ia601502.us.archive.org · 2021. 2. 23. · LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData...

Introduction to Avestan

Brill Introductions toIndo-European Languages

Series Editors

Michiel de VaanAlexander Lubotsky

volume 1

The titles published in this series are listed at brillcomiiel

Manuscript J2 478v Yasna 436 (end) ndash Yasna 438 (beginning)

Introduction to AvestanBy

Javier MartiacutenezMichiel de Vaan

Translated by

Ryan Sandell

LEIDEN | BOSTON

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Vaan Michiel Arnoud Cor de 1973-[Introduccioacuten al aveacutestico English]Introduction to Avestan By Michiel de Vaan Javier Martinez Translated by Ryan Sandell

pages cm ndash (Brill introductions to Indo-European languages Volume 1)Published in Spanish by Madrid Claacutesicas 2001 as Introduccioacuten al aveacutesticoIncludes bibliographical references and indexISBN 978-90-04-25809-9 (pbk alk paper) ndash ISBN 978-90-04-25777-1 (e-book alk paper) 1 Avestan

languagendashGrammar I Martiacutenez Garciacutea Francisco Javier 1965- II Sandell Ryan (Translator) III Title

PK6103V3613 2014491525ndashdc23

2013040365

This publication has been typeset in the multilingual ldquoBrillrdquo typeface With over 5100 characters coveringLatin ipa Greek and Cyrillic this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities For moreinformation please see wwwbrillcombrill-typeface

issn 2214-5605isbn 978 90 04 25809 9 (paperback)isbn 978 90 04 25777 1 (e-book)

Copyright 2014 by Koninklijke Brill nv Leiden The NetherlandsKoninklijke Brill nv incorporates the imprints Brill Global Oriental Hotei Publishing idc Publishers andMartinus Nijhoff PublishersAll rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced translated stored in a retrieval system ortransmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording or otherwisewithout prior written permission from the publisherAuthorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill nv providedthat the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center 222 Rosewood Drive Suite 910Danvers ma 01923 usa Fees are subject to change

This book is printed on acid-free paper

Contents

Translatorrsquos Note ixPreface xiSymbols and Abbreviations xiii

1 Introduction 1sect1 Avestan the Iranian Languages 1sect2 The Avestan Texts 2sect3 Writing System The Avestan Alphabet 4sect4 The Transmission 5

2 Phonology 7sect5 Alphabet and Phoneme Inventory 7sect6 Historical Phonology 9sect7 Vowels 10sect8 Epenthetic Vowels 17sect9 Anaptyctic Vowels 18sect10 Diphthongs 19sect11 Consonants 21

3 Morphology 39sect12 Introduction 39sect13 Nominal Inflection 39sect14 Case Endings of the Singular 43sect15 Case Endings of the Dual 44sect16 Case Endings of the Plural 44sect17 Inflectional Classes 46sect18 Consonant Stems 46sect19 Vowel Stems 53sect20 The Adjective 64sect21 Numerals 66sect22 Pronouns 69sect23 Prepositions and Preverbs 77sect24 The Verb 78sect25 Component Elements 78sect26 Present Stems 80

viii contents

sect27 Aorist Stems 82sect28 Perfect Stem 83sect29 Moods 83sect30 Personal Endings 83sect31 The Augment 87sect32 Paradigms 88sect33 Non-Finite and Nominal Forms 96

4 Syntax 99sect34 Syntax 99sect35 Number 99sect36 Case Syntax 100sect37 The Use of Verbal Moods 101sect38 Clausal Syntax 103sect39 Negation 104sect40 The System Changes 105

5 Texts 107sect41 Introduction 107

Bibliography 119Glossary 123Word Index 131Topical Index 159

Translatorrsquos Note

Like any dutiful translator I have at all times striven to obtain an accurate andclear rendering of the original Spanish text into English while still maintain-ing asmuchof the original phrasing and style as possible Given the objective ofthis book to introduce the facts concerning thehistorical and synchronic gram-mar of Avestan I have prized clarity above all and therefore have occasionallyadded additional explanatory clauses where I felt that a merely accurate trans-lation did not convey the intended point Similarly the availability of a moreextensive number and gender agreement system in Spanish often necessitatedthat I restore full nominal referents inmany places again for the sake of clarity

For technical reasons the files inwhich the original Spanishmanuscript wascomposed were not usable To produce the translation I therefore retyped theentire book from a printed copy of the original 2001 Ediciones Claacutesicas editionand typeset it using in order to take advantage of direct Unicode input

First thanks go to the authors Javier Martiacutenez andMichiel de Vaan (whoincidentally taught the first course of Avestan in which I sat now almostfive years ago) for having entrusted me with this project Chiara Bozzonekindly read various portions of my text suggested better translations andoffered moral support whenever necessary I owe a considerable debt to JesseLundquist who read a draft of themanuscript through the portion on nomi-nalmorphology and thereby savedme from innumerable typographical errors

Los Angeles June 2013RS

Preface

Around the second millennium bce at the same time that Judaism was tak-ing shape further to the west another monotheistic religion impelled by theprophet Zarathustra arose among the Iranian tribes that inhabited the area ofpresent-day Eastern Iran and Western Afghanistan Zarathustra incorporatedthe old Iranian deities into this new religion and he reorganized themwithin adualistic system characterized by the battle between Good and Evil The Maz-dayasnian creed attained dominance in the Achaemenid (559ndash336bce) andSasanian (ca 224ndash651ce) Persian Empire Later following the Muslim inva-sion the Mazdayasnian religion was nearly annihilated nevertheless in spiteof everything Mazdayasnianism survived until the present day in a couple ofIranian cities in the west of India (Bombay [Mumbai] Gujarat) and through-out the diaspora (United States England)

Of the totality of texts belonging to the canon which was formed in the firsthalf of the firstmilleniumbce andwas successively transmitted by priests onlya tiny fraction has survived transmitted in manuscripts since theMiddle AgesWith the acquisition of a goodportion of thosemanuscripts in the 18th and 19thcenturies the academic study of the Avestan language and the Mazdayasnianreligion began in Europe

Presently grammars andmonographs onAvestan exist in various languagesbut an updatedmodern introductionmainly intended for students of Compar-ative and Indo-European Linguistics was still lacking In view of this gap wefirst published in 2001 an Introduccioacuten al Aveacutestico which was quite successfuland rapidly sold out Limitations owing to the original language and the smallsize of the first printing made the book a rarum

The start of the new series Brill Introductions to Indo-European Languagesallows us to seize the opportunity to produce an English translation based onthe Introduccioacuten as many students of Avestan and Comparative Linguisticsrequested since the Spanish book appeared

Considering the growing number of scholars interested in the study ofAncient Languages and Cultures the present grammar has a dual objectiveIn the first place it aspires to be a clear and concise manual of Avestan forthose who wish to study the texts from a historical and cultural perspectivebut it also intends to bring out the history of one of the oldest andmost archaicIndo-European languages

On the whole the aim of this new edition was to change the text as lit-tle as possible because of both the positive feedback received after the firstedition and in order to maintain the concision and handiness of the original

xii preface

Nevertheless we have taken advantage of this occasion to correct typos andotherminor errors borne in the first edition andwehave also added some titlesto the bibliography

Academic works are always subject to revision and the present book con-stitutes no exception After a period of further study the historical grammarof the languages indeed requires new explanations as well Real progress hasbeen made in Avestan philology over the last decade (in particular the resultsof studies made by Jean Kellens and by Alberto Cantera and his collab-orators) and the current text has consequently been updated In matters ofhistorical phonology M de Vaan has in a number of instances modified ourprevious views in agreement with the findings of his 2003 study on the Avestanvowels and other subsequent papers

Wewould at this point again like to remember the teacherswho introducedthe study of Avestan to us Helmut Fischer and Ralf-Peter Ritter on the onehand and Robert Beekes Alexander Lubotsky and Jochem Schindler onthe other

Other friends and scholars also deserve our gratitude for their advice con-cerning this book Carlos Jordaacuten Coacutelera (Zaragoza) revised and gave manycomments on the original Spanish version Alberto Cantera (Salamanca) hasgiven graciously of his time and has likewise offered many helpful commentsand Douglas Fear (Heidelberg) was able to untighten his schedule and readthe final manuscript Lastly we are deeply grateful to Ryan Sandell for will-ingly entrusting himself to the translation of the Spanish text and for being apatient and solicitous assistant at every stage of this work

A considerable number of the textual materials used for the revision andupdating of the present book such as the frontispiece image of theMs J2 havebeen extracted from the corpora belonging to the TITUS Project

Oviedo Leiden June 2013JM ampMdV

Symbols and Abbreviations

dagger hypothetically expected form+ improved reading (of

Geldner)times conjecture not present in

mss beginning or end of a worddeg before or after a shortened

wordasymp corresponds to syllable boundarylt develops regularly fromltlt develops indirectly fromgt develops regularly togtgt develops indirectly torarr replaced byabl ablativeacc accusativeact activeaor aoristAv Avestanca circach chaptercs centuriescaus causativedat dativeesp especiallyf(em) feminineFG full gradefn footnotefut futuregen genitiveGoth GothicGr GreekHD hysterodynamicHitt Hittiteie id estid idem

IE Indo-EuropeanIIr Indo-Iranianimpv imperativeimpf imperfectind indicativeinf infinitiveinj injunctiveinst instrumentalIr IranianLat LatinLG lengthened gradeLith Lithuanianloc locativem(asc) masculinemid middlemss manuscriptsNB nota benene(ut) neuternom nominativeOAv Old AvestanOCS Old Church SlavicOHG Old High GermanOIr Old IrishOP Old Persianopt optativepart participlepass passivePD proterodynamicPE primary ending(s)PIE Proto-Indo-Europeanperf perfectpl pluralplupf pluperfectPN proper nounposp postpositionppp past passive participlepres present

xiv symbols and abbreviations

prev preverbrel relativeresp respectivelySE secondary ending(s)sg singularSkt Sanskritsubj subjunctive

superl superlativeUmbr Umbrianvl varia lectiovoc vocativewa without attestationYAv Young AvestanZG zero grade

copy koninklijke brill nv leiden 2014 | doi 1011639789004258099_002

chapter 1

Introduction

sect1 Avestan the Iranian Languages

Avestan is the language preserved in the sacred books of the Parsis1 the ensem-ble of which is called the lsquoAvestarsquo Avestan is an Indo-European language andbelongs to the Indo-Iranianbranchof the family In turnAvestan (Av) togetherwith Old Persian (OP) is the oldest transmitted Iranian language

Precision is necessary with respect to the term lsquoIranianrsquo because of possibleconfusion beween the linguistic and the geographical use of the term The Ira-nian languages are not geographically restricted to the borders of present-dayIran but are also found scattered throughout thewhole area of theMiddle EastTurkey (Kurdish and Zaza [Zāzā]) Georgia and Russia (Ossetic) Azerbaijan(Tātī) Iraq (Kurdish) Iran (Persian Kurdish Balochi [Balocī] Pashto [Pasto])Afghanistan (Pashto Ormurī Parachi [Parācī] Tajik [Taǰīkī] etc) etc

As has already been noted the oldest attested languages of the Iraniangroup are Old Persian and Avestan of which two varieties are known OldAvestan (OAv) also called Gathic Avestan or Avestan of the Gathas [Gāθās]and Young Avestan (YAv) The differences between both varieties are as muchchronological (diachronic) as dialectal (geographic)

There are other old Iranian languages of which we are aware but unfor-tunately nothing more than scarce and badly preserved remnants have beenpassed down Such is the case for Scythian of which we have informationthrough Greek writers for Median of which direct testimony does not existetc

In Figure 1 one can get a general view of the family tree of the Iranian lan-guages Note that the diagram does not faithfully reflect the historical reality ofthe languages and that there are still obscure points regarding the synchronicposition of some languages

Neither where nor when Avestan was spoken is known with certaintythough it is possible to surmise that its area of origin was Eastern Iran whileit is thought that Zarathustra must have lived before the 10th c bce

1 Followers of the Mazdayasnian religion (Zoroastrianism)

2 chapter 1 middot introduction

figure 1 Iranian family tree (non-exhaustive listing of modern languages)

sect2 The Avestan Texts

The Avestan language has been transmitted to the present day by means ofmanuscripts the oldest of which dates from the 13th or 14th cs ce ()2 Themonumental edition of Geldner is preceded by a series of Prolegomenain which all of the manuscripts utilized for the edition are classified in adetailed fashion according to the traditionalmethodofClassical Philology TheProlegomena furnish some valuable information particularly due to the factthat some of the manuscripts seen by Geldner have since been irremediablylost and the whereabouts of many others are unknown3

The difficult work of reconstituting the Avestan texts rigorously combinesphilology and linguistics as the results that follow from the exegesis of the

2 This is K7ab which Barr dates to the year 1288 or 1268 cf Geldner Prol VIIa Barr 1944XIII f andHoffmannNarten 16 Thismanuscript is accompaniedby aPahlavi translationie inMiddle Persian Themanuscripts that contain only the text inAvestan are termed lsquopurersquo(sade) most of which are generally much younger than those called lsquoimpurersquo

3 The Ms Mf4 is an exceptional case as it was not collated by Geldner This importantmanuscript has been edited in 1976 by JamaspAsa As it happens some of the mss havebeen rediscovered cf for example F1

sect 2 middot the avestan texts 3

figure 2 The Iranian lands in antiquity

texts together with textual criticism must be compared with the results fromlinguistics (historical and comparative) In virtue of this method the Erlangencircle under the guidanceofKHoffmann hasmade considerable progress inthe study of Avestan philology during recent decades One of the achievementsof Hoffmann consists precisely in positing an archetype from which all thepreserved Avestan texts ultimately derive In effect despite the many variantsthat one may observe both in the texts and in their parts all the manuscriptsretain a great uniformity and must derive from an archetype put togetherin early Islamic times (see sect3) The restitution of the text that underlay thearchetype (cf sect425) is the principal task that Avestan philology undertakes

It seems that selectedAvestan textswere organized into a canon in amannersimilar to other liturgical texts such as the Bible or the Veda Neverthelesseven after the creation and diffusion of the Avestan script as well as thecompilation of the Avestan canon the transmission of the Avesta continuedto be primarily oral Today only a meager portion of the ancient canon ispreserved In the Pahlavi (Middle Persian) literaturemany texts arementionedthat unfortunately have not been preserved The archetype reconstructiblefor the totality of the extant Avestan manuscripts probably reflects a traditionmade during the Sasanian period (ca 224ndash651ce) This collection consistedof descriptions of Zoroastrian rituals They give the Avestan texts which areto be pronounced during the ritual and some short stage instructions to theofficiating priests (given in various contemporary languages) The collection oftexts that was made for the archetype is found to different degrees in various

manuscripts Its original use was for instructing future priests in the religiousschools rather than actual use during religious ceremonies

Within the Avestan corpus the texts belonging to Old Av are (a) the 17songs conceivably composed by Zarathustra himself (ordered into five gathasY 28ndash34 43ndash46 47ndash50 51 53) (b) the Yasna haptaŋhāiti (Y 352ndash416) whichcould also be attributed to Zarathustra and (c) several fragments dispersedthroughout the Yasna The remaining texts of the corpus are catagorized asYoung Av for example the Yasna (Y) Yašt (Yt) the Vīsperad (Vr) the Nyāyisn(Ny) the Gāh (G) the Sīroza (S) the Afringan (A) the Videvdad (Vd) etc Theyare composed in prose with some small remnants of poetry On the texts cfsect41 ff

sect3 Writing System The Avestan Alphabet

Avestan is written with an alphabet created expressly for the purpose of com-mitting the corpus to writing the creation of this alphabet is probably to besituated between themiddle of the 7th c and themiddle of the 9th c cf belowThe Avestan alphabet is very complete and contains a detailed inventory ofgraphemes (it may perhaps be the first phonetic alphabet) whose goal wasto represent with precision in writing a (liturgical) recited text which wouldhave had variant forms depending upon the speed of recitation etc This factindicates that the Avestan alphabet is a deliberate creation and does not resultfrom a lengthy process of adoption Indeed the alphabet must have had a spe-cific creator who could equally have been a lone individual or have come froma school of recitation

The immediate model for the Avestan alphabet is a variety of the Pahlaviscript (which itself ultimately derives from the Aramaic script) Book Pahlaviused by theologians of the Zoroastrian church for their writings Its influenceis clearly seen in the letters a i k xv t p b n m r s z and s Somecharacters however have been taken over from another more archaic varietyused for a translation of the psalter and known because they have been foundin a manuscript from Turfan (713th c ce) cf ɣ j and d The rest of theletters result either from the use of diacritics (for example the small line wasabstracted from Pahl lsquoL ō 68389 gt o as a sign of length and added to make thecorresponding longs to i and u ie i and u while being subtracted fromPahllsquoL o to write o ( or from pure invention (a as a ligature of ā + ə ] + [ or ẟin its two variants and (

The establishment of a relative chronology for the script is a complicatedissue and has been a recent topic of discussion Until now an inscription in

sect 4 middot the transmission 5

Book Pahlavi script on a sarcophagus discovered in Istanbul whose archeo-logical dating demands a date no later than 430ce was usually adduced asimportant evidence Some scholars even allowed the possibility that the cre-ation of the script had taken place during the reign of Sabuhr II (310ndash379ce)

At present the dating of the sarcophagus has been revised and amuch laterdate is admitted probably the 9th or 10th c Recently a new approach to theevidence provided by the Pahlavi books and other sources like coins pointstoward the existence of a Sasanian Avesta The invention of the Avestan alpha-bet could accordingly be dated to around 500ad It is quite probable that thepressure of the Arab conquest (651ce) acted as a catalyzing agent in the Maz-dayasnian community and the need was felt to continue the Avestan canon ina written form The canonrsquos redaction in writing may have materialized duringthe so-called ldquoPahlavi Renaissancerdquo (9th c) which attempted to set up a canon-ical book in direct opposition to those that the other great religions offered andto the Qurʾan in particular

Despite its obvious filiation the Avestan writing system distinguishes itselfsharply from the imprecision that characterizes the Pahlavi system in whichthe same signor ligature allows for various interpretive possibilities and vowelsare not indicated (a practice inherited fromAramaic) Avestan from the outsetassigned a specific value to each sign and marked the vowels precisely In thisregard the Greek writing system which was well known throughout the Eastmay have served as a point of reference for the creators of theAvestan alphabet

sect4 The Transmission

The enterprise that sought to commit the Avestan corpus to writing must havebeen carried out shortly after the invention of the alphabet and would haveculminated with the production of a sort of editio princeps of the Avesta whichis usually given the name lsquoSasanian Archetypersquo This unpreserved archetypeestablishes the beginning of Avestanrsquos history of textual transmission Thetransmission of the corpus however obviously begins much earlier with thevery moment of its composition From here it is possible to distinguish be-tween several stages up until the time that the corpus took written form

sect41 With regard to OAv the stages are as follows (according to Hoff-mann 198951 with slightmodification) 1 the original language of the gāθās ofZarathustra the Yasna haptaŋhaiti and the three sacred prayers (between 1000and 900bce) The region where the Old Av texts originated is usually locatedin Northeastern Iran (Herat) 2 changes due to slow recitation appear (herethe numerous non-metrical anaptytic vowels are introduced) 3 changes due

to transmission in the hands of YAv priests who introduced phonetically YAvforms into OAv (the so-called ldquoYoung Avestanismsrdquo) 4 an intentional alter-ation of the text through the orthoepic diaskeuasis the aim of which was toestablish a canonical text

sect42 Once the text of Old Av was established the transmission of the OldandYoungAv textswas carried out in common The stages that affect thewholeof the Avesta are the following 1 the original language of the Young Avestanredactors 2 the movement of the Avestan tradition around 500ce to Persis[Fars] in Southwestern Iran 3 the transmission of Avestan in a theologicalschool in Southwestern Iran (Estakhr) which is reflected through the influenceof Old Persian and Median in fanciful pronunciations that are presumablythe work of semi-erudite teachers in the composition of late (grammaticallyincorrect) Avestan texts and in the incorporation of portions of texts that weretransmitted in other geographical areas

4 With this stage the purely oral transmission comes to an end It is tradi-tionally thought that in the 4th c ce the alphabet with phonetic notation forAvestan was created and that the corpus obtained written form (the SasanianArchetype) This chronology is presently undergoing revision and it seems thatthis process took place rather in the 6th c 5 Throughout the Sasanian period(ca 224ndash651) the Avesta suffered serious deterioration because of incorrectpronunciation (the period of the vulgate) 6 Starting from the first archetype(11th c) hyparchetypes which were not free of errors (cf the regular inter-change between s s and s) emerged 7 Since 1288ce the recent manuscriptshave been copied with a large number of errors and obvious corruptions thepresently existing manuscripts reflect the outcome of this work

chapter 2

Phonology

sect5 Alphabet and Phoneme Inventory

The Avestan alphabet consists of 16 vowel signs and 37 consonant signs Thefact that a considerable number of the languagersquos phonemes are represented bymultiple graphemes demonstrates that the writing system is effectively morephonetic than phonological

sect51 In Table 1 the letters of the Avestan alphabet are presented accordingto their place of articulation which is the traditional practice in Indo-Iranianphilology The accompanying transliteration below each letter is that which isusually employed at present This transliteration scheme is based on a notationestablished by K Hoffmann (1971 cf 1975 316ff) which the scientific com-munity has accepted as the norm Previously different signs were used for thetransliteration of some characters such as ḣ for x c for c j for j w for β n for nand n š for š s and s y for y ẏ and ii and v for v and uu Recently other char-acters have been introduced into the modern transliteration system ą ġ ŋv ńṇ m š and s

sect52 Certain letters are found only in the manuscripts and are usually notpresent in the textual editions a fact which should not take away from theirimportance because some of these letters may have been part of the originalalphabet of the archetype

