6. 3 List of Machinery & Equipment

No. Description Qty Cost ($)

1 Chopping machine 2 45,000

2 purifier 1 20,000

3 Degreaser 1 50,000

4 Dryer 1 30,000

6 Liming tank 1 5,000

7 Neutralization tank 1 5,000

8 Boiling tank (Extractor) 1 4,000

9 Flash 1 2,500

10 Filter 1 3000

11 Evaporator 1 17,000

12 Presser 1 50,000

13 Grinder 1 50,000

14 Packing unit 1 40,000

15 Boiler 1 85,000

Total 406,500

The total major equipment purchasing cost, PEC = $406,500

Table 6. 4 Costs that Constitute the Total Capital Investment

Direct Plant Cost Long Factor Of PEC Long Factor Equipment Cost ($)

Installation 40%PEC 162,600

Instrumentation 30%PEC 121,950

Piping Installed 15%PEC 60,975

Electrical Installed 10%PEC 40,650

Building 20%PEC 81,300

Yard Improvement 10%PEC 40,650

Service facility 50%PEC 203,250

Land 20%PEC 81,300

Total Direct Cost (DC) 792,675

Indirect cost

Engineering and Supervisor 20%PEC 81,300

Construction and insurance 10%PEC 40,650

Contractor fee 5%PEC 20,325

Contingency 10%PEC 40,650

Total Indirect Cost (IC) 182,925

FCI = DC + IC = 792,675 + 182,925 = $975,600

Working Capital (WC) = 40% PEC = $162,600

TCI = FCI + WC = $1,138,200

6.4 Total Production Cost of the Plant

The total production cost of the plant includes the manufacturing cost plus the general expenses.

Manufacturing cost are divided in to two (A) direct, (B) indirect,

6.4.1 Direct Manufacturing Cost: is cost of raw materials, the production plan is as follows

4 h/batch

6 days/week

2 batches/day

300 day/year

Total feed water for the production process = 50 + 55 + 2.611584 + 82.5 = 190.11 kg/h,

The boiler water feed = 190.11 kg/h + 900 kg/h = 1090.11 kg/h

Annual volume requirement: = 1090.11/1000 = 1.09 * 24 h/day * 300 day/yr = 7,848.8 m3/yr

Ca (OH)2 = 108.816 kg/h * 24 h/day * 300 days/yr = 783.4752 ton/yr

HCl = 105.875 kg/h * 24 h/day * 300 days/yr = 726.3 ton/yr

BS from slaughter house = 1,000 kg/h * 24 h/day * 300 days/yr = 7,200 ton/yr

Plastic bag = 179.4 kg/h * 24 h/day * 300 day/yr = 1291.68 ton/yr

Table 6. 5 Annual Raw Materials Requirement & Cost

No. Raw Material Unit Quantity Cost per Ton

($)

Annual Cost ($)

1 Slaughterhouses by-product

(BS)

Tons 7,200 2 14,400

2 Quicklime Tons 783.4752 15 11,752.128

3 Hydrochloric acid Tons 726.3 30 21,789

6 Packing Material (LDPE) Tons 1291.68 11 14,208.48

Total 62,149.6

Labor Cost: there is 30 labor in different process positions with a monthly salary which is

specified in the human resource requirement section.

Total labor cost per year = $38,525

Direct supervision = 20% * labor cost = $7,705

Maintenance cost = 30% * FCI = $292,680

Laboratory cost = 15% * labor cost = $5,778.75

Utility = 1% of R.M cost = 0.01 * 62,149.6= $621.496

Total direct cost of manufacturing = $345,310.246

6.4.2 Indirect Costs

Depreciation cost = 10% FCI = $97,560

WC = 20% FCI = $195,120

Insurance = 1% FCI = $9,756

Total indirect cost = $ 302,436

Total Manufacturing Cost = 302,436 + 345,310.246 = $647,746.246

6.5 General Exchange: this cost includes administrative, distribution and selling cost

6.5.1 Administrative Cost = 15% * cost of (direct supervision + maintenance + labor)

= 0.15 * (7,705 + 292,680 + 38,525) = $50,837

6.5.2 Distribution & Selling Cost: is a cost for sell officers, sales man, shopping and advertiser

are estimated to be 15% of total manufacturing cost:

Distribution & sell cost = 15% * total manufacturing cost = 15% * 647,746.246 = $97162

General exchanges = 50,837 + 97162 = $147,999

Total Production Cost = 147,999 + 647,746.246 + 62,149.6 = $857,895

6.6 Determination of Unit Cost of Production

Breakeven Point

Annual production from the extraction tank:

= (300 days/year) / [(2.4 weeks/batch * 7 days/week)] * (4 h/batch) = 71.42 h/yr

Where 2.4 weeks (or 16.8 days) is the total amount of time for gelatin production starting from

collection up to characterization.