1 aring appears only in ms Pd where it is used instead of a preceding ŋh2 ġ which scarcely occurs in themanuscripts belongs to the original alpha-

bet In themanuscripts that do use it itmost often appears in the frequent finalsequence -əng (cf esp the mss S1 and J3 sect793) from which it is possible todeduce that ġ could have been an unreleased consonant like t (sect11102) bothare the only final occlusives in Avestan

3 ŋv (-ŋuh- [-ŋh-] -ŋuh- lt -hu- lt -su-) likewise belonged to the archetypeand represents a labialized ŋ cf sect1131 In the same fashion ŋ represents apalatal ŋ resulting from -hi- lt -si- cf sect1129

4 ń (cf sect114) in the archetype represented a palatal n produced before iit is thus usually found in the manuscripts preceding ii (lt i) but also beforei

5 m was likewise a constituent letter of the original alphabet used for therepresentation of a voicelessm Occasionally one finds it replaced by hm

8 chapter 2 middot phonology

table 1 The Avestan alphabet

a ā aring a ą ą ə ə

e e o ō i i u ū

k x x xv g ġ ɣ

c j

t θ d ẟ t

p f b β

ŋ ŋ ŋv n ń n m m

ẏ y v r

s z s z s s

h

6 Themanuscripts that come from Iran usually employ ẏ instead of y which isused much more frequently in the Indian manuscripts The substantial formaldifference between the two signs excludes the possibility that they might havebeen mere variants it may be that ẏ was originally employed for initial i (sect1111) The two distinct graphemes could be explained by supposing thatoriginal initial i was written with ẏ while y would have in principle servedto represent a palatal z With the passage of time the sounds z and z wereno longer differentiated Both sounds came to be written in inlaut with zconsequently leaving the letter for z free this letter then must have been used

sect 6 middot historical phonology 9

instead of ẏ by a certain Parsi community in India whence the usage of y wasgeneralized in the Indian manuscripts

sect53 The alphabet is written from right to left and the letters are notusually conjoined but rather are written separately Ligatures are not normallyemployed while those that do appear are sporadic and secondary by natureThe most common ones are ša šc and št

sect54 The Avestan writing system also makes use of an interpunct the dot() which occurs at the end of each word or separates in an inconsistent waythe members of compounds without observing any difference from the firstfunction cf ərəšvaca lsquowho tells the truthrsquo (Y 3112) from the adv ərəš lsquoright cor-rectlyrsquo and vacah- lsquowordrsquo vīspāvohū lsquowho has all that is goodrsquo parakauuistəmalsquothe best observerrsquo (Yt 127) and its positive parōkauuīẟəm (Yt 10102) etc Insome instances the dot also separates the stem and the suffixending in aword cf the superl adj spəṇtōtəma- lsquothemost beneficientrsquo (Y 373) the instpldrəguuōdəbīš (Y 292) or the datablpl drəguuōdəbiiō (Y 3011) from the stemdrəguuaṇt- lsquodeceiver follower of the Liersquo (asymp Skt druacutehvan- lsquodeceptiversquo from theroot Av druj cf PIE dhreugh lsquodeceiversquo) Note that in these cases it is typicalto substitute the vowel a of the first element with ō the typical compositionvowel ie lt drəguuadeg etc1

The sign 68412 the function of which is to separate the Avestan text from theaccompanying interlinear translation also appears in themanuscripts (cf ch 1fn 2) One can observe some examples of punctuation in the illustration on pgiv extracted fromms J2

sect6 Historical Phonology

Avestan in its two varieties when taken together with Old Persian allows forthe reconstruction of a Proto-Iranian language (Ir) the stage preceding Proto-Iranian is Proto-Indo-Iranian (also called Proto-Aryan) which is reconstructedthrough the comparison of Proto-Iranian and Sanskrit (especially the oldestphase of the language Vedic) which is a language closely related to Iranian

1 The original composition vowel is a which is found in some isolated cases ustāna-zasta-lsquowith outspread handsrsquo asa-cinah- lsquoseeking asarsquo In some instances a is also found justifiablyto judge from parallel Skt examples kamnanar- lsquowith few menrsquo vispavohu lsquohaving all thatis goodrsquo (Skt viśvāvasu-) o of secondary origin is the composition vowel of YAv but itwas successfully introduced into OAv An ə also occurs as a composition vowel in a fewrare instances OAv manəvista- lsquofound in thoughtrsquo and consequently is found before someendings as well cf sect794

Comparison with other Indo-European languages such as Greek Latin andHittite ultimately allows for the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European (PIE)Likewise the history of each one of the features of the language does not con-sist solely of the description of the stages that the language goes through butalso of their relative chronologies Changes the product of the internal historyof each language are what determine the particular differences of each groupand at the same time of the languagesdialects that make up that group

For the purposes of deriving theAvestanphonological systemweproceed fromthe following stage of Proto-Indo-European

Vowels e o ē ō i u

Consonants p t k ḱ ku s h1 h2 h3 i u l r m nb d g ǵ gubh dh gh ǵh guh

In addition the following combinatorial variants or allophones occur

l r m n z

sect7 Vowels

The Indo-European vowel system was simplified in Proto-Indo-Iranian a con-dition that still holds in Proto-Iranian the vowels e o (and their respective longvowels) all become a (and a respectively) while the vowels i and u (and theirrespective long vowels) remain unchanged In general the following develop-ments can be stated

table 2 The Avestan vowelsPIE e o gt IIr a gt Av a PIE ē ō gt IIr ā gt Av āPIE i u gt IIr i u gt Av i u PIE ī ū gt IIr ī ū gt Av ī ū

For Avestan a vowel system very similar to that of Proto-Iranian is assumedIn addition to these vowels Avestan also has a vowel ə which sometimesfunctions as an anaptyctic vowel (sect9) though other vowels such as ə a and oare found filling the same role (cf sect925)

sect 7 middot vowels 11

sect71 Comparison allows for the reconstruction of a vocalic system for Avestanwhich one would hope to find faithfully reflected in the texts however thevowels in the text of the Avesta have undergone some additional changes

For instance it is not uncommon to encounter phenomena that result fromthe peculiarities of liturgical pronunciation (slow or quick chanting) intro-duced throughout the transmission Some of these features may already havebeen present in the original language (cf sect9)

sect72 Between Old and Young Avestan one primary difference that emergesis in the representation of final vowels The vowels a a ə ə i i u u e eo o are always written as long vowels in word-final position in Old Avestanwhile in Young Avestan they are always written as short vowels except for -əand -o and in monosyllabic words (cf sectsect7113 7131) Before the enclitics degcaand degcit in Old Avestan i and u usually shorten while a usually remains assuch

The vowels found in the text of the Avesta have direct correlates in theproto-language or else are the products of specific phonetic developments Inthe following sections we present a list of the vowels that appear in the text ofthe Avesta with the details of their respective histories

sect73 a derives from IIr a lt PIE e o n m1 Sometimes an a in the antepenultimate syllable is the product of shorten-

ing from a OAv caθβarasca lsquofourrsquo versus caθβārō lsquoidrsquo (Skt catvaras) dātaras-caversus dātārō (nompl of dātar- lsquocreatorrsquo asymp Skt dātaras) cf also the ending ofthe thematic genpl -anąm (versus Skt ānām OP -ānām the final -ām is bisyl-labic) The same phenomenon is seen in YAv (but not OAv) in the abl ending-āt preceding the preposition haca ahmat haca

2 The IIr sequence aia sometimes becomes aia in Avestan (just as in theother Eastern Iranian dialects) YAv asaiia- lsquowithout shadowrsquo (cf Skt chaya-)mazdaiiasna- lsquoMazdayasnian of Mazdarsquo raiia lsquowith wealthrsquo (instsg Skt rāyabut cf gensg OAv raiio Skt rāyaacutes) Shortening of prevocalic āi is quitesporadic YAv vaiiu- lsquowindrsquo (Skt vāyuacute-)

3 The IIr seqence aua occasionally develops to aua in Avestan (and inEastern Iranian) nauuāza- lsquonavigatorrsquo (Skt nāvājaacute-) Av asauuan- lsquotruthfulfollowing asa [truth]rsquo (Skt rtavan-)

sect74 a derives from IIr a lt PIE e o (and the corresponding short vowelspreceding laryngeals) mH nH (YAv zata- lsquobornrsquo lt PIE ǵnh1-toacute- Skt jātaacute- Latgnātus) Occasionally ā is found instead of the expected a 1 after a labial con-sonant and before s (lt -rt-) YAv vāsəm lsquowagonrsquo lt varta- 2 in initial syllables

(when followed by several other light syllables) one may find ā instead ofa ārmaiti- lsquoright-mindednessrsquo (Skt araacutemati-) kāuuaiias-ca lsquoprincesrsquo (Sktkavaacuteyas) 3 often in OAv following ii or uu (ie following Cii Cuu) vii-ādarəsəm (1sgaoractind of dars lsquoseersquo cf Skt adarśam) vərəziiātąm (3sgpresmidimpv of varz lsquocarry out dorsquo cf Gr ϝεργο-) +həmiiāsaitē (3sgpresmidindof yam lsquoholdrsquo) həṇ-duuārəṇtā (3plpresmidinj of duuar lsquorunrsquo) xvənuuātā(instsg of xvanuuaṇt- lsquosunnyrsquo)

4 Finally mention should be made of the development PIE o gt IIr āgt Av ā when the PIE vowel o stood in an open syllable cf Gr πατέρα Avpitarəm Skt pitaacuteram as opposed to Gr δώτορα Av dātārəm Skt dātaram Thisphenomenon which is frequently subject to intraparadigmatic regularizationowing to the tendency to generalize but a single inflectional stem is given thename of Brugmannrsquos Law or simply Brugmann cf sectsect1812 185 2615 321c(but only possibly in the case of sect321c)

sect75 a reflects 1 an ā preceding ŋh (lt -āsa- cf sect523) or ṇ (ieNC cf sect1132)OAv yaŋhąm (genplf of the relpron ya- cf Skt yasām) YAvmaŋhəm (accsgof māh- lsquomoonrsquo cf Skt masam) daŋhē (2sgaormidsbj of dā lsquogive putrsquo ltPIE deh3 dheh1 resp) daṇtē (3plaormidsbj of dā) YAvmazaṇtəm (accsgof OAv mazaṇt- lsquogreatrsquo cf Skt mahantam) hacaṇtē (3plpresmidsbj of haclsquofollowrsquo)

In inflection are found 2 final -a which derives from the IIr sequence-ās2 cf OAv aētaŋha (gensgf of dempron aēta- lsquothisrsquo) OAv daēna (gensgnomaccpl of daēnā- lsquoreligionrsquo cf the Skt ending -ās of gensgnomaccpl ofā-stems) 3 the ending of the gendu is also -a lt -ās (cf Skt -oḥ the locduhas -uuo lt -au cf sect1034)

sect76 ą is the product of 1 the IIr sequence an before a fricative x θ f s z šmąθra- lsquoformulationrsquo (Skt maacutentra-) YAv ązah- lsquotightnessrsquo (Skt aacutemhas- Latangus-tus lt PIE h2eacutemǵhes-) dąhišta- lsquomost expertrsquo (Skt daacutemsiṣṭha-) and didąs(3sgpresactinj of dąh lsquoteachrsquo Skt dams cf Gr δέδαε) ąxnah- lsquoreinrsquo (cf Grἀγκ-ύλη from PIE h2enk lsquobendrsquo) YAv frąš lsquoforwardsrsquo (Skt praṅ lt praṅk-ṣ)OAv pąsnu- lsquodustrsquo (Skt pāmsuacute-) vąs (3sgaoractinj lt IIr uānst from van lsquowinprevailrsquo)

2 When the enclitic degca is added the vowel a ismaintained by analogy gensg (mazdā-)mazdaandmazdasca nompl (daēna-)daēna anddaēnasca accpl (sāsnā-) sāsna and sāsnasca etc

An ā becomes ą 2 before a final nasal in all cases (-ąm -ąn) locsg dąm lsquoathomersquo Av θβąm (accsg 2perspron Skt tvam) OAvmąm (accsg 1perspronOP mām Skt mam) cašmąm (locsg of cašman- lsquoeyersquo) nāmąm nāmanąm(accpl [cf sect1133] and genpl resp of nāman- lsquonamersquo cf Skt naman- Latnōmen) 3 in an open syllable before a nasal in some cases YAv nąma(nomaccneut cf above Skt nama) YAv dadąmi (1sgpresactind of dā lsquogive putrsquo Skt daacuted(h)āmi) but hunāmi uruuąnō versus uruuānō (both nompl ofuruuan- lsquospiritrsquo) 4 On aring for ą cf sect521 5 On ą as an accpl ending in YAv cfsect793

sect77 ą is found in some manuscripts instead of ą Although it may initiallyseem that we are dealing with two graphic variants for the same phoneme it isquite probable that in the archetype both signs corresponded to two distinctphonemes ą would reflect a long nazalized ā (cf nąma or the ending -ąm)while ąwould reflect a short nazalized ə

sect78 ə represents a 1 before a nasal həṇtī (3plpresactind of ah lsquobersquo Sktsaacutenti Lat sunt) vazəṇti (3plpresactind of vaz lsquoleadrsquo cf Skt vaacutehanti lt PIEueǵh) YAv barən (3plpresactinj of bar lsquocarryrsquo cf OP abaran PIE bher)ahurəm (accsg of ahura- lsquolordrsquo Skt aacutesura-) and 2 also preceding -uui- (ie-ui-) əuuīduua lsquoignorantrsquo (nomsg Skt aacutevidvāms-) PIE ueid- gt IIr 1uaid-lsquofindrsquo 2uaid- lsquoknowrsquo səuuišta- (superl of sūra- lsquopowefulrsquo Skt śaacuteviṣṭha-) təuuīšī-lsquomightrsquo (Skt taacuteviṣī-) kəuuīna- PN versus nomsg kauuā (cf Skt kaviacute- lsquoseerrsquo) YAvrəuuī- lsquoswiftrsquo (lt raɣuī- cf Skt ragh-uacute- Gr ἐλαχύς PIE h1lenguh-)

3 a is however almost always preserved if (a) ii (i) or uu (u) precedes it3xšaiiamnō (nomsg prespartmid of xšā lsquopossess be owner ofrsquo cf Skt kṣaacuteyati)YAv auruuantəm lsquorunnerrsquo (accsg Skt aacutervant-) YAv bauuaṇtəm-ca (accsgprespart of bū Skt bhū) a though is never preserved as such before a finalnasal -aN even when ii or uu precedes it OAv bąnaiiən (3plpresactinj ofban lsquobe illrsquo) raŋhaiiən (3plpresactinj of rah lsquomove away fromrsquo) or (b) beforenasal followed by ii OAv kainibiiō YAv kainiiō (datpl and accpl resp ofkainīn- lsquogirlrsquo Skt kanya Gr καινός) OAv spaniia YAv spainiiaŋhəm (nomsgand accsg resp of the comparative spainiiah- to spəṇta- lsquosacredrsquo) mańiiušlsquospiritrsquo (nomsg Skt manyuacute-) Even though a before a nasal always becameə YAv has sometimes restored original am and mostly restored original an

3 The prespartmid saiianəm lsquolyingrsquo whose short vowel is unexpected is not to be includedhere cf Skt śaacuteyāna-

in word-internal position whence it was introduced into OAv cf Av nəmah-lsquohomagersquo (Skt naacutemas-) but Av manah- lsquothoughtrsquo (Skt maacutenas-) 4 On theoriginal development of a in YAv cf sect7144 (a gt ə gt i cf also fn 6 below)sect7161 (a gt ə gt u) 5 On ə as an anaptyctic vowel cf sect925

sect79 ə is found 1 often in OAv passages as the outcome of a before a nasal(but cf sect78) aniiən (accsgm of aniia- lsquootherrsquo cf Skt anyaacute-) vərəzəna- lsquocom-munity clanrsquo (Skt vrjaacutena-) xvənuuaṇt- lsquosunnyrsquo (xvan- lsquosunrsquo cf Skt svagraver- lsquoidrsquo)hacəna- lsquofellowshiprsquo (Skt sacanaacute-) hacəmnā (nomsgf prespartmid of hacSkt saacutecate) 2 in OAv it reflects an a preceding the sequence hm əhmā(accpl 1perspron YAv ahma) in YAv a is preserved (or perhaps underwenta reversion ə gt a)4 and from there it was extended into OAv OAv mahmāi(datsgneut of ma- lsquomyrsquo) ahmat (ablpl of azəm lsquoIrsquo Skt asmaacutet) etc 3 beforethe cluster ṇgh lt IIr ns məṇghāi (1sgaormidsbj of man lt mansāi) OAvvəṇghat vəṇghaitī (2 and 3sgaoractsbj resp of van cf Skt vaacutemsat) səṇgha-lsquoexplanationrsquo (YAv saŋha- Skt śaacutemsa-) but not before -ŋh- lt -asa- man-aŋhā (instsg ofmanah- YAvmanaŋha Sktmaacutenasā) finally cf təṇg (accplmdempron Skt tan) aməsəṇg (accplm of aməsa- lsquoimmortalrsquo) vīspəṇg (accplof vīspa- lsquoallrsquo Skt viacuteśva-) The ending -ans gt OAv -əṇg YAv -ə YAv aməsəvīspə puθrə (accpl the YAv ending -ą results from the preservation of nasal-ization when m n ii or h preceded the vowel while ə was the denasalizedoutcome elsewhere YAv haomą aēsmą imą and from there was extended toother casesmazištə amą rarrmazištą amą)

4 Likewise ə in OAv develops from IIr final -as (Skt -as gt -aḥ) tarəordmlsquoacross overrsquo (prev YAv tarō Skt tiraacutes) ciθrə (nomsgm of ciθra- lsquobrilliantrsquoSkt citraacute-) mə (nomsg of ma-) parə lsquobeyondrsquo (adv YAv parō Skt paraacutes)sarə (ablsg of sar- lsquounionrsquo) hazə (nomsgneut of hazah- lsquopower dominionrsquoSkt saacutehas-) və (genpl encl of 2perspron Skt vas) in YAv the same finalsequence also resulted in -ə but was replaced by -ō which was in turn intro-duced into OAv (cf sect7131)

In some forms YAv preserves the old final sequence when it occurs word-internally cf YAv raocəbiiō (OAv) YAv raocəbīš (datablpl and instpl respof raocah- lsquolightrsquo from a nom raocə) vacəbīš (instpl of vacah- lsquowordrsquo Sktvaacutecas-) from an OAv nom vacə (cf 1911) In these examples ə can be inter-preted as a composition vowel (cf fn 1 above)

4 Called Ruumlckverwandlung [reversion] by analogy to some phenomena concerning Attic Greekvocalism

sect710 e comes from 1 an a after i followed by a palatal consonant or a syl-lable that contains i ii or e (ie in a palatal environment) cf iθiiejah- lsquoaban-donmentrsquo (Skt tyaacutejas-) yesnē (locsg of yasna- lsquosacrificersquo Skt yajntildeaacute-) and itsderivative yesniia- (Skt yajntildeiacuteya-) OAv xšaiiehī YAv xšaiieite (2sgpresactindand 3sgpresmidind resp of xšā Skt kṣaacuteyasi) srāuuahiieitī (3sgpresactindof srāuuahiia- lsquoseek famersquo)5 This change does not occur before r uu or hmcf YAv fraiiaire lsquomorningrsquo mainiiauue (datsg of mańiiu- lsquospiritrsquo) OAv yahmī(locsgm relpron ya- contrast the gensgm yehiiā)

2 In YAv e may also derive from the sequence ia that is so frequent in thegensgm of the thematic inflection PIE -osio gt -ahia gt (OAv -ahiia) YAv -ahe(cf further sect1111) 3 On the YAv development -e lt -ai cf sect1022

sect711 ē 1 results from the gathacization of the YAv sequence -e lt -ai (cf1022) which in OAv should have been -ōi (and indeed is almost always) 2It is encountered in OAv in some outcomes of the IIr diphthong ai vaēdamruiiē (lt mruuai cf 1023) 3 it also appears in monosyllables ending in -e inOAv tē (nomplm dempron ta- contrast aēte Skt teacute Gr τοί)

sect712 o 1 comes from an a afterm p or u followed by a syllable that containsu (not u)mošu lsquosoonrsquo (Sktmakṣu) pouru- lsquomuchrsquo (Skt puruacute- OP paruv) vohu-lsquogoodrsquo (Skt vaacutesu-) If the intervening consonant is palatal dental or labiodentalthere is no rounding pasu- lsquolivestockrsquo (Skt paśu-) YAv maẟu- lsquowinersquo (Sktmaacutedhu- Gr μέθυ) 2 o also occurs in some outcomes of the IIr diphthong aucf sect1031

sect713 1 ō corresponds to IIr final sequence -as This final sequence became-ə inOAv and -əgt -ō in YAv (cf sect794)whence itwas introduced intoOAv sup-planting the original -ə almost everywhere YAv vacō (nomsgneut of vacah-)kō (nomsgm interrpron ka- lsquowhorsquo) vō (datgenpl encl of the perspron2tuuəm lsquoyoursquo Skt vas) contrast OAv vacə (also vacō) kə və 2 ō appears asthe usual composition vowel (cf sect54 and fn 1 above) parōkauuīẟəmdrəguuōdəbīš 3 In OAv ō sometimes represents an a or ə before the sequencerC OAv cōrət (3sgaoractinj of kar lsquomake dorsquo ltlt car-t cf Skt aacute-kar) OAvθβōrəštar- lsquocreatorrsquo (Skt tvaacuteṣṭar- IIr tuarć- lsquoshape creatersquo) OAv dōrəšt(3sgaoractinj of dar lsquoholdrsquo also OAv dārəšt lt dhār-š-t) 4 ō also appears insome outcomes of IIr -au gātuuō haētō cf sect1034

5 In the course of transmission forms such as asāyecā (datsg lt asāia-cā) also appear On thethematic datsg cf sect1917

sect714 On the whole i and ī are preserved as such in most cases though in anumber of contexts i is lengthened to ī and ī can be shortened to i i usuallyappears 1 as the reflex of IIr i Av hišhaxti (3sgpres actind of sac lsquofollowrsquoSkt siacuteṣakti)pitum (accsg ofpitu- lsquofoodrsquo Sktpituacute-) 2 as the shortenedoutcomeof IIr ī before uu (Av piuuah- lsquofatrsquo Skt pi vas-) 3 as the YAv outcome ofthe development of ə (lt a cf sect78) after i c j YAv yim (accsgm relpronya- lt iəm lt iam OAv yəm) YAv yima- PN (OAv yəma- Skt yamaacute-) YAvdrujim (accsg of druj- lsquoLiersquo OAv drujəm) YAv haciṇte (3plpresmidind Sktsaacutecante)6 for the conditions on the preservation of a cf sect783

4 In isolated cases and in a close relationship with the position of theaccent i can also come from the vocalization ə of a Proto-Iranian laryngealphoneme H in turn deriving from the PIE laryngeals h1ndash3 cf YAv nomsg pitaltlt Proto-Av pHtar influenced by the accent of the voc pətar versus the OAvdatsg fəẟrōi lt Proto-Av pHtrai 6 On i as a product of epenthesis cf sect81 onanaptyctic i cf sect925

sect715 ī usually reflects IIr ī It renders lengthening of short i in the followingenvironments 1 after uuuŋvh andxv in anopen syllablexvīti- lsquowell accessibleaccessibilityrsquo (hu+i-ti-) āuuīšiia- lsquoapparentrsquo (from the adv āuuiš Skt [aviṣiya-]aviṣṭiya-) təuuīšī- lsquostrengthrsquo (Skt taacuteviṣī-) contrast əuuisti- lsquonot findingrsquo (fromvid lsquofindrsquo [cf sect782] Skt aacutevitti-) təuuiš-cā lsquobrutalityrsquo səuuišta- lsquomost power-fulrsquo (superl Skt saacuteviṣṭha-) YAv stāuuišta- lsquobiggestrsquo (superl Skt sthaacuteviṣṭa-) īalso reflects i and ia (the latter only in YAv) 2 before final -m YAv axtīm(accsg of axti- lsquopainrsquo) dąmīm (accsg of dąmi- lsquofounderrsquo) YAv paitīm (accsgofpaiti- lsquolordrsquo) YAvhaiθīm (accsg ofhaiθiia- lsquorealrsquo Skt satyaacutem) 3 as part of theoutcome of the sequence ins gairīš (accpl of gairi- lsquomountainrsquo lt iNs) OAvcīšmahī YAv cīšmaide (lt ci-n-sordm 1plpresactind andmid resp of ciš lsquogatherrsquolt PIE kueis Lat cūrāre) 4 in general in the ending of the instpl -bi š 5 con-sistently in the preverb vī lsquoseparately dis-rsquo lt vi 6 Sometimes i is lengthenedin open mainly word-initial syllables OAv jīgərəzat lsquocomplainsrsquo lt ji-grz-a-tYAv zīzana- lsquobegetrsquo lt zi-zan-a- 7 i is often lengthened before š and ž mīžda-lsquoprizersquo lt mižda- 8 On the YAv development of a gt ə gt i cf sect7143 and fn 6below

6 iə in the sequence CiəN developed to ii and later to YAv i From there it was introducedinto OAv YAv aini m (accsg of aniia- lsquootherrsquo Skt anyaacutem) beside OAv aniiəm ainīm YAv frīm(accsg of friia- lsquodearrsquo Skt priyaacutem) OAv YAv haiθīm (accsgof haiθiia- lsquotruthrsquo Skt satyaacutem)beside OAv haiθiiəm

sect 8 middot epenthetic vowels 17

sect716 u and ū also largely retain their etymological distribution though u isaffected by lengtheningmore regularly than i Av short u can be 1 the reflex ofu in a closed syllable (Av uxšan- lsquobullrsquo Skt ukṣaacuten- supti- lsquoshoulderrsquo Skt śuacutepti-)or in a non-initial open syllable (ahura- lsquolordrsquo tauruna- lsquoyoungrsquo) 2 the reflexof ū before ii apuiiaṇt- lsquonot deterioratingrsquo lt apuHiant- (Skt pūyati lsquostinksrsquo) 3On epentheticu cf sect82 on anaptycticu cf sect923 4 On the YAv developmentof a gt ə gt u cf sect7175

sect717 ū usually reflects 1 IIr ū 2 IIr u in an open initial syllable (būna- lsquobot-tomrsquo lt buna- lt budna- stūta- lsquopraisedrsquo lt stuta-) 3 u after i (yūkta- lsquoyokedrsquoSkt yuktaacute-) 4 u when affected by i-epenthesis (āhūiri- lsquoahuricrsquo lt āhuri-vərənūiẟi lsquocoverrsquo lt vrnudi) 5 u and ua before final -m (a) gātūm (accsg ofgātu- lsquoroadrsquo Skt gātuacute-) daxiiūm (accsg of daxiiu- lsquocountryrsquo Skt daacutesyu-) (b) asthe YAv outcome of the development of ə (lt a cf sect78) after u YAv tūm lsquoyoursquo(nomsg of the 2perspron OAv tuuəm Skt tvaacutem) YAv tanūm (accsg of tanū-lsquobodyrsquo OAv tanuuəm Skt tanvagravem) YAv θrišum (accsg of θrišuua- lsquothirdrsquo) YAvhaurūm (accsg hauruua- lsquoall wholersquo Skt saacutervam) 6 as part of the outcomeof the sequence uns aidiiūš (accpl of aidiiu- lsquoharmlessrsquo Skt aacutedyu-) xratūš(accpl of xratu- lsquointelligencersquo Skt kraacutetu-) 7ū also represents the YAv outcomeof final -ans after u by way of uuəŋh gt uuə gt uuū gt ū YAv zrū (gensg ofzruuan- lsquotimersquo) YAv hū (gensg of xvan-)

sect8 Epenthetic Vowels

The insertion of the epenthetic vowels i and u in specific contexts is a verycommon phenomenon in the Avestan texts The epenthesis of i indicates thepalatalization of the affected phonemes while that of u indicates labializationIt seems that epenthesis occurs only once per word and can coexist withanaptyctic vowels (sect9)

sect81 i is inserted before consonants followed by i ii or e irixta- (adj from riclsquoleaversquo Skt riktaacute- lt leiku-) iθiiejah- lsquoabandonmentrsquo (Skt tyaacutejas-) Av airiiaman-lsquotribersquo (Skt aryamaacuten-) aēibiiō (datplm of the dempron ta- lsquothisrsquo Skt ebhyaacutes)kainīn lsquogirlrsquo (Skt kanīdeg) xvāpaiθiia- lsquofecundrsquo (Skt svapatyaacute-) baraiti (3sgpresactind of bar lsquocarryrsquo Skt bhaacuterati) ākərəiti- lsquopattern arrangementrsquo (Skt akrti-)mərəiθiiu- lsquodeathrsquo (Skt mrtyuacute-) daibitā (adv Skt dvita) OAv daibišaiiaṇt-lsquoenemyrsquo (YAv tbišaiiaṇt- lt dueis- cf Skt dveacuteṣṭi asymp Gr δείδω) hacaite (3sgpresmidind ofhac Skt saacutecate)haxmainē (datsg ofhaxman- lsquoretinuersquo cf the sameending in Skt -mane) zairimiia- lsquohousersquo (Skt harmiyaacute-)

Epenthesis of i is not foundbeforeń ŋ st štm orhm nor after ə (lt aN) Theenclititc degcaprevents the epenthesis that endings in i and e inducedrəguuataē-cā (datsgm) versus drəguuāite jəṇghati-cā (3sg) versus səṇghaitī

sect82 u appears exclusively before ru and ru pourūš (accpl of pouru- lsquomuchrsquo)Skt puruacute- YAv dāuru- lsquowoodrsquo (Skt daru-) hauruuatāt- lsquowholenessrsquo (Skt sarvaacute-tāti-) In some cases metathesis together with a later epenthesis is at workuruuata- lsquolawrsquo (uruu ru lt ur Skt vrataacute-) uruuādah- lsquohappinessrsquo (cf Sktvrādh)

The sequence rui has a special development in YAv namely the u waslost though it left a trace through epenthesis which affected the precedingvowel or created a diphthong and thus permitted the later epenthesis withi YAv paoiriia- lsquofirstrsquo lt pauriia- lt paruiia- gt OAv pa(o)uruiia- brātuiriia-lsquocousinrsquo lt brātəuria- lt brātəruiia- (Skt bhratrvya-) tūiriia- lsquounclersquo lt p(ə)turia-lt (p)təruiia- (Skt pitrvya-)

sect9 Anaptyctic Vowels

Frequent instances of anaptyctic vowels also referred to as svarabhakti occurin the text Anaptyctic vowels arise in clusters of occlusives thus facilitating theliturgical recitation In addition most of the time they have been introducedby different schools in the course of transmission (cf for example sectsect412413) The vowel ə after r is purely phonetic (ie it is neither present in a wordrsquosunderlying form nor inserted through any phonological process) Anaptycticvowels are metrically irrelevant

sect91 One may speak of several different anaptyctic vowels (ə a o i) thoughthe usual one which appears in themajority of cases is ə YAv dəmāna- lsquohousersquo(Skt mana-) xvafəna- lsquodreamrsquo (Skt svaacutepna-) fəẟrōi (datsg of ptar- lsquofatherrsquolt pHtrai gt Skt pitreacute) haxəmā (nomaccsg of haxman-) θβōrəštar- (Skttvaacuteṣṭar- cf sect7133) nərąš (accpl of nar- lsquomanrsquo lt nərNš) ərəzu- lsquostraightrsquo (Sktrjuacute-) darəθra- lsquosupportrsquo (Skt dhartraacute-) darəsəm (1sgaoractinj of dars lsquoseersquo cfSkt daacuterśam) two cases that have already been mentioned in which anaptyxiscombines with epenthesis are ākərəiti- (sect81) andmərəiθiiu- (sect81)

Final -r usually appears as OAv -rə and YAv -rə vadarə lsquoweaponrsquo (neut Sktvaacutedhar-) huuarə lsquosunrsquo (stem xvan- neut Skt svagraver-)

sect 10 middot diphthongs 19

sect92 In effect the rest of the vowels are usually employedmuch less frequentlysometimes seen are 1 an a starəm-ca (genpl of star- lsquostarrsquo vl strəmca Sktstar-) siiaoθana- lsquoact deedrsquo (vl siiaoθəna- YAv siiaoθna- cf further sect1123)varatā (3sgaormidinj of var lsquochoosersquo metrically disyllabic but fra-uuarətā)Anaptyxis combineswith epenthesis in daibitā (sect81) In some even rarer casesthe following vowels appear 2 ə OAv dəjāmāspa- PN (YAv jāmaspa-) 3 ubərədubiiō (datpl) YAv surunaoiti (3sgpresactind of sru) 4 ō θβarōždūm(2plaormidinj of θβars lsquoshapersquo versus θrāzdūm from θrā) garōbīš (instpl ofgar- lsquosongrsquo) 5 i azdibīš (instpl of ast- lsquobonersquo vl azdəbīš) mazibīš (instpl ofmaz- lsquogreatrsquo) YAv ni-sirinaoiti (3sgpresactind of sri lsquoleanrsquo)

sect10 Diphthongs

As a result of the changes of PIE e and o to IIr a and of PIE ē and ō to IIrā Indo-Iranian possessed only four diphthongs two with a short vowel ai and au and twowith a long vowel āi and āu In the Avestan writing systemthese diphthongs are not represented by their own graphemes but their vari-ous outcomes are reflected rather by the combinations of vowel signs In thisway the phonetic details are rendered

The IIr diphthong ai occasions two distinct outcomes depending upon theposition in the word in which it is found Although it is possible to systematizethese outcomes unexpected correspondences are found at times

sect101 The spelling aē represents 1 the outcome of the IIr diphthong ai in (a)initial position aēša- lsquosearchrsquo (Skt eacuteṣa-) aēšəma- lsquoirersquo (cf Skt iacuteṣyati Gr οἶμαLat īra) YAv aēsma- lsquofirewoodrsquo (lt aizma- lt aidzhma- cf Skt idhmaacute-) or (b)in an open syllable vaēda 13sgperfactind of vid lsquoknowrsquo versus 2sg vōistā cfanother example below sect10217

2 aē is likewise the outcome of the group aia before a nasal by way of thepossible development gt aiə gt aiuml gt aē OAv aēm (nomsg of ima- lsquothisrsquo alsoOAv aiiəm Skt ayaacutem) vaēm (nompl of azəm lsquoIrsquo Skt vayaacutem) gaēm (accsg

7 ōi is frequently found instead of aē OAv cōiθat (3sgaoractsbj of cit lsquonoticersquo) cōišəm (1sgaoractinj of ciš) dōišā (1sgaoractsbj of dis lsquoshowrsquo) mōiθat (3sgaoractsbj of miθ lsquoleaversquo)YAv būiẟiiōimaiẟe (1plpresmidopt of bud lsquosensersquo cf Skt bhaacutevemahi of bhavi versus 3sgbūiẟiiaēta cf Skt bhaacuteveta) OAv vaocōimā-ca (1plaoractopt of vac cf Skt bhaacutevema versusOAv apaēmā to āp or hanaēmācā to han)

of gaiia- lsquolifersquo Skt gaacuteyam) YAv bərəjaēm (1sgpresactinj of barj lsquogreetrsquo) YAvvī-dāraēm (1sgpresactinj of dar lsquoholdrsquo)8 The YAv form raēm (accsg of raii-lsquowealthrsquo lt reh1i- cf Skt rayiacutem) falls under the preceding development raiimgt raim gt raēm

sect102 The spelling ōi reflects the outcome of the IIr diphthong ai 1 in a closedsyllable YAv vōiɣnā- lsquowaversquo versus vaēɣa- lsquostrikersquo (Skt veacutega-) 2 in final positionin OAv narōi (datsg of nar- lsquomanrsquo YAv naire Skt naacutere) fəẟrōi (datsg of ptar-lsquofatherrsquo YAv piθre Skt pitreacute)9 in this position YAv shows -e (except in yōi andmaiẟiiōi) which was in turn (re)introduced into OAv (sect7111)

3 Some cases such as OAv mruiiē (1sgpresmidind of mrū) OAv tanuiiē(datsg of tanū-) and YAv uiie (nomduf of uba- lsquobothrsquo OAv ubē) exhibit aphonetic development -uai gt -uuai gtOAv -uue gt YAv -uiie which was in turnintroduced into OAv

sect103 The spelling ao represents 1 the outcome of the IIr diphthong au OAvaojah- lsquostrengthrsquo (Skt oacutejas- cf Lat augēre) aošah- lsquoburnrsquo (cf Skt oṣati Gr εὕωLat ūrō) raocah- lsquolightrsquo (Skt degrocas- Gr λευκός Lat lūx lt PIE leuk) sraotū(3sgaoractimpv of sru)mraotū (3sgpresactimpv ofmrū lsquospeakrsquo) 2 in somecases YAv ao reflects a recent (non-original) sequence au YAv paoiriia- lsquofirstrsquo(sect82 OPparuviya-) YAvaoi (variant ofauui also YAvaiβi OAvaibī Sktabhiacute)

3 ao is likewise the outcome of aua before a nasal byway of a possible pho-netic development auə gt auu gt au gt ao naoma lsquoninthrsquo (Skt navamaacute-) YAvabaom (1sgimpfactind of bū Skt aacutebhavam) YAv mraom (1sgpresactinj ofmrū Skt aacutebravam)

4 In final position the IIr diphthong -au becomes -uuō in the majority ofcases YAv daŋhuuō (locsg of daŋhu- lsquocountryrsquo lt dahiau-) OAv huuō lsquothatrsquo(OP hauv lt hau) YAv huxratuuō (vocsg of huxratu- lsquointelligentrsquo Skt sukrato)In some cases -au resulted in -ō YAv zastaiiō (locsg of zasta- lsquohandrsquo) YAvvaiiō (vocsg of vaiiu- Skt vāyo) YAv haētō (locsg of haētu- lsquobridgersquo) It is likelythat -au underwentmonophthongization to ō (parallel to the change of -ai to

8 In contrast the forms of the 3pl in -aian are transmitted as -aiiən bərəjaiiən vi-ẟāraiiənetc

9 aē is found instead of ōi in some words YAv maēsma- lsquourinersquo (maēza- lsquoidrsquo cf Gr ὀμείχωlt h3meiǵh-) OAv degnaēstar- lsquoslandererrsquo (from nid cf sect1051) YAv raēθβa- lsquoclumprsquo (and itsdenominative) raθaēštā- lsquowarriorrsquo (and raθōištā- Skt ratheṣṭa-) YAv pairiuruuaēšta- lsquohewho best destroysrsquo sraēšta- lsquomost beautifulrsquo (Skt śreacuteṣṭha-) OAv hamaēstar- lsquodespoilerrsquo (frommiθ)

sect 11 middot consonants 21

-e cf sect1022) which later diphthongized in [uō] (written -uuō) in many formsthough not after -ii-

sect104 The spelling əu represents as a general rule the outcome of the IIrdiphthong au before -š cf the gensg forms gəuš mańiiəuš OAv daxiiəušYAv daŋhəuš In YAv final -aoš (diiaoš [from diiauu-] draoš [from dāuru-]rašnaoš) is more frequent and probably results from restoration of -au- in theu-stems Final -aoš was also introduced in OAv +mərəiθiiaoš conversely OAvfinal -əuš expanded into YAv

sect105 The spelling āi represents 1 the IIr diphthong āi OAv +āiš (3sgaoractind of iš lsquodesirersquo cf Skt aiṣīt) OAv dāiš (2sgaoractinj of dis lsquopointrsquolt dāić-š-s lt dēiḱ-s-s) YAv nāismī nāist (1sgactind 3sgaoractinj of nidlsquoinsult reproachrsquo)

2 the sequence āibefore a nasal can be the result of āia byway of a possibledevelopment gt āiə gt āii gt āi YAv deggāim (accsg of deggāiia- lsquosteprsquo Skt deggāyaacute-)OAv humāīm (accsg of humāiia- Skt sumāyaacute-) On āia gt aia cf sect732

3 Note that epenthesis with i after ā does not differ graphically from theoriginal diphthong āi drəguuāite

sect106 The spelling āu represents 1 the IIr diphthong āu YAv gāuš lsquocowrsquo (Sktgaacuteuḥ) xšnāuš (3sgaoractinj of xšnu- lsquowelcomersquo) vaŋhāu (locsg of vohu-)+xratāu (locsg of xratu- Skt kraacutetau)

2 āu is likewise the result of āua before a nasal by way of a possiblephonetic development gt āuə gt āuu gt āu YAv nasāum (accsg of nasu-lsquocadaverrsquo) cf further YAv asāum (vocsg of asauuan- Skt rtavan- cf sect1133)On āua gt aua cf sect733

3 Epenthesis with u after ā does not differ graphically from the originaldiphthong āu dāuru- (Skt daru- Gr δόρυ)

sect11 Consonants

The system of consonants reconstructed for Indo-European (cf sect6) in its his-tory leading up to Avestan has undergone a considerable number of changeswhich have completely disfigured the original system These changes are inpart due to the developments of the separate phonemes on their own and inpart to the specific developments of groups of two or more consonants Thecomparison of the Iranian material with that of Indo-Aryan allows again thereconstruction of an Indo-Iranian consonant system

In consonantism some notable differences exist between OAv and YAvfor example as regards the preservation of Bartholomae clusters (sect11111)fricativization (sect1111) etc

The consonants of Iranian may be classified into 1 sonorants (semivowelsand liquids) 2 nasals 3 occlusives 4 fricatives 5 sibilants The consonantsmaintainwith somevariation a similar organization inAvestan (where furthernew fricatives have arisen)

sect111 The Semivowels i u1 The PIE sonorant i is maintained as such in Indo-Iranian and in Avestan

as well where it is represented by ẏ (y) at the beginning of the word and by iiword-internally It has already been pointed out above that the letter ẏ wasprobably from the outset intended to graphically represent initial i while inthe Indian manuscripts y which would be the letter corresponding to thepalatal fricative z (lt Ir ǰi) was employed

Medial i often disappears before e (cf sect710) Av vahehīš (nomplfem of thecomparative vahiiah- to vohu- lt uahiehī- Skt vaacutesyasīḥ) the YAv ending of thedatsg of i-stems -əe lt aiai gt Skt -aye OAv -ōiiōi also in YAv the ending ofthe thematic gensgmasc -ahe (but OAv -ahiiā sect7103)

2 The PIE sonorant u is maintained as such in Indo-Iranian and in Avestanas well where it is written as v at the beginning of the word and as uu word-internally10