Raw material collection = 1 day

Inspection and cutting = 6 hrs

Drying = 5 days

Size Reduction = 1 day

Degreasing = 1 hrs

Acid & Alkaline Treatment = 4 days

Washing = 1 hrs

Extraction = 4 hrs

Filtration = 1 day

Characterization = 4.3 days

Total = 16.8 days or 2.4 weeks

The annual production capacity of the plant for single extraction batch wise tank will be:

= 71.42 h/yr * 672.8961 kg/h = 115,347.85 kg/yr =

For continuous production, annual production capacity of the plant will be:

= 4 h/batch * 2 batch/day * 300 days/yr * 672.8961 kg/h = 1,614,950.64 kg/year

Therefore, to have this amount, the number of extraction tanks that we need is:

= 1,614,950.64 /48,052.24 = 34 tanks

Let X = Capacity Utilization at breakeven point

X = Total production cost/ annual production capacity

= (857,895/1,614,950.64) * 100 = 53.12%, this means it has large safety margin so that the

company will be profitable for very large production quantity stage more than 53.12%.

6.7 Profitability Analysis

From the above material and energy balance, we had calculated the following data

FCI = $975,600

WC = $162,600

TCI = $1,138,200

TPC = $857,895

R (interest) = 10%

Depreciation (D) = 20 years (n)

Income tax (IT) = 52%

Selling price = $ 0.63/kg

Annual production = 1,614,950.64 kg/yr

a. Depreciation: D = FCI/n = $ 975,600/20 = $ 48,780

b. Revenue of the factory by producing and selling 1,777,932.88 kg of gelatin is

R = 0.63 * 1,614,950.64 = $ 1,017,418.9

c. Gross profit (GP)

GP = R - TPC = 1,017,418.9 - 857,895 = $ 159,523.9

d. Income Tax (IT) = (GP - D) * 0.52

= (159,523.9 - 48,780) * 0.52 = $ 57,586.83

e. Net profit, NP = GP - (IT - D) = 159,523.9 - (57,586.83 - 48,780) = $150,717

f. Rate of Return (ROR), which is the measure of the company ability to return its expense or

investment: ROR = (NP/TCI)*100 = (150,717/857,895)*100 = 17.568%

From the rate of return, we can understand the factory will return 17.568 % of its initial investment

by the first year at its full operational production. Thus, we can say it is feasible because in the

calculation we are trying to sell the gelatin with $ 0.63 per kg which is the lowest and can be

increased that makes the company’s rate of return to rise sharply.

g. Payback Period, PBP = TCI/NP = $857,895/$150,717 = 5.69 years

6.8 Cash Flow

Net present value (NPV), which is more appropriate to describe the current value of money

compared to the future or one year later now: NPV = PV.CFin - PV.CFout,

PV.CFin = present value of cash flow in (NP) = Ʃᴑ n=1 (CFin)/ (1/ (1+r) n)

Where n = period of depreciation runs from 1 to 20; and r is interest rate = 10%;

PV.CFout = present value of cash flow out = TCI = $1,138,200

PV.CFin = (150,717) * Ʃ20 n=1 {(1/ (1+0.1) n} = 150,717 * 8.514 = $ 1,283,204.538

NPV = 1,283,204.538 - 1,138,175 = $ 145,029.538 since, the net present value is positive, it is

feasible in terms of the present value of money which is invested to the year of return. It is possible

to go through the detail design of the plant.

Cash Flow Diagram

Summarized cash flow for this plant can be depicted in the following graph, the upward arrow tells

the total cash flow in and the downward arrow is for the cash flow out of the plant.

Fig 6. 1 Cash flow diagram

6.9 Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

For the final product of this work, we’ve determined some of its properties related to safety and

hazard situations during operation and utilization [29]. The MSDS format of this product as

depicted in the preceding table is modified by three of this thesis members as a manufacturer to

suit our case, but the original MSDS is collected from different sources [30]

For the following MSDS sample format, we assumed that our final product is gelatin powder

Section I - Basic Info

Manufacture’s Name

-------------------------------------------------

Emergency Telephone Number

-----------------------------------------

Address (Number, street, city, state, and ZIP

code)

-------------------------------------------------

Telephone Number for Information

---------------------------------------------

Date Prepared

---------------------

Signature of Preparer (optional)

--------------------

Section II - Hazard Ingredient/Identity Information

Hazardous Components (Specific

Chemical Identity: Common

Names)

OSHA

PEL

ACGIH

TLV

Other Limits

Recommended

% (Optional)

THIS PRODUCT DOES NOT CONTAIN ANY REPORTABLE HAZARDOUS

COMPONENTS AS DEFIENED IN ------------------------------ CETRTIFIED

Section III – Physical & Chemical Characteristics

Boiling point N/A Specific Gravity(H2O =1) >1

Vapor pressure (mm Hg.) N/A Melting Point N/A

Vapor density (AIR = 1) N/A Evaporation Rate N/A

Solubility in water

Complete in hot water

Appearance and odor

Granulated – White To Amber Colored Powder

Section IV - Fire & Explosion Hazard Date

Flashpoint (Method used)