3 The distinct graphic values of the semivowels according to their positionin theword necessarily reflect distinct pronunciations It is quite probable thatin initial position the semivowels could have begun to develop into voicedfricatives (as in a prestage of Modern Persian ǰ lt i and b lt u) while inmedial position i and u would have reflected ii and uu respectively Av friia-lsquodearrsquo (Skt priyaacute-) YAv druua- lsquohale steadfastrsquo (Skt dhruvaacute-) The orthographicconventions of Avestan (cf sect72) further indicate that YAv jiia lsquobowstringrsquo(Skt jya-) and kuua lsquowherersquo (Skt kvagrave) must be disyllabic (in virtue of having-ă)

These changes to i and u must have taken place in western Iran mostlikely influenced byOld Persian and are commonly considered to be present inthe archetype In fact in Old Persian post-consonantal semivowels are writtenwith iy and uv cf Av ańiia- OP aniya- Skt anyaacute- lt ania- Av hauruua-OP haruva- Skt saacuterva- lt sarua- However this Old Persian phenomenon

10 ii and uu used to be regularly transcribed as y and v respectively since they mainlyrepresent ii and uu More on this issue in section 1113

sometimes occurs in intervocalic position as well cf OP a-dāraiya Av dāraiia-or OP bauvatiy Av bauuaiti

Consequently the spellings ii and uu in Avestan represent ii and uu whichwould in turn come from i and u though they may also represent an originalsequence iiuu OAv āiiāt lt ā-iiāt ltPIE degh1i-ieacuteh1-t (prev ā + 3sgpresactoptof i lsquogorsquo cf Skt iyat) YAv sraiiah- (comparative of srīra- lsquobeautiful excellentrsquoSkt śreacuteyas- lt IIr ćraiH-ias-) YAv gauuāstriia- lsquopertaining to the pasturersquo fromgau-uāstriia-

4 The phonetic development of some phonemes and sequences of soundshas also produced non-etymological instances of ii and uu One such exampleis the assimilation of u to i in the sequences -uuē and uuai these become-uiiē by way of -uuiē ahuiiē (datsg of ahu- Skt aacutesu-) which comes fromahuiiē lt ahuuiē lt ahuuē lt ahuē lt ahuai following the view presentedunder sect1023

Another source for uu is the development -b- gt -uu- which we find in YAvalongside the expected -β- YAv auui (also written aoui and aoi) and aiβi lsquototowardsrsquo alongside OAv aibī Skt abhiacute YAv uiie (lt uuai lt uβai) alongsideOAv ubē auuauuat (3sgimpfactind of bū lt aβauat also abauuat) etcgəuruuaiia- (to grab lsquoseizersquo) Skt grbhāyaacute- versus YAv gərəβnāiti or OAv həṇ-grabəm (1sgaoractinj) cf further the ending of the instpl in -uuīš lt -u-βišor likewise some datpl forms such as nəruiiō (to nar-) OAv nərəbiiō Sktnrbhyas YAv asauuaoiiō OAv asauuabiiō (to asauuan-) Careful examinationof this phenomenon allows for the establishment of a relative chronology thedevelopment -β- gt -u- took place in YAv before i-epenthesis took place (thusauui and not daggeraiuui) but after the IIr sequence aui had become əuui (ie əuicf sect782) This newoutcome is not distinguished fromold uu in its subsequentdevelopment as the already cited YAv uiie (cf above and sect1023) versus OAvubē demonstrates

5 From the combination of semivowels with various consonants (especiallywhen the consonant precedes the semivowel) a variety of articulatory changeshas taken place ni gt ń under sect524 114 Ir cu gt sp under sect11103 Ir ju gt zbunder sect11142 Ir či gt OAv sii YAv s under sect11231 Ir hi- gt xii- under sect1128Ir -hi- gt -ŋh- under sect1129 Ir hu gt xv under sect1130 -hu gt ŋvh under sect1131 etcOn the metathesis of ur cf sect82

sect112 The Liquid r1 The two realizations of the IIr phoneme r lt PIE r (together with that

originating from IIr l lt PIE l) have produced the same result in Avestan bothcome out as an r though that deriving from syllabic r is written as ər (withgraphic variations)

For the realization as r cf for example Av raθa- lsquochariotrsquo Skt rathaacute- Avvourudeg lsquowidersquo Skt uruacute- (cf Gr εὐρύς) Av raocah- lsquolightrsquo (cf Skt roacutecate lsquoshinersquoand Lat lūx) Av +raērizaite (3sgpresactintensind of riz lsquolickrsquo) Skt reacuterihat (cf1sgpres Skt reacutehmi and the younger leacutehmi) cf further Modern Persian lištanGr λείχω and Lat lingō

For the realization as r cf for example YAv kərəta- (ppp of kar lsquomakedorsquo) Skt krtaacute- OP ⟨k-r-t-⟩ (ie krta- [kərta-]) Av ərəzu- lsquostraightrsquo (Skt rjuacute-)Av pərəθu- lsquobroadrsquo Skt prthuacute- Gr πλατύς lt PIE plth2uacute- The ə is not usuallywritten following a t ātrəm (accsg of ātar- lsquofirersquo)

2 When the clusters rk and rp were immediately preceded by the Iranianaccent the outcomes hrk and hrp without anaptyxis are found YAv mahrka-lsquodestructionrsquo (OAv marəka- Skt maacuterka- PN) YAv vəhrka- lsquowolf rsquo (lt uərka- cfSkt vrka-) YAv kəhrp- lsquofigure form bodyrsquo (lt kərp-) In contrast under otheraccentual conditions the developments rək and rəp respectively are foundOAvmarəkaē-cā Sktmarkaacute- lsquodeath destructionrsquo One commonly accepted the-ory proposes that a voiceless runderlies the graphic sequencehrof these forms

3 Under the same conditions as in the preceding groups the sequence rtdoes not produce the expected sequence daggerhrt but rather s Av masiia- lsquomanrsquoSktmaacutertiya- OAv aməsa- lsquoimmortalrsquo Skt amrta- pəsanā- lsquobattlersquo Skt prtanā-This s was probably a voiceless lateral fricative as some (Middle) Persianborrowings from Avestan in which hrhl are written for s seem to show

4 The result of PIE rH gt Ir ar gt Av ar is not distinguished from thesequence ar lt PIE vowel + r OAv darəga- lsquolongrsquo Skt dīrghaacute- lt PIE dlh1ghoacute-(cf Gr ἐνδελεχής) fra-uuarətā (3sgaormidinj of var lsquochoosersquo lt ulh1-toacute- cf Sktvrṇīteacute)

sect113 Nasals nmNasals found in Avestan may be either etymological or may have emerged

from particular sound changes (cf below sect1113) Depending upon the envi-ronment in which they are encountered all the nasals also undergo minorarticulatory changes that are represented in writing through specific letters ofthe Avestan alphabet At times the nasal phonemes disappear though theyleave behind nasalization as a trace

1 As a general rule the PIE nasals m and n are preserved in Proto-Indo-Iranian nāmanąm (genpl of nāman- lsquonamersquo Skt naman- Lat nōmen) nəmah-lsquohomagersquo Skt naacutemas- cf the Gr neut νέμος lsquowooded pasturersquo and Lat nemuslsquoforestrsquo mraoiti (3sgpresactind of mrū Skt braacutevīti lt mleacuteuH-ti cf Russianmolvaacute lsquoremark rumorrsquo)

2 Preceding an occlusive (t d k g c j [p] b) the nasals are usually repre-sented with the letter ṇ aṇtarə lsquowithinrsquo (OP an-ta-ra Skt antaacuter) spəṇta- lsquoben-

eficientrsquo jaṇtū (3sgaoractimpv of gam lsquogo comersquo) parəṇdi- lsquofecundityrsquo (Sktpuacuterandhi-) baṇdaiieiti (3sgpresactind of baṇd lsquobindrsquo Skt bandh) həṇkərəiti-(derived from ham+kar) jəṇghati-cā (3sgaoractsubj of gam) səṇgha- lsquoexpla-nationrsquo (Skt śamsa-) paṇca lsquofiversquo (Skt paacutentildeca Gr πέντε) YAv rəṇj-išta- (superllt PIE h1lenguh- cf YAv rəuuī- lsquoswiftrsquo and Skt rlaacuteghīyas-) upaskaṇbəm lsquopillarrsquofrasciṇbana- lsquobeamrsquo

Besides numerous graphic variants (especially with the sequence mb) ex-ceptions to this neutralization are seen before the enclitic degca which usuallymaintains the original nasal uzuxšiiąnca vīspəmca asəmcā darəgəmcā

3 In word-final position and if the same syllable began with a labial wefind m for original n OAv cašmąm (locsg of cašman-) OAv nāmąm (accplof nāman-) YAv asāum lt asāuən (voc) On the nasalization of the vowelin the final syllable cf sect76 On the voiceless nasal m also written as hm cfsect525

sect114 The palatal nasalń is encountered in the oldestmanuscripts fromwhichit could be deduced that this sign was already present in the archetype ń iswritten before ii (i) and i cf sect524 as well The graphic restoration of n for ńoccasionally occurs in the manuscripts

sect115 The (dorsal) nasal ŋ represents on the one hand an etymological soundthat derives from ŋ lt ŋk lt nk such as in the YAv word paŋtaŋvhum lsquoafifthrsquo lt paŋktahuəm (from PIE penkuto-) On the other hand ŋ has arisenfrom a development of Ir h lt s which as a function of its surroundingsalso produced other outcomes namely ŋ and ŋv The details concerning thesephonemes are found in the paragraph dedicated to the sibilant (sect1119 ff)

sect116 The OcclusivesAs a general rule the inherited occlusives have been well preserved from

Proto-Indo-European into Avestan though some changes in place of articu-lation conditioned by environment are already to be seen in Proto-Iranian(Ir) these changes have produced new sounds and articulatory series that didnot exist in Indo-European or Indo-Iranian (cf sectsect119 11122 and esp 1111 and1115)

sect117 The phonemes that underwent the most changes in the subsequentdevelopment of the Indo-European phonological system (cf sect6) are those thatbelong to the dorsal series In the course of their development into Avestanthe velar and labiovelar series fell together in a single velar series In virtue ofthis characteristic Avestan is classified as a satəm language (as opposed to the

languages referred to as centum such as Latin or Greek which exhibit distinctvelar and labiovelar series and in which the palatal series has been subsumedunder the velar series) In order to see the development of the three dorsalseries at distinct stages of the Indo-Iranian languages a synoptic chart withthe outcomes of the primary (I) and secondary (II) palatals is given here Fordetails see sectsect119 11122 11203 1124

table 3 The PIE dorsals in Indo-Iranian

Indo-European Indo-Iranian Iranian Avestan Sanskrit

I ḱ ǵ ǵh ć j jh c j s z ś j hII k g gh č ǰ ǰh č ǰ c j c j h

ku gu guh

In Common Indo-European a difference still would have existed between thepalatovelars and plain velars or labiovelars preceding the front vowels e i Inthe stage common to Indo-Iranian the Indo-European palatovelars (I) becamedental affricates while the plain velars and labiovelars (II) already havingfallen together in a single velar series underwent a conditioned palatalizationSubsequently the development diverges

(a) in the Iranian branch the dental affricates (I) lost their (pre)palataliza-tion and remained as dental affricates [ts] and [dz] resp In Avestan theseaffricates further developed to simple sibilants (cf the parallel developmentof Skt maacutetsya- and Av masiia- lsquofishrsquo) The palatalized plain velars and labiove-lars (II) became affricates In Iranian the loss of aspiration left only two voicedsegments j and ǰ

(b) In the Indo-Aryanbranch (Skt) I and IIultimately give similar outcomes(though cf ś c) thepalatalization is preserved in the voiceless andvoiced seriesbut the aspirate is depalatalized

sect118 The Voiceless OcclusivesThe Avestan series of voiceless consonants k c t p has as its immedi-

ate predecessor the Iranian series k č t p resp In preconsonantal posi-tion the voiceless occlusives k t p become the fricatives x θ f resp thoughsome regular exceptions which will be appropriately detailed (sect1115 ff) aredetectable

sect119Av k continues both PIE k and ku Av kā-ma- lsquodesirersquo Skt kama- cf Latcārus from the PIE root keh2 the Av neginterr kat Skt kaacuted Lat quod lt PIEinterrindef kuod

IE k and ku when preceding a front vowel (e i ) developed to Ir č gt Av cthe Av encl particle degca Skt degca Lat degque Gr τε (Mycenaean -qe) lt PIE degkueYAv caxra- lsquowheelrsquo Skt cakraacute- Old English hweol Gr κύκλος lt PIE kueacutekulo-sYAvpacata (3sgpresmidinj ofpac lsquocookrsquo) Sktpaacutecata cf Lat coquō (lt kuekuōlt pekuō) Gr πέσσω (lt peku-ieo-) cf the synoptic chart under sect117

Within a paradigm where there was variation in vocalism on account ofablaut (sect132) (such that the contact of velars would alternate between the PIEvowels e o (gt Ir a) and the PIE resonants n m r l) a single variant of thevelar is sometimes generalized throughout the entire paradigm For examplethe root kar is found in theAvestan paradigmas karcar but Skt however hasgeneralized the variant kar throughout cf further sect11122

sect1110Av t comes fromPIE t andAvp comes fromPIE p Av ptar- Skt pitaacuter-Lat pater lt PIE ph2teacuter-

1 t is lost before s (cf sect11112) but is usually preserved following sš (cfsect11174) Note further the IIr final sequences -nt gt IIr -n gt Av -n and IIr -stgt -s OAv dadən (3plpresactsubj of dā Skt daacutedan) OAv rārəšiiąn (3plpresactsubj of rah) YAv barən (3plpresactinj of bar lt bar-a-nt gt Skt bhaacuteran)YAv viṇdən (3plpresactinj of viṇd) OAv didąs (3sgpresactinj of dąh ltdidāns-t) OAv vąs (3sgaoractinj of van lt IIr uān-s-t) Av as (3sgimpfactind of ah lt IIr ās-t gt Skt ās rarr asīt)

2 t appears instead of t in word-final position after a vowel or r as well asin the YAv sequence tb- = OAv db- (sect11141) The Avestan alphabet must havebeen representing anunreleasedocclusiveusing this tpərəsat (3sgpresactinjof fras lsquoaskrsquo) buuat (3sgaoractsubj of bū) conj yāt (Skt yad) yūšmat (ablplof the 2perspron Skt yuṣmaacuted) xšaθrāt (ablsg) OAv cōrət (3sgaoractinj ofkar lt kar-t) In the form tkaēša- the tk has arisen through the missegmenta-tion of aniiatkaēša- lsquowho has something different from the doctrinersquo in YAvaniiōtkaēša-

In forms such as OAv yaogət lt (3sgaoractinj of yuj lsquojoinrsquo lt ieuK-t)11 thesequence -gət is not easy to interpret It has been pointed out that in the caseswith the final sequence -gət the t could serve as a sort of diacritic to indicateword-final implosion The other occlusive that is permitted word-finally is ġ

11 In word-internal position cf OAv hūxta- (from hu + ppp of vac Skt sūktaacute-) YAv baxta-(ppp of baj lsquoapportionrsquo)

which should also be considered as unreleased cf sect5223 p does not become a fricative but rather remains as an occlusive preced-

ing t YAv hapta lsquosevenrsquo OAv āiiapta- lsquohelprsquo (degāp+ta-) naptiia- (derived fromnapāt- lsquograndsonrsquo) but not before the cluster tr (cf sect11103) fəẟrōi (datsg ofptar-) YAv nafrəẟrō- (gensg of naptar-[napāt-] Skt naacutepāt- and naacuteptar-) OAvrafəẟra- lsquoaidrsquo (from rap)

A p of secondary origin derives from the PIE sequence ḱu gt IIr ću gt Ir cuthat develops in Avestan (and some other Iranian dialects) to sp YAv aspa-lsquohorsersquo (Skt aacuteśva- lt PIE h1eḱuo-)

sect1111 The Voiced OcclusivesThe Iranian series of voiced occlusives g ǰ d b comes from the voiced

and voiced aspirate series of Indo-European and has developed intoOAv g j db resp while in Young Avestan these consonants remain as voiced stops onlyin initial position Otherwise in YAv they spirantize and become the voicedfricatives ɣ ž ẟ β resp except following a nasal or a sibilant The labial βis further lenited to uu except preceding i or ii where it remains β in mostwords

1 A special cluster treatment dating to the Indo-Iranian period (which mayeven be of Indo-European antiquity) is Bartholomaersquos Law or simply Bartho-lomae in honor of its discoverer In effect Bartholomae observed that in asequence of a voiced aspirate and a voiceless stop or sibilant in Indo-Iranianthe voiceless stop was voiced and the aspiration passed to the end of thecluster PIE DhT DhS gt IIr DDh DZh respectively This change can be seenthroughout all of Indo-Iranian and in Avestan it is interesting to note the dif-ferences that emerge between the dialects Old Avestan preserves the results ofBartholomae exceptionlessly while Young Avestan has all too often analog-ically remade the outcomes of Bartholomae OAv aogədā versus YAv aoxtaboth from IIr aug-dha lt augh-ta (3sgpresmidinj of aoj lsquosayrsquo) cf also OAvaogəžā (2sg lt aug-žha lt augh-sa) YAv does preserve some exceptional casessuch as ubdaēna- lsquomade of fabricrsquo which contains the ppp of vaf lsquoweaversquo inubdadeg Skt ubdhaacute- lt (H)ubh-taacute- cf Gr ὑφαίνω

2 When two dental stops coincided an epenthetic sibilant arose (seesect11202) which was also susceptible to Bartholomae Av vərəzda- (pppto vard lsquogrowrsquo Skt vrddhaacute- lt vrdh-taacute-) Av dazde (3sgpresmidind of dā ltdhadh-tai Skt dhatteacute versus daste lt dad-tai) These forms show the way inwhich the sibilant developed in the cluster -dd- gt -dzd- it lost the first dentalof the cluster and became -zd-

sect1112 Iranian g lt PIE g gh gu and guh is found in (a)OAv baga- lsquoportionrsquoYAv baɣa- Skt bhaacutega- OAv ugra- lsquomightyrsquo YAv uɣra- Skt ugraacute- YAv aṇgušta-lsquotoersquo Skt aṅguṣṭhaacute- (b)OAv darəga- lsquolongrsquo YAv darəɣa- Skt dīrghaacute- Gr δολιχόςlt PIE dlh1ghoacute- YAvmazga- lsquomarrowrsquo asymp Sktmajjaacuten- OHGmarg lt PIE mosgh-YAv zaṇga- lsquoanklersquo Skt jaacuteṅghā- (c)Av gāuš (nomsg of gauu- lsquocowrsquo) Skt gaacuteuḥGr βοῦς lt PIE gueh3us (d) Av garəma- lsquoheatrsquo Skt gharmaacute- lt PIE guhor-moacute-cf Lat formus Gr θερμός

In YAv ɣ (lt g) is lost before u uu cf YAv druuaṇt- versus OAv drəguuaṇt-YAv raom lsquoswiftrsquo (accsg lt raɣum) cf Skt raghuacutem YAvMourum OPMargumlsquothe country Margursquo However ɣ could be reintroduced through intraparadig-matic analogy YAv driɣūm (accsg of driɣu- lsquopoorrsquo) after driɣaoš (gensg)

1 ġ appears in final position in place of g and is thus probably unreleasedcf sect522 Besides t ġ is the only stop permitted in absolute auslaut On therelation to the other unreleased consonant t cf sect 11102 (end)

2 The same conditioning factors that caused Ir č gt Av c (sect119) induceAv j (lt Ir ǰ lt PIE g gh gu and guh before the front vowels e i ) YAv jiia(sect1113) Skt jiya lt PIE guiHeh2 (cf Gr βιός) Av jaiṇti (3sgpresactind of janlsquobeat killrsquo) Skt haacutenti cf Gr θείνω lt PIE guhen and especially OAv aogō versusaojaŋhā from the s-stem aojah- cf Lat gen-us (lt -os) gen-er-is (lt -es-es) cfthe synoptic Table 3 under sect117

j is frequently extended throughout a paradigm rather than alternatingwithg cf the formations to the root gam lt guem- which usually appear in Avestanwith jam whereas Sanskrit has generalized gam cf the Av pres stem ja-sa-versus Skt gaacute-cha- both from gum-ske- (cf impv Gr βάσκε)

sect1113 Av d comes from Ir d lt PIE ddh Av dasa lsquotenrsquo Skt daacuteśa lt PIEdeḱm Av dar lsquoholdrsquo OAv dāraiiat Skt dhar dhāraacuteyati The merger of thetwo Indo-European phonemes d and dh in Iranian resulted in an importanthomonymy Av dā lsquogive placersquo corresponds to both Skt dā lsquogiversquo Gr δίδωμι Latdō lt PIE deh3 and also Skt dhā lsquoplacersquo Gr τίθημι Lat fēcī lt PIE dheh1 (thoughthey can be distinguished in a few instances cf sect11112)

Apart from the conditions formulated above (sect1111) some further instancesin which the YAv fricativization of d to ẟ is not found may be mentionedin reduplicated formations (dadāθa etc) in compounds with preverbs(vīdaēuua- etc) on account of influence from the simplex likewise it does notusually occur when the d is in contact with an r (arəduuī- ərəduua- xšudra-varəduua-) though lenited forms (arəẟa- ərəẟβa- buẟra- vaẟre etc) are notrare

In word-internal position Ir -dn- simplifies to Av -n- Av buna- lsquodepthgroundrsquo lt budna- Skt budhnaacute- Av asna- lsquonearrsquo lt nsdno- (cf the Skt

comparative neacutedīyas- YAv nazdiiō) xvaēna- lsquomeltedrsquo lt suaidna- cf Sktsvinnaacute-

In YAv d in the word-initial cluster dm becomes nm YAv nmāna- lsquohousersquobut OAv dəmāna- (Sktmana-)

sect1114 PIE b was a marginal phoneme so much so that the correspondences(and the words) that contain it are very scarce and controversial The usualsource for Avestan b was the PIE voiced aspirate bh (gt Ir b gt Av b) YAvbarən (3plpresactinj of bar) Skt bhaacuteran cf OP abaran Gr φέρω from thePIE root bher lsquobearrsquo OAv aibī lsquoto towardsrsquo Skt abhiacute YAv upaskaṇbəm lsquopillarrsquofra-sciṇbana- lsquobeamrsquo cf Skt skambhaacute- lsquosupportrsquo

The phonetic development of certain clusters is a source of new non-etymological instances of b 1 in the word-intial cluster OAv db- YAv tb- orig-inating from the sequence lt dui- cf OAv daibiš lsquohatersquo (with anaptyxis andepenthesis cf daibišəṇtī 3plpresactind) YAv tbiš Skt dviṣ (cf dveacuteṣṭi) cf Grδεινός lsquofearfulrsquo However du gt OAv duu Av duuaēšah- lsquohostilityrsquo Skt dveacuteṣas-In YAv one also finds b- as an outcome of the cluster dui- bitiia- lsquosecondrsquo ver-sus OAv daibitiia- and Skt dviti ya- 2 The Ir cluster ju (lt PIE ǵ(h)u) likewisebecomes zb in Av (and other Ir dialects) zbaiieiti (3sgpresactind of zū lsquocallrsquoSkt hvaacuteyati lt PIE ǵheuH) zbarəmna- (midpart to zbar lsquomove crookedlyrsquo cfSkt hvaacuterate lt PIE ǵhuer)

3 In YAv b fricativizes to β and further to uu following the formula-tion in sect1114 and the exceptions mentioned under sect1113 also apply redu-plicated formations (bābuuarə etc) and compounds with preverbs (ābərətəmetc)

4 On the change of u to β after a dental stop forms such as Av θβōrəštar-lsquocreatorrsquo versus Skt tvaacuteṣṭar- may be adduced see two further examples undersect11171

sect1115 FricativesAvestan possesses a series of voiceless fricative consonants x θ and f which

derive from Ir x θ f resp This series did not exist in Indo-Iranian as itdeveloped during the Iranian period due to changes in certain sequences ofconsonants On the one hand these fricatives come from voiceless stops whenthey preceded another consonant thus TC sequences on the other hand thesefricatives come out of the voiceless aspirates of Indo-Iranian whose origin liesin sequences of voiceless stop + laryngeal thus TH

sect1116 Av x thus comes from of Ir x lt PIE k ku before C Av xratu- Sktkraacutetu- cf Gr adj κρατύς YAv huxratu- Skt sukraacutetu- YAv baxta- (ppp to baj

lsquoapportionrsquo with IIr devoicing of g to k before a voiceless stop but cf 11102and fn 11 above) Skt bhaktaacute- Av haxman- Skt sakman- from PIE sekulsquofollowrsquo The same rootmay serve to demonstrate the development of Ir x fromthe sequence kH kuH YAv haxa lsquofollowerrsquo (datsg hase) Skt saacutekhā (datsgsaacutekhye) lt PIE sekuh2-oi cf Lat socius as well

Some cases of non-etymological x which have sporadically developed be-fore š- may be noted xšn- lt šn- Av xšnā- lsquoknowrsquo OP xšnā Skt jntildeā lt IIr jn- ltPIE ǵn- xšuuaš lsquosixrsquo Skt ṣaacuteṭ

On x and xv cf the paragraphs corresponding to the particular develop-ments of the sibilant in sect1128 and sect1130 resp

sect1117 1 Av θ comes from Ir θ lt PIE t before C YAv θraiias-ca lsquothreersquo Skttraacuteyas Lat trēs caθβārō lsquofourrsquo Skt catvaras Doric Gr τέτορες lt PIE kueacutetuor-esAv θβąm lsquoyoursquo (accsg) Skt tvam Avmərəiθiiu- Sktmrtyuacute-

2 After x and f Iranian θ has undergone voicing becoming ẟ OAv vaxəẟra-lsquomouthrsquo (Skt vaktraacute-) Av uxẟa- lsquowordrsquo (Skt ukthaacute-) YAv vauuaxẟa (2sgperfactind Skt uvaacutektha) fəẟrōi (from ptar-) OAv rafəẟra- (from rap) On p cfsect11103

3 In the same fashion Av θ comes out of Ir θ as the outcome of thePIE sequence tH Av pərəθu- Skt prthuacute- Gr πλατύς lt PIE plth2uacute- Av raθa-lsquochariotrsquo Skt raacutetha- lt roacuteth2-o- (cf Lat rotalt roteh2) The inflectionof thewordfor lsquopathrsquo YAv paṇta beside Av paθō is illustrative cf ch 3 fn 2

4 In spite of regular fricativization the original t is preserved in some casesfollowing s (though the t is preserved inword-final positiononly if ioruprecedethe st-clustermdashelsewise the t disappears cf sect11101) OAv astuuaṇt- lsquobonersquo cfSkt asthanvaacutent- YAv gauuāstriia- lt deguāstriia- YAv hastra- lsquogathering meet-ingrsquo from had lsquositrsquo Skt sattraacute- In final position cf OAv vąs (3sgaoractinjlt IIr uānst to van) OAv sąs (to saṇd lsquoresemblersquo) etc but YAv nāist degmōist(3sgaoractinj to nid lsquoinsultrsquo andmiθ) OAv urūaost (3sgpluperfactinj to rudlsquomoan wailrsquo)

t is also preserved after š fərašaoštra- PN (which contains the word uštra-lsquocamelrsquo Skt uacuteṣṭra-) YAv pištra- lsquobruisersquo (cf the Skt root peṣ lsquocrushrsquo Lat pīnsō)YAv xštuua- lsquosixthrsquo In contrast to st-clusters t also remains in word-final posi-tion after š regardless of the preceding segment OAv tāšt dōrəšt cōišt (3sgaoractinj to taš lsquofashionrsquo dar and ciš resp) On the development of the cluster tsgt Av s see sect11112

sect1118 Av f comes out of Ir f lt PIE p before C cf the Av preverb fra Sktpraacute Lat pro YAv afnaŋvhaṇt- lsquolandownerrsquo cf Skt aacutepnas- aacutepnasvant- PIEh2ep-nes- p is preserved before t but not in the sequence ptr cf sect11103

One unexpected source of YAv f is IIr bh in the word nāfa- lsquonavelrsquo cf thegathicism in YAv nabā-nazdišta- lsquoclose relative [ie the closest with respect tothe navel]rsquo Skt nabhā-neacutediṣṭha-

sect1119 Sibilants s z š s s žThe PIE sibilant s in the course of its history going into Avestan has

undergone various changes which in some cases have profoundly altered itsnature To the inherited s (along with the allophonic variants z and perhapsš) other sibilants that have been created later are added A list of the Avestansibilants with indications of their possible origins is given below

sect1120 Av s arises from various sources Firstly 1 it comes from PIE s gt Irs when it occurred before a stop (or before the nasal n but not before m cfsect11262) Av skəṇda- (probably Skt skaacutendha-) OAv āskəiti- lsquocommunityrsquo (fromā+hac cf Skt ask-ra-) OAv scaṇtū (3plaoractimpv tohac) Av stā lsquostandrsquo (Sktsthā Gr ἵστημι Lat stō) Av asti (3sgpresactind to ah Skt aacutesti Gr ἐστί) OAvvastē (3sgpresmidind to vah Skt vaacuteste) OAv kas-nā (nomsg of ka- + particlenā see further OAv kə Skt kaacutes) Av sāsnā- lsquolessonrsquo (cf sāh lsquoteachrsquo Skt śās) Avsparz lsquoaspire torsquo (Skt sprh)

2 Av s can also derive from an excrescent s inserted between two dentalsin the sequence -tt- gt -tst- gt -st- (cf further sect11243) Av ustāna- lsquostretched(out)rsquo (Skt uttānaacute-) OAv vōistā (2sgperfactind of vid Skt veacutettha Gr οἶσθα)and from the same root vista- (ppp Skt vittaacute-) For the change of -tst- to -st-compare the outcome in other clusters such as matsia- lsquofishrsquo gt YAv masiia-versus Skt maacutetsya- cf further Av hąs (prespartact of ah lsquoto bersquo) lt IIr Hsa-nt-s) An outcome -zd- arose in combination with a voiced aspirate plosive cfsect11112

3 PIE ḱ gt IIr ć gt Av s Av dasa lsquotenrsquo (Skt daacuteśa Lat decem Lith dešim-tigraveslt PIE deḱm) YAv satəm lsquohundredrsquo (Skt śataacutem Lat centum Lith šimtas ltPIE dḱmtoacutem) Av aspa- (Skt aacuteśva- cf sect11103) YAv asman- lsquostone skyrsquo (Sktaacuteśman- Gr ἄκμων) YAv sraiiah- OAv sraēšta- (comparative and superl respto srīra-) Av sru lsquohearrsquo (Skt śrav Gr κλύω Lat cluēre) Av sāstar- lsquomasterrsquo (Sktśāstar-) Av sāh lsquoteachrsquo (Skt śās)

4 The PIE sequence sḱ developed to sć in IIr (and in ruki environments[sect11205] in Ir to šc) in Ir to sc and finally in Av to s YAv jasaiti (3sgpresactind to gam Skt gaacutechati) Av pərəsaite (3sgpresmidind of fras Sktprchaacutete lt PIE prḱ-sḱeo- Lat poscō precor)

5 A group of segments that affected PIE s inducing phonetic changesprobably already in the Indo-European period makes up the so-called ldquorukienvironmentrdquo This term refers to the group of phonemes i u r k (as well as

their respective variants i u r K) before s and the consequent articulatorychange of s to š The effects of ruki may be observed in all of the satəmlanguages (sect117) such as the Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic subgroups of Indo-European

Examples include the ending of the instpl -bi š Av asiš lsquoprizersquo YAv pištra-(Skt peṣ Lat pistus) YAv vīša- lsquopoisonrsquo (Skt viṣaacute-) YAv zušta- lsquoenjoyedrsquo (Sktjuṣṭaacute- cf Lat gustō) YAv aršti- lsquospearrsquo (Skt rṣṭiacute-) Av ratuš lsquospan timersquo Avtanuš lsquobodyrsquo OAv dōrəšt (3sgaoractind to dar) pāšnā- lsquoheelrsquo (cf Skt parṣṇi-Gr πτέρνη Lat perna) OAv nərəš YAv narš (gensg of nar- lsquomanrsquo) Av vaxšt(3sgaoractinj to vaxš lsquogrowrsquo cf Skt impf aukṣat Gr ἀέξω lt h2ueg[-s])vaxšiiā (1sgpresactind to vac lsquospeakrsquo Skt vac lt PIE ueku) Av vaši (2sgpresactind to vas lsquodesirersquo Skt vakṣi to vaś lt ueacuteḱ-si) YAv mīžda- lsquorewardrsquo (Sktmīḍhaacute- Gr μισθός lt PIE mizdhoacute-) OAv aogəžā (2sgpresmidind lt augh-sacf sect11111) From these examples it may be inferred that ruki affected Indo-Iranian z in addition to s

sect1121 Av š comes out of 1 IIr ć gt Ir c preceding t dh and bh YAv ašta lsquoeightrsquo(Skt aṣṭa PIE h3eḱteh3) YAv našta- (ppp to nas lsquodisappearrsquo Skt naś) YAvvaštī (3sgpresactind to vas Skt vaacuteṣṭi compare the 1sg vasəmī Skt vaacuteśmi)dərəšta- (ppp to dars Skt drṣṭaacute- to darś) 2 š also comes out of IIr ć or j gt Irc j before n word-internally YAv frašna- lsquoquestionrsquo (from fras Skt praśnaacute- cf OAv frasā- lsquoidrsquo) YAv frāšnaoiti (from fra+nas lsquocarryrsquo Skt aśnoacuteti) YAvfrašnu- ( fra+žānu- lsquowith the knees forwardrsquo compare for example žnubiias-cit cf sect 11254) Some notable exceptions to this development do exist thoughthey may be explained by analogy to other forms without the š OAv vasnālsquoaccording to my willrsquo (instsg of vasna-) instead of daggervašna (cf OP vašnā)by analogy to the (verbal) stem vas- and vasah- Av yasna- (Skt yajntildeaacute-) byanalogy to the stem yaz 3 From s affected by ruki cf sect11205 with exam-ples

4 The IIr sequence ćs gt ćš becomes Av š mošu-cā lsquosoonrsquo (Skt makṣu Latmox) Av vaši (2sgpresactind to vas ltltPIE ueacuteḱ-si cf 3sg vaštī) 5 In contactwith a preceding labial š (and ž cf sect11252) are also found nafšu-cā (locpl ofnapāt- lsquograndsonrsquo) drafša- lsquobannerrsquo (Skt drapsaacute- lsquodroprsquo) fšudeg lsquolivestockrsquo lt pśu-lt pḱu- (cf pasu- Skt paśu- Lat pecus) 6 š also arises from the sequence tḱtašan- lsquoshaper carpenterrsquo (Skt taacutekṣan- lt tetḱon-) šaētī (3sgpresactind to šilsquodwellrsquo Skt kṣeacuteti Gr κτίζω) and from the same rootAv šōiθra- lsquoregion dwellingrsquo(Skt kṣeacutetra-)

sect1122 s is originally an Avestan development of the sequence rt under certainaccentual conditions however later in the transmission andmanuscript tradi-

tion s has frequently become confused with š and at times with s as well Theorigin of and examples for s are laid out in sect1123

sect1123 s is a palatal phoneme 1 In themanuscript tradition the interchange ofš and swith s is often encountered despite the fact that all of these phonemeswere distinct in the archetype s comes out of Ir či which becameOAv ši gtYAvsš OAv siiaoθana- YAv (gathicism) siiaoθna- (lt čiautna- asymp Skt cyautnaacute- cfPIE kieu Skt cyav Gr κινέω) In YAv s does not occur followed by ii (i) whichis to say that the merger of š and ii in a single phoneme s had already beencompletedHowever in YAv themanuscripts usually donotwrite the expecteds but use the two other sibilant letters OAv siiātō (ppp to siiā cf Lat quiētus)versus YAv sātō (vvll šiiātō šātō sātō) lsquoat easersquo

2 See sect1116 for the vacillation between initial xš- and š- in some words

sect1124 The origin of Av z is also heterogenous 1 Firstly it is the outcome ofthe PIE palatovelars ǵ ǵh by way of an IIr stage j jh gt Ir j [dz] Av zaoša-lsquopleasedrsquo (Skt joacuteṣa- cf Gr γεύομαι Lat gustō PIE ǵeus) YAv zraiiah- lsquosearsquo (Sktjraacuteyas-) Av zāta- (ppp to zan lsquogeneratersquo Skt jātaacute- to jani) YAv zazāmi (to zālsquoleaversquo Skt jaacutehāmi to hā) Av zaotar- lsquopriestrsquo (Skt hotaacuter- cf Gr χέω PIE ǵheulsquopourrsquo) YAv ziia lsquowinterrsquo (nomsg cf Skt himaacute- Gr χιών Lat hiems)

2 z is also found as the product of the voicing of s preceding a voiced stopAv nazdišta- (superl of asna- lsquonearrsquo Skt neacutediṣṭha- lt nasddeg) Av mazdā- lsquowis-domrsquo (Skt medha- lt IIr mas-dhaH- lt PIE mns-dheh1-) OAv zdī (2sgpresactimpv toah Skt edhilt azdhiacute cf Gr ἴσθι) YAvmazga- (cf Sktmajjaacuten- sect1112b)OAv θrāzdūm (2plaormidinj to θrā lsquoprotectrsquo)

3 In addition z arises secondarily from sequences of voiced dental stops-dd- gt -dzd- which result in Av -zd- (cf further sect11202) OAv fra-uuōiz-dūm (2plaormidinj of vid) OAv sazdiiāi (midinf to saṇd or sąh) dazdi-iāi (midinf to dā) or in certain Bartholomae sequences (cf sect11112) Avvərəzda- (Skt vrddhaacute- lt vrdh-taacute-) OAv azdā lsquocertainlyrsquo (OP azdā Skt addha)

sect1125 Av ž also has several possible origins 1 from the allophone of PIEz gt IIr z affected by ruki (sect11205 with examples) including compoundswith the pejorative prefix dušdeg (Skt duṣdeg Gr δυσdeg) plus a second elementwith a voiced first consonant dužuuacah- lsquowith a bad wordrsquo (Skt durvacas-)duždāh- lsquoniggardlyrsquo12 2 In contact with Iranian labials ž is also found (and š cf

12 Curiously dušdeg beforemwas preserved as such thus the tradition gives duš-manah- The

sect11215) diβža- lsquodeceptionrsquo diβžaidiiāi (presdesiderativeinf to dab lsquodeceiversquolt di-dbh-sa cf Skt diacutepsati to dabh) vaβžaka- lsquowasprsquo (lt uabzha- lt PIEuobhso-)

3 ž can also come out of IIr j jh gt Ir j preceding t dh bh OAv važdra-lsquodriverrsquo (Skt voacuteḍhar- cf Latuehō PIE ueǵh) OAv gərəždā (lt grǵh-ta 3sgpresmidinj to garz lsquolamentrsquo cf Skt garh) IIr j jh also give Av ž 4 before word-initial n žnātar- lsquoknowerrsquo (Skt jntildeātaacuter- cf Gr γνωστήρ PIE ǵneh3) žnubiias-cit (ablpl of zānu- lsquokneersquo Gr γόνυ) the outcome in word-internal position how-ever is šn YAv baršna (instsg of barəzan- lsquoheightrsquo) cf further sect11212

5 The IIr sequences j+s and jh+s become Ir jž gt Av ž13 YAv uz-uuažat (3sgaoractsubj to vaz Skt vakṣat lt PIE ueǵh-se-) OAv dīdərəžō (2sgpresdesiderativeactinj to darz lsquostrengthenrsquo lt didrjh-sa- Skt darh)

6 The Av sequence -ji- becomes ž in YAv družaiti (to druj Skt druacutehyati)but OAv a-drujiiaṇt- bažat (3sgprespass in -iia to baj lsquoapportionrsquo Skt bhaj)may also be included here as well as the YAv stem daža- lsquoburnrsquo (ie a stem in-iia like in the YAv type jaiẟiia- lsquoprayrsquo cf Skt daacutehati)

A YAv phenomenon that is usually interpreted as a dialectal feature maybe detected in the change of intervocalic j to ž snaēžāt and the part snaēžiṇt-(to snaēžā lsquosnowrsquo) Contrary to what was formerly believed this developmentusually presents itself in nominal forms (cf aži- Skt aacutehi- etc) but ismuch lesscommon in verbal forms (only three) snaēžā- (versus Skt snihyati) naēniža-(lsquowashrsquo Skt nenikteacute) degẟβōža- lsquowaversquo only these three may indeed be explainedas exhibiting this dialectal feature

sect1126 The Fricative h and its Derived Phonemes x xv ŋh ŋh ŋvh1 A first change which must have taken place in the Iranian period at the

latest is the development IIr s gt Ir h in initial position and in word-internalposition before sonorants and i um r

Av h comes from Ir h lt PIE s in both word-initial and word-internalposition YAv hapta lsquosevenrsquo (Skt saptaacute Gr ἑπτά) hac (Skt sac Gr ἕπομαι Latsequor)hauruua- (Skt saacuterva- Lat saluus Gr (Ionic) οὖλος) Avahu- (Sktaacutesu-)ahura (Skt aacutesura-) Av ahi (2sgpresactind to ah Skt aacutesi Gr εἶ) OAv kahiiā(gensg of the interr ka- Skt kaacutesya) OAv manahi-cā (locsg of manah- Skt

single example of OAv +dužmanah- lsquoill-mindedrsquo (Y 4911 Gr δυσμενής) could originate inthe (Persian) vulgate pronunciation

13 The same development would take place in a potential PIE sequence d(h)ǵh The YAvexample ɣžar lsquoflowrsquo cf Skt kṣar (kṣaacuterati) and Prākrit jharaiuml lsquoto driprsquo must derive from PIEdhguher-

maacutenasi) As the examplesmakeevidenth is preservedonlybefore i andu whilebetween other vowels it was nasalized and became ŋh sect 1127

2 The change to hmay also be observed beforem Av ahmi (1sgpresactindto ah Skt aacutesmi Gr εἰμί) OAv əhmā YAv ahma (accpl 1perspron Skt asmanAeol Gr ἄμμε) Av dahma- lsquowonderfulrsquo (Skt dasmaacute-) grəhma- PN The graphicsequence hm in fact represents a voiceless m which is also written as m inthe manuscripts cf sect525 In initial position h is lost before m cf mahi (Sktsmaacutesi) or the prepositionmat lsquowithrsquo (Skt smaacuted)

3 Depending upon phonetic environment the new hwas preserved as such(see above) or became the new phonemes ŋh (sect1127) x (sect1128) ŋh (sect1129)xv (sect1130) ŋvh (sect1131) or simply ŋ