N/A

Flammable Limits

N/A

LEL

N/A

UEL

N/A

Extinguishing Media

Water, Foam, CO2 & ABC Powder Extinguisher

Special Fire Fighting Procedures

Treat As Typical Combustible Product Fire

Usual Fire and Explosion Hazards

None

Section V - Reactivity Date

Stability Unstable Condition To Avoid

NONE

----------- Stable X This Space Left Blank Intentionally

Incompatibility( Material To Avoid)

NONE

Hazardous Decomposition Or Byproduct

N/A

Hazardous

Polymerization

May Occur Condition To Avoid

N/A

------------------------- Will Not Occur X This Space Left Blank Intentionally

Section VI - Health Hazard Data

Route (s) of Entry:

---------------------

Inhalation

DUST

Skin

N/A

Ingestion

NON-TOXIC

Health Hazards (Acute & Chronic)

----------------------------------- TO THIS COMPANY (IF THERE)

Carcinogenicity:

NONE

NTP

N/A

IARC Monographs

N/A

OSHA Regulated

N/A

Signs and Symptoms of Exposure

N/A

Medical Conditions

Generally Aggravated by Exposure N/A

Emergency and First Aid Procedures

WARM WATER RINSE

Section VII - Precaution for Safe Handling and Use

Steps to be taken in case of Material Released or Spilled:

This material is a non-hazardous waste and handles as a biodegradable powder

THIS SPACE IS LEFT BLANK INTENTIONALLY

Waste Disposal Method

Can be incinerated in an approved combustion disposal or disposed of in an

An approved landfill according to applicable regulations.


Precaution to be taken in Handling and Storing

Handle according to good manufacturing and

Storage procedures.


Other Precaution NONE

Section VIII - Control Measure

Respiratory Protection (specify type) Nuisance Dust Mask

Ventilation Local Exhaust

As needed

Special

N/A

---------------------------

Mechanical (General)

As needed

Other

N/A

Protective Gloves

Not required under normal condition

Eye Protection

Safety glasses

Other Protective Clothing or Equipment: Not required under normal conditions

Work/Hygienic Practices: Handle according to good manufacturing Practices.

Substance Identity (Same as shown on MSDS):

Health-Related hazard

0

Fire and Explosion

0

Reactivity

0

PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) for specific Hazard

0

Key:

0 - Minimal

1 - Slight

2 - Moderate

3 - Serious

4 - Severe

Health Hazard (Immediate & Delayed Target Organ Effects)

The above-colored table is used as the label of the product.

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION

7.1 Conclusion

According to the laboratory results, the point we achieved maximum gelatin yield was X9; which

is at 4 hours and 135oC. Not only extraction time, but also extraction temperature affects the

amount of gelatin yield and the quality parameters in different ways. For some, increasing

extraction time increases their value while for others increasing temperature decreases their

corresponding value. But for the others; both time and temperature increase/decrease their value

at the same time. And also, there are other parameters that remained constant whether there is

variation in time and temperature or not.

Some of the slight variations observed were due to inefficiencies of equipment and measuring

devices found at the laboratories.

Economic analysis of the proposed plant design, on a twenty-year basis, yields a net present value

(NPV) of $145,029.538, a rate of return of 17.568% and a simple payback period of 5.69 years.

This calculated value of economic evaluation tells us it is possible to go through the detailed design

by making sure the feasibility design with assumed efficiency and other process parameters are

feasible.

From equipment selection through cost determination and up to sizing procedures, the data related

to the calculation of each section are obtained from many sources. If there is any uncertainty in the

manipulation and resulted in data; in-fact which is acceptable in the feasibility study, it will be

corrected in the next design part called the detailed or basic design.

The mode of operation of the plant would be best if it is batch wise extraction with continuous

production. To make the plant fully continuous, around 34 extraction tanks will be required which

may not seem feasible.

The basic raw material for the production process is very cheap that can easily be collected from

slaughterhouse and butcher shops. This all is from the economic perspective; on the other hand,

this factory will play a great role in protecting the environment.

It may be difficult to quantify in what amount will it protect the environment, but, in common

sense, what we can understand is that; its role in GHG emission potential reduction is not little by

observing the slaughterhouse dumping area as a benchmark.

7.2 Recommendations

There are some other quality parameters that are not tested by us. So, any other person(s) interested

in this work, its better if they can quantify those parameters.

For the profitability of the plant, the location of the factory should be near to either the

slaughterhouse or butcher shops. Specifically, Addis Ababa is the city that can meet our raw

material demand; and the raw material collection should also be branched to all other small and

large-scale slaughterhouses near A.A city like Dukem, Sebeta, Debre Zeit and Adama. This can

make the plant operate and produce more gelatin throughout the whole year without downtime due

to stock. The inventory of raw material must be treated with some disinfectant chemicals to prevent

unwanted decomposition.

As we can understand from the literature, most of the equipment or unit operations which are used

in this plant can be manufactured here in. Thus, better sizing and material selection could make

these units produce-able in our country. This will, in turn, provide advantages both for foreign

currency reduction and enhancing the small industrial sectors.

For the future, our intention is starting a new plant that produces gelatin from plants in parallel to

existing production process.

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2018 Production Of Gelatin From Animal Byproducts

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