The change of h to ŋ is exceptional and occurs solely before rword-mediallyIn effect the PIE sequence -srl- becomes Avestan -ŋr- aŋra- lsquoevilrsquo (Skt asraacute-)daŋra- lsquoexperiencedrsquo (Skt dasraacute-) Note that ŋr also takes on other spellings inthe manuscript tradition ŋhr ṇgr (a hypergathicism cf sect1132) Word-initialsr- simplifies in OAv to r- rəma- lsquobrutalityrsquo (cf Skt srāma- lsquoparalyticrsquo) but inYAv it seems to have become θr- YAv θraotōdeg (Skt sroacutetas- but OP rautah-)

sect1127 ŋh arises from the sequence aha gt Av aŋha aŋhat (3sgpresactsubjto ah Skt aacutesat) OAv manaŋhā (instsg of manah-) OAv nəmaŋhā (instsgof nəmah-) OAv aŋharə (3plperfind to ah asymp Skt āsuacuter) Due to intraparadig-matic pressure it is not uncommon to find ŋh extended to positions where itwould normally be impermissible for example from Ir vahu- the followingparadigm results nomneut vohū gensg vaŋhəuš (lt uahauš) and a datsgvaŋhauuē but also nomsgmasc vaŋhuš and accpl vaŋhūš-cā In YAv ŋh canalso come from IIr ns before a and is equivalent to OAv ṇgh in this environ-ment cf sect793

sect1128 x is a secondary product of the new Iranian h x is found in the word-initial sequence xii- as the Av reflex of Ir hi- OAv xiiəm xiia xiiāt hellip (opt ofah Skt syat) YAv xiiaona- lsquoNameof apeoplersquo Inword-internal position Ir hi ispreserved inOAv but yielded ŋh in YAv before a-vowels Before u we find xii inboth varieties of Avestan Examples OAv vahiiah- (comparative of vohu- Sktvaacutesyas-) ahiiā (2sgpresactimpv to 2ah lsquothrowrsquo Skt aacutesya) the ending of thethematic gensg as inmadahiiā (ofmada- lsquointoxicating drinkrsquo) accsg daxiiūmlsquocountryrsquo YAv hii- as eg in māhiia- PN (Skt māsya- cf Av māh- lsquomoonmonthrsquo) is found before a disyllabic suffix -iialt IIr -iHa- lsquobelonging torsquo

Word-internally OAv has a variant -xii- before an a-vowel found mainly ifthe following syllable is non-final or is a word-final closed syllable The condi-tions are not completely clear however Examples include OAv nəmaxiiāmahī

(1plpresactind to nəmaxiia- lsquodo homagersquo denom to neut namah- lsquohomagersquocf Skt naacutemas-) xvaxiiāi (datsgf of the reflpron xva- lsquoownrsquo Skt svaacute-)

sect1129 ŋh properly belongs to YAv and represents the development of -hi- gtŋhi (ie once h had become ŋh) YAv vaŋhō versus OAv vahiiō (nomneut ofthe comparative of vohu- Skt vaacutesyas-)daŋhəuš versusOAvdaxiiəuš (gensg)14aŋhāi versus OAv axiiāi (cf above) To find ŋh instead of ŋh in themanuscriptsis commonplace

sect1130 xv is a secondary product of Ir h and represents the Ir sequence huin a single grapheme (contrast xii lt hi cf above) Av xvafəna- xvafna- lsquosleeprsquo(Skt svaacutepna-) xva- (reflexive pron Skt svaacute-)

Word-internally the treatment of hu varied given that OAv preserved it ashuu while in YAv it becomes ŋvh (cf below) -xv- appears sporadically OAvnəmaxvaitīš (nomplfem lsquodevoteesrsquo) This reflex alternates with the usual OAv-huu- in the same way that -xii- alternates with -hii- (see sect1128) Word-initiallythe regular reflex of hu- was xv- in OAv and YAv Initial huu- is found wherehu- lsquogoodrsquo or huu- lsquosunrsquo were restored Compare OAv xvəṇg (ie huuəŋhgensg of xvan- but nomacc huuarə huacuteuar Skt svagraver) and OAv xvāθra-lsquowell-beingrsquo (hu-āθra-) xvīti- lsquoof good accessrsquo (hu-īti-) YAv xvīta- (hu-īta- Sktsuvitaacute-) xvāstra- lsquoof good pasturesrsquo (hu-uāstra- cf the hydronym xvāstrā-)

sect1131 ŋvh properly belongs to YAv and reflects -hu- In Indian manuscriptsit also appears as ŋuh or ŋh yāsaŋuha yāsaŋvha (as well as yāsaŋha) vaŋuhīšvaŋvīš (aswell as vaŋhīš)pərəsaŋuhapərəsaŋva (aswell aspərəsaŋha) YAv -hu-reflects the later addition of a vowel to a word ending in locpl -hu yāhuuadāmahuua (locpl of the relpron ya- and of dāman- lsquocreaturersquo resp + thepostposition ā cf sect168) The sequence -hu- (-huu-) appears as -huu- in OAvOAv gūšahuuā dāhuuā (2sgaormidimpv to guš lsquolistenrsquo and dā resp Skt-sva)

14 In YAv a case of preventive dissimilation in the accsg and the genpl of the stem daŋhu-is discernable daxiiūm (also daŋhaom) and daxiiunąm The presence of m has impededthe development of the secondary nasal ŋ A similar case presents itself in the gen aŋhəušnom aŋhuš (larr ahuš) but acc ahūm or in vaŋhuš (analogical cf neut vohu) vaŋhəuš butvohūm vohunąm (Skt vasūnām)

chapter 3

Morphology

sect12 Introduction

In this large chapter we will present the facts concerning nominal inflec-tion including sections dedicated to adjectives and their degrees of com-parison pronouns and indeclinable words (prepositions and preverbs) Fur-thermore verbal inflection and the formation of verbal stems will be dis-cussed

sect13 Nominal Inflection

The nominal inflection of Avestan is inherited from the inflectional processesof Indo-European by way of Indo-Iranian On the one hand Avestan exhibitsan archaic system as it retains many fossilized features that were at one timeproductive but which have already fallen into disuse by the Avestan periodOn the other hand Avestan nevertheless shows some clear innovations withrespect to earlier linguistic stages though these innovations are based uponinherited processes

As has already been explained above one of the aims of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics is to linguistically delimit the Iranian languages and toestablish using reconstruction a common linguistic stage shared betweenthese languages and the Indic languages Proto-Indo-Iranian (IIr) Avestanmorphology immediately reveals a close relationship to Vedic the oldest at-tested stage of Indic Vedic thus furnishes indispensable aid in the assessmentand classification of Avestan forms which are often very difficult to interpretgiven the phonetic nature of the alphabet and the convoluted transmission ofthe texts Moreover the distinction between OAv and YAv further complicateslinguistic and philological work

sect131 Components of theWordThe linguistic analysis of a word focuses first of all on the elements that itcontains and the objective of the analysis is the classification and definitionof those elements The first general division of formal elements allows oneto distinguish a root affix and ending in each nominal form An affix mayprecede or follow the root on which basis it is called a lsquoprefixrsquo or lsquosuffixrsquo

40 chapter 3 middot morphology

respectively1 At times the root and suffix have a very tight bond and thewhole consisting of root and suffix is then termed lsquostemrsquo Where the stem iscoextensive with the root one speaks of a lsquoroot nounrsquo Finally the word asis the usual practice for old Indo-European languages receives endings thatsituate that precise formwithin a casenumber system (ie they place it withina paradigm) likewise the endings serve to establish syntactic and functionalrelations with respect to other words within the sentence Onmany occasionsit is not possible to divide stem and ending clearly in which case it is necessaryto speak of a lsquonon-segmentable endingrsquo rather than a simple lsquoendingrsquo

The usual manner of writing a root is to show it in the FG form with PIE ewhich in Avestan is equivalent to the full grade a That is to say for examplethe root men (Avman)means lsquothinkrsquo or the root ueku (Av vac)means lsquospeakrsquoMeanwhile stems are given with a following dash Thus for example we havethe stem ueku- (root noun) lsquowordrsquo (Av vac- lsquovoicersquo Skt vak-) or the presentstem mnieo- lsquothinkrsquo (Avmańiia- Sktmaacutenya-) to the root men etc

sect132 Accent and AblautAttentive observation of the means of inflection in particular words revealstwo further morphologically relevant elements the accent and patterns ofvowel alternation (ablaut) which may have originally been bound up withone another

Little can be said about the place of the accent in Avestan though somephenomena due to the effects of the accent have been noted in the precedingchapter All things considered those phenomena do not have significant impli-cations However one characteristic feature of Indo-European (nominal andverbal) morphology that has left a profound trace on the daughter languagesis the system of ablaut Ablaut consists in the regulated change of particularvowels (including empty) within morphological elements ie in roots affixes andendings Each one of these elements can take on various formsdepending uponthe value of the ablauting vowel The system of ablaut as may be seen in theTable 4 below sets up an opposition on the one hand between the zero gradefull grade and lengthened grade and on the other hand in the correspondinggradations between e grade and o grade

The relation between FG LG and ZG is termed lsquoquantitative ablautrsquo whilethe relation betwen e grade and o grade is termed lsquoqualitative ablautrsquo

1 Cases in which an affix is contained within the root itself are referred to as infixes Indo-European languages normally employ infixes only in the domain of verbal inflection

sect 13 middot nominal inflection 41

table 4 Ablaut in Indo-Europeane Grade o Grade

Full Grade (FG) e oLengthened Grade (LG) ē ōZero Grade (ZG) empty

The function of the ablaut system within a single paradigm is regulated inpart by the accent and in part by morphological category As was alreadymentioned a strict relation between accent and ablaut might have held in theproto-language A syllable bearing the accent would then have e grade whilean unaccented syllable would have o grade or ZG Later during a second phasethe tightly bound relation between accent and ablaut could have been brokenby accent displacement or by changes in allomorphy such that forms withmultiple e FGs or with ZG throughout arose

Out of this system Indo-Iranian and ultimately Avestan has maintainedonly quantitative oppositions as a consequence of the developments in theIndo-European vowel system However remnants of the old qualitative oppo-sitions may still be observed in the effects that certain ablaut grades producedon the preceding consonant (ie palatalization cf sect117 and further sect11911122) or in the outcomes stemming from Brugmann (sect744) Nonethelessit must not be forgotten that in general these elements are mere traces of avery archaic older stage and therefore must be treated with caution

sect133 Paradigmatic Nominal CategoriesIn the noun Avestan distinguishes three genders masculine feminine andneuter three numbers singular dual and plural and eight cases nominativeaccusative genitive ablative dative instrumental locative and finally voca-tive

In Avestan these categories are expressed within a paradigm by means ofendings which simultaneously carry information about case and number andsometimes gender In contradistinction to adjectives and pronouns the nounlacks gender as a category in itself but gender instead derives from the specificstem (lexeme) In this regard the distinction of gender does not arise directlyfrom the endings save partially in the singular and in the plural of neuternouns but rather is evident in virtue of concord between nouns and adjectivesor pronouns

In Table 5 the fact that the endings in Avestan express more than one cate-gory a characteristic feature of the Indo-European languages is self-evidentThe table aims to encompass all inflectional types and is based on the for-

table 5 The nominal endings in their Proto-Avestan form

Singular Dual Pluralmf neut mf neut mf neut

nom -S -h -empty -ahvoc -empty -empty -aH -iH -H -emptyacc -(a)m -ah -nS -nhgen -S -h -ah -āh -āmabl -(a)t

-biahdat -ai -biā(m)inst -(a)H -bi šloc -i -au -Su -hu

mal evaluation of each distinct place in the paradigm Keep in mind that theendings given there are normally sufficient to distinguish a paradigmatic slotthoughpossible variations in the stemor (infrequent) cases of heteroclisismustbe taken into account

sect134 EndingsIn the process of inflection the stem is unified with the various endings eachof which occupies a specific place in the paradigm The number of endingsis limited and fairly small In Avestan the task of enumerating the endings isrendered more difficult by the tradition which has transmitted the text with amarkedly phonetic character and as a consequence it is commonplace to findthat the endings have several allomorphs

Given the impossibility of presenting a table that encompasses all of the allo-morphs of every ending for the two dialects without losing the synoptic effectwe have instead opted to present a general table with the Proto-Avestan end-ings ie those endings that must necessarily underlie each one of the histori-cally attested endings Only the standard endings are included in Table 5 andaccount is not taken of sandhi phenomena which will be explained separatelyLikewise the possible alternations in the stem itself which will be detailedbelow under each particular class are not considered here In some cases theuse of archiphonemes is necessary S or M as well as the single laryngeal Hwhich probably still existed in Proto-Avestan Finally for practical purposesrealize that differences between Old and Young Avestan also appear in inflec-tion as above all in the quantity of word-final vowels already mentionedabove (cf sect72) Old Avestan always has -ā -ī -ū -ē whereas Young Avestanalways has short vowels -a -i -u -e

sect 14 middot case endings of the singular 43

sect14 Case Endings of the Singular

sect141 The nominative mascfem sometimes called ldquoanimaterdquo has two inflec-tional types 1 The sigmatic type is more common and is characterized by theaddition of an -s to the stem with allomorphs that occur in virtue of the pho-netic environment (ie ruki etc) Root nouns stems in -t -ṇt -i -u -a aswell as a few stems in -n and isolated cases of r-stems are all found in thisinflectional type 2 The asigmatic type is less common than the preceding typeand is characterized by a zero ending -empty This type includes some r-stems andn-stems as well as stems in -ā and -ī Lengthened grade of the suffix occurs insome of these classes

sect142 The acc mascfem has the ending -m (or -əm)

sect143 The nominativeaccusative neuter has in contrast to nouns of animategender the same form with a zero ending In a-stems (thematic stems) theending is -m

sect144 The vocative of the singular is a case form with a zero ending The vocof ablauting stems shows full grade of the suffix

sect145 The genitive and ablative have identical forms in IIr (and PIE) in allinflectional types with the exception of the thematic inflection which has twodistinct forms

1 OAv preserves the older state and exhibits an ending -as (lt PIE -es)which can undergo ablaut and thus be merely -s (cf esp n-stems sect184) YAvhas slightly modified this situation and taking the thematic inflection as itsmodel formally differentiates the genitive and the ablative in all classes TheYAv gen follows the old gen in -(a)s while the YAv abl takes the ending-t adopted from the thematic inflection (sect1916) To this new ending thepostposition ā can be added thus resulting in the YAv ending -aẟa On thedevelopment and graphic representation of the ending -as cf sect794

2 The thematic inflection has in the gen an ending OAv -hiiā YAv -hederiving from -sia (sect7103) while an ending -at is employed in the ablative

sect146 The dative has in OAv an ending -ōi which corresponds to YAv -eboth deriving from Ir -ai lt PIE -ei In some cases the YAv ending has beenintroduced into OAv (and gathicized) as -ē cf sect7111

sect147The instrumental has anending -a but in some inflectional classes seemsno longer to have any ending This apparent lack of ending is due to the factthat the old PIE ending -h1 became -H in Ir and in word-final position waslost without leaving any trace after a consonant or lengthening the precedingvowel (but be aware of the situation regarding word-final vowels in Av sectsect72and 134)

sect148The locative is another case that has a zero ending (togetherwith length-ened grade of the suffix) Other types of formations show an ending -i

sect15 Case Endings of the Dual

sect151 The nominativeaccusativevocative mascfem makes for a motley col-lection whichmust be examined under each inflectional type The PIE endingthat underlies the forms is usually reconstructed as -h1 TheAv feminine formsare set up as -ih1

sect152 The nominativeaccusativevocative neut has an ending -i which isreconstructed as PIE -ih1

sect153 The dativeablativeinstrumental has -biia lt Ir -biā as its ending Onjust a single stem the ending -biiąm identical to the Skt -bhyām is found YAvbruuatbiiąm lsquoeyebrowsrsquo

sect154 The genitive and locative have distinct endings in Iranian in contrastto the common endings that they share in Sanskrit In effect compared to theusual ending in Skt -oḥ Avestan exhibits on the one hand 1 a genitive ending-a (lt IIr -ās) and on the other hand 2 a locative ending -(uu)ō (lt IIr -au)It is possible that the Sanskrit ending may have arisen as a blending of the twoIIr case forms as continued in Avestan

sect16 Case Endings of the Plural

sect161Thenominativemascfemhas -ō whose reconstructiongoesback toPIE-es as its ending Two other endings also exist 1 An ending that is the productof morphological recharacterization -aŋhō which must have its origin in theIndo-Iranian period cf Skt -āsas OP -āha 2 The thematic inflection has anending -a (in YAv -a in polysyllables but -ā- in the auslaut of disyllables before

sect 16 middot case endings of the plural 45

the enclitic -ca) whichmust have been long in IIr as is evident from -a in Sktyuga lsquoyokesrsquo This form could derive from the old ending of the collective PIE-h2 The existence of an ending that results from the PIE contraction -o+-esas is found in -ās in Sanskrit is not assured One should note the fempl of theā-stems -a lt IIr -ās lt PIE -eh2-es

sect162 The accusative mascfem has an ending -ō deriving from Ir -as lt PIE-ns The thematic inflection takes the same ending but according to the rulesof syllabification the ending is realized after a vowel as PIE -ns The Ir ending-a-ns becomes -əṇg in OAv and -ą or -ə in YAv cf sect793 In some casesparticular phonetic developments have substantially disfigured the ending cfsect7177

sect163 The nominativeaccusative neuter has both 1 an ending -i and 2 a zeroendingwith lengthened grade of the element preceding the ending as a formalcharacterization (cf for example sect184) 3 The thematic inflection has anending -a in Av which can be taken back to Ir -a-H The underlying endingis PIE -h2 gt IIr -H which has either become -i lengthened the vowel ordisappeared

sect164 The vocative pl is formally identical to the nomaccpl for both animateand the neuter nouns

sect165 The genitive has an ending -ąm coming from -ām The inflectionalclasses ending in a vowel show an innovative ending -nąm made by analogy tothe n-stems In contrast to the other Indo-Iranian languages Avestan exhibitsa short stem vowel in these forms

sect166Thedativeablativehas an ending -biiō which appears as -biias-cabeforean enclitic This ending is equivalent to the Skt -bhyas

sect167 The instrumental has an ending -bīš Skt -bhiḥ In some very goodmanuscripts -biš is also found In certain cases special phonetic develop-ments have substantially altered this ending cf sect1114 In contrast to theother inflectional types the thematic inflection shows an ending -āiš Skt-ais

sect168 The locative exhibits assorted allomorphs for its ending which all devel-oped from the ending -su depending upon the environment in which it falls(ie ruki etc) -šu -su and -hu Furthermore the extension of the locpl

through the addition of the postposition ā (just as in the locsg and the ablsg)is commonplace

sect17 Inflectional Classes

Every noun in Avestan can bemorphologically classified according to the stemformant that it possesses Internal to each inflectional class further types maysometimes be distinguished on the basis of particular inflectional behaviorsthe origin of which is normally to be sought in ablaut patterns

Not every inflectional class has subdivisions but those considered to bethe oldest from the point of view of Indo-European inflection indeed do suchclassesmust therefore be regarded as archaisms inAvestan The enormous vari-ation entailed not only by the shifting of the accent but also by the alternationof vowels in the constituent elements of theword could have already been reg-ularized very early in favor of a single invariable stemwith fixed accent Of all ofthe types that havebeenverified as part of Proto-Indo-European inflectionwithgreater or lesser reliability Avestan has preserved but a tiny remnant which isclearly disappearing due to regularization

The two most important types that have been preserved are the proterody-namic and the hysterodynamic In the proterodynamic type the root takes theaccent in the direct cases while the suffix receives the accent in the obliquecases In thehysterodynamic type the suffix takes the accent in thedirect caseswhile the ending receives the accent in the oblique cases As a general rulethe direct cases (also referred to as lsquostrongrsquo) are the nom of all numbers theaccsg and du and the locsg the remaining cases are oblique (also referredto as lsquoweakrsquo) Keep inmind that the accent and full grade are usually linked (cfsect132) Other types of inflectional patterns will be commented on under thecorresponding entries

In general inflection can be divided into stems ending in a consonant andstems ending in a vowel which in some cases are the continuants of oldconsonant stems (ie laryngeal stems)

The forms given in the tables below belong solely to Young Avestan exceptwhere expressly indicated to the contrary using italics

sect18 Consonant Stems

Consonant stems include an enormous number of stems of diverse nature butthe endings are added to a consonantal element in all of them The subgroups

sect 18 middot consonant stems 47

table 6 The inflection of root nouns

nom druxš āpō spasōvoc narə as-ca āpa asta-ca astiacc āpəm apō vīsōgen drūjō nara apąm vīsąmabl drujat

aiβiiō vīžibiiōdat sarōi ape nərəbiiainst vərədā apa mazibīš vaɣžibi šloc sairī vīsiia nāšū

into which consonant stems may be divided are a root nouns (with assortedfinal consonants) and b derived stems which in turn include stems in -tand -aṇt stems in -an -man and -uuan stems in -ar and stems in -ah and-uuāh-uš

sect181 Root NounsRoot nouns constitute an important and archaic class of nouns characterizedby the fact that the stem is equal to the root The final element of the stem isa consonant (-c -j -t -d -θ -p -m -n -r -z -š -h) though some other stemshaving a final vowel (-ā -ī -ū) which were originally consonantal (lt H) maybe included in this class as well

The majority of these nouns belongs to the animate class (above all fem-inines) though some neuters are met with as well Note further that a goodnumber of root nouns are the second members of compounds

Words belonging to this class are vac- m lsquovoicersquo deghac- lsquofollowingrsquo druj- flsquoliersquo ast- neut lsquobonersquo ābərət- lsquocarrierrsquo stūt- f lsquopraisersquo paθ- m lsquopathrsquo pad- mlsquofootrsquo vərəd- f lsquogrowthrsquo zərəd- neut lsquoheartrsquo ap- f lsquowaterrsquo kəhrp- f lsquobodyrsquo dam-mlsquohousersquo zam- f lsquoearthrsquo zim- m lsquowinterrsquo ham- m lsquosummerrsquo span- m lsquodogrsquo deg jan-lsquoslayerrsquo degkar- lsquowho does X -errsquo gar- f lsquogreetingrsquo nar- m lsquomanrsquo sar- f lsquounionrsquo star-m lsquostarrsquo nās- f lsquowaitrsquo vīs- f lsquotribe villagersquo spas- lsquospyrsquo dərəz- f lsquotether bindingrsquobərəz- lsquohighrsquomaz- lsquogreatrsquo īš- f lsquovigorrsquo āh- neut lsquomouthrsquomāh- m lsquomoon monthrsquo

Some examples of root nouns terminating in a vowel are ādā- f lsquodeliveryrsquoxā- f lsquowellrsquomaz-dā- m lsquoMazdārsquo degstā lsquostandingrsquo xšī- f lsquolamentrsquo deg jī- lsquowith lifersquo degfrī-lsquopleasingrsquo degsū- lsquothrivingrsquo

NB The inflection of these stems is very similar taken as a set but at timesit shows some deviations which may be the result of a special phonetic

treatments or of morphological processes (ablaut) The details of the actuallyoccurring divergences and possible anomalies will be given in the followingoverview

Singular 1 The nomsg has the ending -s in animate stems with the condi-tioned variant -š Av vāxš (with lengthened grade Skt vak f) druxš (sect11205)YAv ābərəš YAv kərəfš (sect11215) Root nouns ending in a vowel are also sig-matic xa degstamazda paṇta2 (lt -ā-s lt -aH-s sect752) ərəžə-jīš ratu-frīš Rootnouns in a sibilant are sigmatic YAv vīš (Skt viacuteṭ) spaš (sect11214 Skt spaacuteṭ) OAvdərəš-cā YAv barš (sect11205) ma (Skt mas) The nomsg of root nouns in -nis usually considered to be asigmatic in spite of some evidence to the con-trary YAv deg ja (OAv hapax vərəθrajā [with vvll] Skt degha) versus deg ja YAv spā(Skt śva) Root nouns in -r are asigmatic OAv nāmdash2 The accsg has the end-ing -əm in animate stems Av vācəm and YAv vācim (with LG from a FG o[cf the gen coming from a FG e] Skt vacam Lat uōcem) OAv drujəm (Avdrujəm and YAv drujim sect7144) YAv ābərətəm pāẟəm (LG cf Lat pēs ver-sus the FG o in the pl Skt padam) āpəm (LG) OAv kəhrpəm (YAv kəhrpəm)Root nouns in -m present some problems because they seem to lack a formalmarker of the acc due to the fact that acc -mmergedwith the -m- of the stembefore the IIr sequence -m-m could have become -m-am Av ząm (cf alsoSkt kṣam) YAv ziiąm deg janəm (Skt deghaacutenam) spānəm (sect746 Skt śvanam) Avnarəm (Skt naacuteram) sarəm vīsəm (Skt viacuteśam) YAv spasəm bərəzəm OAv īšəmYAv maŋhəm (cf sect751 Skt masam) Vowel stems degstąm Av mazdąm YAvpaṇtąm (Skt paacuteṇthām also YAv paṇtānəm) yauuaē-jim degsummdash3 The vocsghas a zero ending YAv narə (with FG) ending in a vowel OAvmazdāmdash4 Thenomaccneut has a zero ending YAv as-ca (hapax lt ast-ca more frequentis astəm [])mdash5 The gensg has the ending ō (lt -as but cf sect7131) YAv vacōdrūjōābərətōastō Avpaθō (cf fn 2 below) apō (Sktapaacutes) Among root nounsin -m a genitive ending with ZG may be found OAv dəṇg (lt daNs sect793) ina formation very similar to the proterodynamic genitives of n-stems (sect184)cf also OAv adąs (lt ā dąs abl) versus Av zəmō (Skt jmaacutes) and YAv zimō(and zəmō) degɣnō (Skt degghnaacutes) sūnō (Skt śuacutenas) Traces of ablaut remain in rootnouns in -r cf garō versus nərəš (YAv narš Skt naraacutes) old and similar to ther-stems (sect185) are OAv sarō (also sarə) YAv vīsō (Skt viśaacutes) OAvmazə (abl)

2 The inflection of this noun in Avestan seems to be composed of two suspiciously similarstems paθ- and paṇtā- Both stems are explicable through sound change The stem thatunderlies the Avestan stemwould be PIE penth1- or ponth1- whose Av nomsg paṇta comesfrom IIr paacutentaHs cf Skt paacutenthās (where the th is secondary by analogy to the oblique cases)while the gensg paθō comes from IIr pntHaacutes cf Skt pathaacutes The exact PIE etymology of thisnoun is disputed

bərəzō YAv maŋhō OAv aŋhō (Skt āsaacutes) Vowel stems Av degšta mazdamdash6The ablsg is in Old Av identical to the genitive but in Young Avestan it hasreplaced -shby -t following the thematic inflection (sect1916)āpat zəmat (alsozəmāẟa) vīsat degɣnatmdash7 The datsg has as its ending (lt PIE -ei) OAv -ōi andYAv -e the latter reintroduced into OAv as -ē (sect146) ābərəte ape (apaē-cit)degɣne (Skt degghneacute) sūne (Skt śuacutene) gairē narōi (YAv naire Skt nareacute) sarōi vīse(Skt viśeacute)mazōi Vowel stems degštāi degšte ərəžə-jiiōimdash8 The instsg vaca (Sktvāca) zərədā-cā paθa apa (Skt apa) kəhrpa zəmā hama vīsa (Skt viśā)dərəzā OAv əəaŋhā (YAv aŋha Skt āsa)mdash9 The locsg has the ending -i towhich the postposition ā can be added In some cases a locative with a zeroending but formally marked through ablaut is detectable Examples paiθīkəhrpiia dąm (lt dām YAv dąmi) zəmē (lt -ai Skt jmay-a Gr χαμαί) and zəmi(Skt kṣaacutemi) vīsi (Skt viśi) and vīsiiawith postposition

Dual 10 The nomaccvocdu ābərəta pāẟa āpa (Skt apā) spāna (Sktśvanā)mdash11 The nomaccvocneutdu asta-camdash12 The gendu nara (Sktnaacuterā)mdash13 The abldatinstdu vaɣžibiiā-ca nərəbiia

Plural 14 The nompl has the ending -ō lt -as lt PIE -es Although thenompl is considered a direct case while the accpl is considered oblique it isnot infrequent to find an accpl that is formally a nompl However both casesare clearly differentiated in those stems which show ablaut vācō ābərətō āpō(Skt apas) zəmō (Skt kṣamas) zimō deg janō (Skt deghaacutenas) spānō (Skt śvanas)narō (Skt naacuteras) spasō īšōmaŋhō vowel stems xa degšta paṇtānō ratu-friiōmdash15 The accpl has the ending -ō lt -as lt PIE -ns vacō paθō paẟō Amonglabial-stem root nouns the OAv hapax apō (with FG as in Skt apaacutes) standsout in contrast to YAv āpō (with generalized LG) kəhrpas-ca zəmas-ca deg janō(Skt degghnaacutes) garō nərəš (Skt nrn) vīsō (Skt viacuteśas) īšō maŋhō Vowel stemsyauuaējiiōmdash16 The nomaccvocneutpl astimdash17 The genpl astąmpaθąm apąm (Skt apam) kəhrpąm zəmąm-ca degɣnąm sunąm (Skt śuacutenām)narąm (Skt naram) strəm-cā (YAv strąm) vīsąm (Skt visam) vowel stemsxąmmdash18Theabldatplaiβiiō (ap- Sktadbhyaacutes)nərəbiias-cā (Sktnrbhyas)as well as YAv nərəbiiō nəruiiō (sect1114) vīžibiiō (Skt viḍbhyaacutes) vāɣžibiiō (Sktvāgbhyaacutes) Vowel stems yauuaējibiiōmdash19 The instpl azdibīš padəbīš (paθ-)garōibīš mazibīš vaɣžibiš (Skt vāgbhiḥ)mdash20 The locpl vowel stems ratu-frišu

sect182 Stems in -t -aṇcAmong the dental stems there are some nouns with the suffixes -t- and -tāt-used to create abstract nouns such as amərətatāt- f lsquoimmortalityrsquo hauruuatāt-f lsquowholeness perfectionrsquo yauuaētāt- f lsquoeternityrsquo Ablaut is found in the inflec-tion of some nouns cf napāt- m lsquograndsonrsquo and the directional adjectives in

-anc3 derived from adverbs such as apaṇc- lsquoapartrsquo fraṇc- lsquoforwardrsquo niiaṇc-lsquodownwardrsquo

The inflection of these invariable stems can be inferred fromTable 6 in sect181The forms of napāt- are nomsg napa (napāts) accsg napātəm gensg naptōand locpl nafšu (naptsu)

For the aṇc-stems the following forms may be adduced nomsgm apąš ltapa-ank-š frąš accsg m niiaṇcim (with analogical ā cf Skt nyagraventildecam) theinstsg apāca (Skt apāca) and the nomplm niiaṇcō

sect183 Stems in -ntThis formant is found in the present active participle in -aṇt with an invari-able stem in the case of thematic verbs jasaṇt- lsquocomingrsquo jaiẟiiaṇt- lsquoprayingrsquoAthematic verbs meanwhile exhibit ablaut surunuuaṇt-surunuuat- lsquolisten-ingrsquohəṇt-hat- lsquobeingrsquo Possessive adjectives in -uuaṇt--uuat- (IE -uent--unt-)and -maṇt--mat- (IE -ment--mnt-) and some adjectives in -aṇt are to beincluded here as well bərəzaṇt- lsquohighrsquo OAv drəguuaṇt- YAv druuaṇt- lsquowickedrsquofšumaṇt- lsquohaving cattlersquo

With regard to inflection note that the athematic nomsgm ends in -ō inYAv which must be explained from an ending -as lt IIr -at-s In thematicstems the ending -ant-s is reflected in YAv as -ą (-əwhen denasalized) and inOAv as -ąs While YAv -ą is the outcome of the phonetic development of IIr-ans (cf sectsect793 7173 19116) OAv -ąs reflects the analogical restitution ofthe stem -ant from the oblique cases Keep in mind that in these stems themasc and fem nomaccsg are considered direct cases (cf sect17) but the neutnomaccsg inflects as an oblique case cf cuuat lsquohow muchrsquo In -mant- anduant-stems analogy to the stems in -uuāh-uš has induced the substitution ofthe nomsg in -uant-s (eg cuuąs lsquohowmuchrsquo) by -uās and -mās (eg astuualsquobone (rarr material)rsquo xratuma lsquointelligentrsquo) Note similarly the vocsg druuō ltdrugh-uas lsquowickedrsquo

sect184 Stems in -an -man -uuan -inThe suffix -n- originally individualizing in function occurs directly affixed tothe verbal root (eg tašan- lsquoshaper creatorrsquo Skt taacutekṣan-) but also in the com-pound suffixes -man -uan -Han or -in The last two have possessive valueand almost always form adjectives Some examples are cašman- lsquosightrsquo (Sktcakṣ lsquoseersquo)nāman- lsquonamersquoasauuan- lsquotruthfulrsquo (fromasa- lsquoorder truthrsquo)mąθrān-lsquoknowing the mąθrasrsquo (mąθra-Han-) kainīn- lsquogirlrsquo (kani-Hn-) parənin- lsquowith

3 With the PIE suffix -h3ku- lsquolooking towardsrsquo the nasal was introduced in Indo-Iranian

feathersrsquo (from parəna- lsquofeatherrsquo) zruuan- lsquotimersquo (from PIE ǵrh2-uen- cf Grγέρων lsquoold manrsquo)

With the exception of the in-stems all of these stems have an ablautinginflection which can considerably alter the appearance of the word Thenomsg regularly has LG and loses the final nasal OAv uruuā YAv uruualsquospiritrsquo kaine (Skt kaniya) The other direct cases show an alternation betweenFG (accsg asmanəm lsquoskyrsquo nompl asauuanō) or LG (accsg tašānəm nomplmarətānō lsquomortalsrsquo) as the result of Brugmann (sect746) or of H

The accsgneut has ZG (nąma lsquonamersquo) In the gensg the endings -n-as(gt -nō) and -an-s (gt -əṇg -ą) OAv mąθrānō YAv tašnō OAv cašməṇg YAvdāmąn (larr dāmą) zrū (sect7173) The ablsg besides the forms that are identicalto the gen shows other innovative forms such as YAv cašmanat or barəsmənlsquosacrificial strawrsquo which exhibits the YAv substitution of original -an-s by -an-t gt -ənt gt -ən There are also ablaut variants in the nomaccpl furthermorea hypercharacterizing -i may be found after the ending Thus the followingendings occur -ąm lt -ām (after labial consonants) larr -ān (cf Skt kaacutermā)OAv anafšmąm dāmąm lsquocreaturesrsquo (cf sect1133) -āni (cf Skt kaacutermāṇī) OAvafšmānī YAv cinmāni lsquodesiresrsquo (cf the types such as OP taumani Lat nōminaOCS imena) -anī (originally dual cf Skt du kaacutermāṇī) OAv nāmənī lsquonamesrsquo

Note also that asauuan- has a lengthened presuffixal vowel in some cases(cf Skt rtavan- OP ạrtāvā lt rtauan-) especially in OAv gensg OAv asāunō(artā-un-as) versus YAv asaonō (arta-un-as made by analogy to the shortvowel of the nom) but vocsg YAv asāum (artā-un) As for stems in -in (cfSkt hastiacuten- lsquowith handsrsquo) the nomsg has -ī (from -īn) while the other caseforms show the regular stem in -in

sect185 r-stemsThis group is composed of kinship nouns in -(t)ar nomina agentis in -tar aswell as a few other isolated stems Examples pitar- lsquofatherrsquo mātar- lsquomotherrsquobrātar- lsquobrotherrsquo xvaŋhar- lsquosisterrsquo zaotar- lsquopriestrsquo (Skt hoacutetar- lsquopourerrsquo) nar-lsquomanrsquo star- m lsquostarrsquo ātar- neut lsquofirersquo (on root nouns in -r cf sect181)

The nomsg has LG and is asigmatic The final -r seems to have been lostalready in the IIr period xvaŋha Skt svaacutesā The nomsg ātarš constitutes anexception both because it is a sigmatic nominative and because it has anaccsg with ZG of the suffix YAv ātrəm In the animate nouns the direct casesshow the same alternation between FG and LG of the suffix that is seen in then-stems which can be attributed to the effects of Brugmann (sect746) egpitarəm versus dātārəm The two distinct forms of the gensg in -r-as and in-ar-š (lt -r-š gt Skt -ur) alongside the ablsg in -t nərət lsquofrom the manrsquo arealso found here On the accpl in -r-nš (nərąs strəš) cf sect77

sect186 rn-stems (Heteroclites)These stems make up a small number of neuter nouns that are usually calledlsquoheteroclitesrsquo because they alter the final segment of the stem throughout theirinflectional paradigm a stem in -r in the nomacc and a stem in -n in theoblique cases This class goes back to Indo-European cf Gr ὕδωρ ὕδατος (lt-ntos) lsquowaterrsquo Lat iecur iecinoris lsquoliverrsquo Nouns belonging to this class includehuuarə lsquosun eyersquo aiiarə lsquodayrsquo yārə lsquoyearrsquo yakarə lsquoliverrsquo (though of the latter twono n-stem forms are attested inAvestan) but also nouns derived using the stem-ueruen- such as θanuuarə lsquobowrsquo (Skt dhaacutenvan-) karšuuarə lsquosection of theworldrsquo (karš lsquocutrsquo)

Some noteworthy forms of the paradigm follow here The gensg in -an-sgives different outcomes in each varietyOAv xvəṇglt huuanh4 (cf sect1130) YAvhū lt huuanh (sect7173) aiiąn (vl of aiią) lt aianh (sect793) Intraparadigmaticanalogy (cf the nomsg IIr suHar) resulted in the YAv gensg hūrō Variousformations occur in the nomaccpl 1 with LG of the stem terminating in -respecially in OAv aiiārə saxvārə This formation is very archaic judging fromthe Anatolian evidence Hitt uttār lsquowordsrsquo 2 in -n aiiąn karšuuąn and 3 in-ani (lt PIE -enh2) OAv sāxvənī YAv baēuuani

sect187 h-stemsThis class includes the PIE neuter s-stems and adjectival compounds basedon s-stems eg auuah- lsquoaidrsquo manah- lsquospiritrsquo vacah- lsquowordrsquo zraiiah- lsquolake searsquohumanah- lsquobenevolent of good spiritrsquo anaocah- lsquounaccustomed torsquo This classalso includes comparative adjectives formed with the suffix -iah- (cf sect201)vahiiah- comparative of vohu- lsquogoodrsquo as well as some isolated nouns ušah- flsquodawnrsquo biiah- m lsquofearrsquo

The suffix has FG in in all case forms apart from the nomsg of animatesand the nomaccpl of the neuter which end in -āh eg nomsgmasc ušaOAv vaxiia YAv vaŋha lsquobetterrsquo (versus Skt vaacutesyān cf furthersect188) nomaccplneut raoca lsquolightsrsquo The nomsgneut ends in -ah gt -ə-ō OAv vacə OAvYAvvacō (Skt vaacutecas) OAv nəmə YAv nəmō (Skt naacutemas) etc On the development-ah gt -ə cf 794

An ending -āhi is attested in the nomaccpl neuter eg OAv varəcāhīcāThe animate accsg shows various ablaut grades -ah-am and -āh-am whichare once more explained by Brugmann (sect746) ušaŋhəm but vaŋhaŋhəm

4 This noun comes from PIE seh2-ul-sh2-uen- ie a heteroclite in -ln-

sect 19 middot vowel stems 53

sect188 Stems in -uuāh-uš -iš -ušTheperfect active participlewas formedwith the ablauting Indo-European suf-fix -uōs-uos-uš fromwhich both the nomsgm (IE -uōs) as well as the otherdirect cases (IE -uos-) come to have persistent LG in Avestan due to Brug-mann (sect746) The oblique cases have theZG -uš- Themotion feminine shows-uš-ī- sect193 Some examples are vīduuāh-vīduš- to vid lsquoknowrsquo or vauuanuuāh-vaonuš- to van lsquowin be superiorrsquo The nomsgm does not have the nasal thatis characteristic of the perfpartact of Skt OAv vīduua YAv vīẟuua (Gr εἰδώς)versus Skt vidvan (cf also sect187) Late forms of the nom of the sort YAv zazuualsquowhich has left behindrsquo could have arisen by analogy to the n-stems (sect184) Theaccsgm is YAv degvīẟuuaŋhəm lt -āsam in contrast to Skt vidvaṃsam

A small number of neuter nouns in -iš and -uš have an invariable stemthroughout the paradigm eg təuuiš- lsquoforcersquo hadiš- lsquoseatrsquo arəduš- lsquowoundrsquo

sect19 Vowel Stems

sect191 a-stemsThis inflectional type is usually referred to as the lsquothematic inflectionrsquo onaccount of the fact that the stem ends with the thematic vowel -a- lt PIE -eo-The thematic inflection is extremely common and includes a large number ofmasculine and neuter nouns as well as adjectival forms in those genders Somemasc nouns belonging to this class are Av ahura- lsquolordrsquo YAv daxma- lsquomorguersquoAv masiia- lsquomortalrsquo Av mąθra- lsquoformulationrsquo yasna- lsquosacrificersquo YAv vīra- lsquomanrsquoAv zasta- lsquohandrsquo YAv haoma- lsquohaomarsquo Some neuters are Av asa- lsquotruthrsquo (sgonly) Av uxẟa- lsquowordrsquo Av xšaθra- lsquodominion powerrsquo Avmiθra- lsquocontractrsquo OAvsiiaoθana- (YAv siiaoθna-) lsquoact deedrsquo Some adjectives are Av aka- lsquobadrsquo Avaməsa- lsquoimmortalrsquo Av vīspa- lsquoallrsquo hauruua- lsquowholersquo

The inflection of thematic nouns is significantly different from the inflectionof consonant stems and it is common to find endings of pronominal originRecall that the inflection of neuters differs only in the nomacc and is identi-cal to the masculine in all other case forms

NB Singular 1 The nomsg was OAv -ə (lt -ah lt -as cf sectsect794 7131) butin YAv this ending further developed into ō When followed by an encliticthe older form of the nomsg is preserved in both varieties kas-ci t gaiias-cāyas-ca yasnas-ca etcmdash2 The vocsgmn has an ending -a OAv ahurā YAvahura (Skt asura) neut OAv asāmdash3 The accsg has the ending -əm in YAvThe original form of the OAv ending is -əm which came to be replaced by-əm in many instances cf doublets such as OAv dāθəm and dāθəm-ca (to

table 7 The inflection of a-stems

nom ahurōahuraŋhōmasiia

voc ahura siiaoθanōi uxẟāasəm ahura

acc ahurəm saite masiiəṇg xšaθramasīm zastə haomą

gen ahurahiiā ahurahe vīraiia siiaoθ(a)nanąmabl asāt yasnōibiiōdat ahurāi zastōibiiā ahuraēibiia aməsaēibiiōinst ahura siiaoθnāišloc yesne zastaiiō vīspaēšū daxmaēšuua

the adj dāθa- lsquosuitablersquo) OAv parštəm YAv parštəm (ppp to fras lsquoaskrsquo) On theother hand the vowel ə of the ending could undergo complete assimilation andcontractionwhen in contact with a preceding i (sect7144) or u (sect7161) ie -iiəmgt -īm OAv paouruuīm (YAv paoirīm cf sect82) Av masīm Av yesnīm (but cfaniiəm accsgm of aniia-) or in turn -uuəm gt -um YAv haurūm YAv θrišumYAv drūm As part of this particular development account must be takenof the endings -aiam and -auam themselves (cf sectsect1012 1033 resp) gaēm(accsg of gaiia- lsquolifersquo Skt gaacuteyam) YAv graom (accsg of grauua- lsquocanersquo) simi-larly of the endings -āiam and -āuam (cf sectsect1052 1062 resp) OAv humāīm(accsg of humāiia-) YAv nasāum (accsg of nasu- lsquocadaverrsquo lt nasāuəm)mdash4 The nomaccneut is formally identical to the accsgmasc and thus isunique within the paradigm since it bears a formal mark of its gendermdash5The gensg derives from a PIE ending -osio gt IIr -asia gt Ir -ahia which hasits regular outcome in OAv as -ahiiā and in YAv as -ahe (sect7103) On the OAvchange experienced by the gen ending before an enclitic cf sect1128 asahiiāspəṇtahiiā versus asaxiiā-cā spəntaxiiā-cāmdash6 The ablsg is distinct from thegensg only in the thematic inflection while in all other inflectional typesboth cases exhibit the same form OAv has preserved this distinction withan ablsg ending -āt which is identical to Skt -āt Av dūrāt lsquofrom afarrsquo Sktdūrat YAv also possesses the abl ending -āt but note that this ending hasbeen analogically extended to other inflectional classes in YAv cf sectsect18161925 1935 etc Preceding the enclitic degca the ablsg ending appears as -āat-cain the majority of cases The fact that this development does not occur pre-ceding the enclitic degci t (asātcīt ahmātcit aētahmātcit) suggests that -āat-caarose from an effort to distinguish it in pronunciation from the ending -ā-cāIn many cases a shortening is observable in YAv of -āt preceding the preposi-

tion haca the two would form a single word and shortening of the antepenul-timate syllable would result (cf sect731) nmānat haca vəhrkat haca spəṇtat hacamdash7 The datsg has the ending -āi (lt -ōi lt -o+ei) and exhibits slightdialectal variation For its part the OAv ending can have an enlargement inā (which is not the postposition that commonly appears in the loc cf sect168and below 9 and 21) ahurāiā (from ahurāiiā later separated during trans-mission) yātāiiā (to yāta- lsquoprayerrsquo cf further ch 2 fn 5) Similarly in Sanskritthe ending -āya occurs it must be connected with the OAv forms MeanwhileYAv shows only the ending -āimdash8 The instsg has the appearance of a zeroending on account of the fact that the PIE ending -h1 becomes IIr -H andin Avestan the length of word-final vowels is subject to phonological condi-tions depending upon the variety (sect72)mdash9 The locsg had in the thematicinflection an ending -i which fused with the thematic vowel PIE -oi gt IIr -ai cf Gr οἴκοι versus nompl οἶκοι This ending has various outcomes in AvOAv shows -ōi and -ē xšaθrōi siiaoθanōi xvaθrē The ending properly belong-ing to YAv is -e which was introduced and adopted in OAv (sect1022) siiaoθaneBefore enclitics the outcome aē is found (sect1011) aspaēca vīspaēca The loccan take the postposition ā OAv xšaθrōiā xvāθrōiiā YAv zastaiia nmānaiia-ca

Dual 10 The nomaccvocm has an ending -a which comes from Ir -ā ltPIE -o-h1 OAv spadā YAv zasta cf Skt haacutestā deva (but in Skt an ending -aualso exists) Gr λύκωmdash11 Thenomaccvocneut has an endingOAv -ōi YAv-e which comes from IIr -ai lt -o-ih1 OAv siiaoθanōi YAv saite hazaŋre (Sktśateacute sahaacutesre) (f) uiie (Skt femneut ubheacute sect1023)mdash12 The gendu has anending -aiia lt -ai-ās similar to Skt -ay-oḥ lt -ai-auš but in both the genduand the locdu Avestan very likely has archaic endingswhichhavebeen leveledinto a single form in Skt OAv ąsaiia (to ąsa- lsquopartrsquo Skt aacutemsayoḥ) rąnaiia (torāna- lsquorsquo) YAv dōiθraiia vīraiia meanwhilemdash13 the locdu has an ending -aiiōlt -ai-au OAv zastaiiō ubōiiō (Skt haacutestayoḥ ubhaacuteyoḥ) YAv +uuaiiōmdash14 Theabldatinstdu comes out of an ending -aibiā gt OAv -ōibiiā YAv -aēibiiazastōibiiā (Skt haacutestābhyām) ubōibiiā (Skt ubhabhyām) rānōibiiā aspaēibiiagaošaēibiia (and gaošaēβe)maēɣaēibiia We also find the ending -ābiia in YAvpāšnābiia dōiθrābiia

Plural 15 The nomvocpl of the thematic inflection in Avestan cannotas in other IE languages be derived from an ending -ōs lt -o+es but rathermust be related to forms of the type Lat locus (pl loca) that is to say reflectan old collective ending -ā lt -eh2 Av masiia The IIr ending -ās lt PIE-o+es would have given -a in Av (cf sect752) but its presence in the textscannot be ascertained Nevertheless a recharacterized ending -aŋhō lt -āsas(gt OP -āha) similar to Skt -āsas can be found in various instances OAv

zauuīštiiaŋhō vīspaŋhō (voc) masiiaŋhō Av ahuraŋhōmdash16 The accplshows a number of endings due to some specific sound changes TheOAv end-ing is -əṇg lt -ans lt PIE -o-ns while that of YAv is -ə but -ą after a nasal (cfsect793) though both forms of the ending are occasionally extended to otherenvironments Before enclitics an ending -ąsdeg is found OAv mąθrąs-ca Avmasiiąs-ca yasnąs-ca YAv haomąs-ca In YAv -əs also occurs before encli-tics aməsəs-ca ciθrəs-ca vīspəs-ca Curious is the YAv form ańiias-cit with-asdeg for -ąsdeg In addition it is common in YAv to find forms of the nomplused in place of the forms of the accplmdash17 The nomaccvocneutpl hasan ending -a lt PIE -eh2 OAv siiaoθanā YAv siiaoθna Av yesniiā-cā Formswith an ending -a explicable as analogically borrowed from neuters in -ahalso existmdash18 The genpl has the ending -anąm deriving from -ānām (withanalogical shortening of the first ā) The expected ending is found in YAvmasiiānąm probably preserved through an effect of the -i- Finally in con-trast to the reconstructable ending -ām IIr shows an innovation in the formof a nasal inserted into the ending which is originally the form of the genplin n-stems (sect19118) yasna-n-ąmmdash19 The abldatpl has as an ending OAv-ōibiiō YAv -aēibiiō OAv vīspōibiiō uxẟōibiiō (Skt uktheacutebhyas)miθrōibiiō YAvaməsaēibiiō spəṇtaēibiiō but forms with the ending -aēibiiō are also to be seenin OAv dāθaēibiiōmarətaēibiiō Note that an -i- of pronominal origin (alreadyin IIr) is inserted between the thematic vowel and the ending Before en-clitics the ending appears as -aēibiiasdeg which exactly reflects the IIr endingbhias gt Skt -bhyas dātōibiias-cā vīspaēibiias-ca (Skt viacuteśvebhyas)mdash20 Theinstpl of the thematic inflection diverges from the rest of the case forms inthat it shows an ending -āiš deriving from PIE -ōis OAv zastāiš (Skt haacutes-taiḥ) mąθrāiš Av masiiāiš-camdash21 The locpl shows an ending -aēšu lt -aišu nmānaēšu masiiaēšū (Skt maacutertyeṣu) vīspaēšū Note the frequent addi-tion of the postposition ā after the loc (sect168) daxmaēšuua degstānaēšuua lsquosta-blersquo

sect192 ā-stemsThe ā-stems make up a class of numerous feminine nouns whose origin goessolidly back to the parent language In effect the -ā of the stem goes backto PIE -ā lt -eh2 a reconstruction that allows for the ā-stems to be histor-ically connected to the ablauting ī-stems (lt -ih2 devi -type) whose formalsimilarity ismore than evident (cf sect193) The adjectives of the thematic inflec-tion model their feminine forms after this inflection class Some words thatbelong to this class are Av uruuarā- lsquoplantrsquo gaēθā- lsquoliving beingrsquo daēnā- lsquoreli-gionrsquo sāsnā- lsquoteachingrsquo YAv grīuuā- lsquoneckrsquo vąθβā- lsquoherd flockrsquo zaoθrā- lsquoliba-tionrsquo

table 8 The inflection of ā-stems

Singular Dual Pluralnom daēna

ubēvoc daēne gaēθa

uruuaireacc daēnąmgen daēnaiia uruuaraiia gaēθanąmabl daēnaiiāt

gaēθābiiō gaēθāuuiiōdat daēnaiiāi vąθβābiiainst daēna daēnaiia gaēθābīšloc grīuuaiia (= gendu) gaēθāhū gaēθāhuua

NB Singular 1 The nomsg has a zero ending and thus terminates in -adepending on the dialect (cf sect72) Comparisonwith other languages (Skt OPGr) yields the reconstruction -ā lt -eh2mdash2 The accsg has an ending -ąm lt-ām cf sect762mdash3 The vocsg of this inflectional class reflects an IIr ending-ai (Skt -e) uruuaire (cf Skt aśve) However in contrast to this diphthongalending in IIr other languages show forms in -ă Gr νύμφα δίκα Umbr tursa(nom -o) which should not be compared to certain Av forms in -a in whichthe nom performs the functions of the voc Originally the voc was probablya case with a zero ending in some languages (cf above) it may be seen thatin this case form the laryngeal disappeared leaving behind coloration as itsonly trace cf further stems in -ī (sect1933)mdash4 The gensg has an ending -aiialt -āiās similar to the ending of other Iranian languages that also share the-ă- versus other endings such as those of OP in -āyā and those of Skt in-āyās We suppose that the -ă- has been extended from the instsg in -aiiā (cfbelow and also sect732) Other languages present an ending that comes fromPIE -eh2-es cf Dor Gr τιμᾶς etc and traces in Lat familiās uiās Umbr tutaslsquocityrsquomdash5 The ablsg is identical to the gensg but YAv has adopted just as inother inflectional classes an ending -aii-āt formed after the thematic inflection(sect1916) uruuaraiiāt zaoθraiiātmdash6 The datsg has an ending -aiiāi lt -āiāi (on the -ă- cf the gensg) comparable to -āyai of Skt sūryayai etc Examplesfrom other languages such as Gr χώραι Lat uiae or Oscan deiacutevaiacute allow for thereconstruction of an ending -āi lt -eh2-eimdash7 The instsg has two forms onedaēnaiia agrees with the corresponding Skt forms in -ayā (and which as hasbeen mentioned serves as a model for some oblique cases of the paradigm)and the other daēna formed with just the pure stem plus the ending Skt alsopossesses both endings jihva and jihvaacuteyā the forms in -ayā aremore common

Dual 8 The nomaccvocdu has an ending -e equivalent to Skt -eubheacute lsquobothrsquo śiacutepre lsquocheeksrsquo It is usually reconstructed as PIE -eh2-ih1mdash9 The

genlocdu shows an ending equivalent to Skt -aacuteyoḥmdash10 The abldatinstdu has an ending that is only slightly different from that which Skt presents in-ābhyām (sect153)

Plural 11 The nomaccvocpl exhibits an ending -a from IIr -ās (lt PIE-eh2-es) gt Skt -ās (priyas but also priyasas) Before enclitics this endingappears as -asdeg (cf ch 2 fn 2)uruuarasca Thenom and the accwere identicalin Indo-Iranian Comparison reveals some languages with an equivalent end-ing Skt prtanās Goth gibos (Germanic -ōz) and (Balto-Slavic) Lith mergagraveswhile others show an ending deriving from -āns lt -eh2-ns Cret Gr σκι-ανς (Attic-Ionic σκιας lt -ans) Lat uiās Umbr vitlaf (Lat uitulās) OCS ženyOne thinks of different dialectal (or already IE) treatments of -eh2-ns inone group the nasal was lost in this sequence while in the other group itwas maintained (or restored)5mdash12 The genpl shows an ending in -anąmwith short -ă- in contrast to the other Indo-Iranian languages which have anending in -ānām (cf sectsect731 and esp 19118) In the YAv form ɣənąnąm(ca)the monosyllabic stem ɣnā- may have been restoredmdash13 The abldatplshows an ending equivalent to Skt -ābhyas Before enclitics the Av endingappears as -ābiiasdeg uruuarābiiasca zaoθrābiiasca The YAv forms gaēθāuuiiōand vōiɣnāuiiō exhibit the regular lenition explained under sect1114mdash14 Theinstpl is formed in the usual fashion and is equivalent to the Skt ending -ābhiḥmdash15 The locpl is formed in the usual fashion with the ending -hu (Skt-su) Note the frequent addition of the postposition ā after the loc ending(sect168) which took place sufficiently late so as not to show the development-hu- gt -ŋvh- between vowels (sect1131) gaēθāhuua (gaēθāhū) gāθāhuua

sect193 ī-stemsThe ī-stems make up a class of relatively numerous and very productive fem-inine nouns which were already present in the parent language The stemexhibits an ablaut -ī--iiā- in Avestan which goes back to PIE -ī- lt -ih2- -iā- lt -ieh2- ī-stems are basically used to form motion feminines to athe-matic forms ie to provide the corresponding feminine form to athematicnouns and adjectives (cf sect20) eg YAv daēuuī- lsquo(evil) goddessrsquodāθrī- lsquo(female)giverrsquo nāirī- lsquowomanrsquo (from nar-) sūnī- lsquobitchrsquo (from span-) Cf further adjecti-val forms especially stems in -u -a -uaṇt -maṇt and participles in -aṇt and-uš eg Av vaŋvhī- to vohu- lsquogoodrsquo asaonī- to asauuan- lsquotruthfulrsquo bauuaiṇtī- tobauuaṇt- lsquobecomingrsquo ciciθušī- to ciciθβah- lsquohaving perceivedrsquo

5 From an IE sequence -eh2ns a realization -eh2ns is normally to be expected but in thissequence the same development as in forms such as Gr Ζῆν βοῦν (βῶν) Skt dyam gam Latdiem Umbr bum may have occurred where -eum rarr -ēm (Lex Stang) ie -eh2ns rarr -āns

table 9 The inflection of ī-stems

Singular Dual Pluralnom asaoni voc asaoni azī asaonīšacc asaonīmgen asaoniia asaoninąmabl (YAv barəθriiāt)

asaonibiiōdat asaoniiāiinst vaŋviialoc xšaθrišu barəθrišuua

NB Not all case forms are attested for which reason there are gaps in thechart above In the following notes correspondenceswith Skt will be indicatedsystematically

Singular 1 Thenomsg has a zero ending and so terminates in -i dependingupon thedialect (sect72) Comparisonwith other languages (Skt -ī Gr -ια) allowsfor the reconstruction of an ending -ī lt PIE -ih2 cf Skt devi mdash2 The accsghas an ending -īm cf Sktdevi m whichmust goback to -īmlt -ih2-m6mdash3 Thevocsg terminates in -i from which one cannot tell whether it is the originalvoc form or rather nom pro voc Skt shows an ending -i deacutevi ltlt PIE -ih2on the loss of the laryngeal cf sect1923mdash4 The gensg has an ending -iia lt-iās lt PIE -ieh2-s cf Skt devyasmdash5 The ablsg has in YAv an ending -iiātremodeled by analogy after the thematic declension (sect1916) In OAv (and inthe rest of the IE languages) it is identical to the genitive (cf above)mdash6 Thedatsg has an ending -iiāi which can be taken back to -iāī lt PIE -ieh2-ei cfSkt devyaacuteimdash7 The instsg has an ending -iia cf Skt devya (lt PIE -ieh2-h1with ZG)mdash8 The locsg is devyam in Skt

Dual 9 The nomaccvocdu has an ending in -i cf Skt devi The du isnot well attested in Avestan Skt has deacutevī for the vocdu devi bhyām for thedatabldu and devyoacutes for the genlocdu

Plural 10 The nomvocpl shows an ending -īš cf Skt devi ḥ Its recon-struction is disputed because the expected ending parallel to the endingreconstructed for the -ā-declension would have been PIE -ieh2-es (or -ih2-es)whereas -īš can only go back to IIr -iHs The case ending here has probablybeen subject to influence from the corresponding endingof the -ā-inflectionmdash

6 In some other languages however there are also indications of a FG -ieh2m cf Gothmaujatomawi

11 The genpl shows an ending -inąm with -ĭ- versus Skt devi nām on thevowel shortening see the ending -anąm of the ā-stemswith -ă- (on this changecf sect19212) The form vaŋvhīnąm owes its -ī- to the preceding labial glide ŋvh(sect7151) The same takes place in themdash12 abldatpl form vaŋvhībiiō whichnormally has an ending -ibiiō cf Skt devi bhyasmdash13 The instpl is devi bhiḥin Skt 14 The locpl has an ending -išu which with the usual postposition ābecomes -išuua (sect168) cf Skt devi ṣu

sect194 ū-stemsJust as with the ī-stems it is presumed that ū-stems served to make derivedfeminines using the suffix -h2 to u-stems In Avestan only three witnesses tothis formation are found These forms are distinguished from u-stems throughtheir inflection insofar as they are clearly hysterodynamic forms Each one ofthese stems has corresponding forms preserved in Sanskrit tanū- lsquobodyrsquo (Skttanu-) aɣrū- lsquounmarried virginrsquo (Skt agru- lt PIE n-gurh2-uacuteh2- lsquonot-pregnantrsquo)and hizū- (along with hizuuā-) lsquotonguersquo (Skt juhu- and jihva-) It is likely thatthese stems were already seen as simple stems in -u with hysterodynamicinflection in YAv times

Singular 1 The nomsg tanuš has a short vowel -u- in contrast to Skttanuḥ possibly due to the influence of u-stemsmdash2 The accsg YAv tanūmcan go back to tanuuam from tanuHm which seems to be confirmed in OAvtanuuəm cf Skt tanuvagravemmdash3 The gensg tanuuō hizuuō has an ending -uH-as proper to the hysterodynamic typemdash4 The ablsg YAv tanuuat has an end-ing remade by analogy after the thematic inflection (sect1916)mdash5 The datsgtanuiiē shows the development of the sequence -uuai into -uiiē (sect1023)mdash6The instsg tanuua is the equivalent of Skt tanuva but Av hizuua could equallycontinue an original form in -uH-aH or an instsg hizuā from an ā-stemmdash7The locsg tanuui represents tan-uH-i

Plural 8 The nomaccpl aɣruuō goes back to an IIr ending -uH-as OAvdegtanuuō shows a trisyllabic scansion ta-nu-uahmdash9 The genpl has takenthe ending -unąm found for the expected -uH-nām from the u-stems cfSkt tanunāmmdash10 The abldatpl similarly has an ending with -u tanu-biiō cf Skt tanubhyasmdash11 The instpl is attested only in OAv hizubīš (Sktjuhubhiḥ) which implies at least for OAv that this whole class is remod-eled after u-stemsmdashThis conclusion finds further confirmation in the OAv 12locpl +tanušū-cā YAv tanušu

sect195 i- and u-stemsTheparadigmsof i- andu-stems exhibit such similarity that the two inflectionaltypes may be presented conjointly The endings are the same as the endings

table 10 The inflection of i- and u-stems

Singular Dual Pluralnom asiš xratuš

asaiiō xratauuōvoc degpaite mańiiō paiti mańiiū ərəzuacc asīm xratūm neut aši vaŋvhi gairīš xratūšnomaccneut būirideg vohu θrī vohūgen asōiš xratəuš asiuua mańiuua gairinąm vohunąmabl garōit xrataot

gairibiiō daŋhubiiōdat axtōiiōi vaŋhauue ašibiia ahubiiainst asī xratūloc gara vaŋhāu aŋhuuō vaŋhušu

of the consonant stems These two inflectional types include a considerablenumber of feminine and masculine nouns as well as adjectives

Some words belonging to the i-stems are Av f asi- lsquorewardrsquo m axti- lsquopainrsquoadj būiri- lsquoabundantrsquo YAv m gairi- lsquomountainrsquo m paiti- lsquolordrsquo Some wordsbelonging to the u-stems are Av m aŋhu- lsquolifersquo m pərətu- lsquobridgersquo mf gauu-lsquobull cowrsquo adj aidiiu- lsquoharmlessrsquo m xratu- lsquointelligencersquo m gātu- lsquoroad wayrsquo fdaxiiu- (YAv daŋhu-) lsquocountryrsquo mmańiiu- lsquospiritrsquo adj vohu- lsquogoodrsquo In additionsome very interesting neuters are present here āiiu- lsquolifersquo dāuru- lsquowoodrsquo zānu-lsquokneersquo As for i-stems

Singular 1 The nomsg shows ZG of the suffix and of the ending in theregular type while for haxa lsquocompanionrsquo and kauua lsquoKavirsquo a hysterodynamicnomsg with LG of the suffix and a zero endingmust be reconstructed sakhāi and kauāi Comparison with the nomsg saacutekhā of Skt shows that the lossof the final -i already took place in IIrmdash2 The accsg has -i-m (whichalways becomes -īm) except in hysterodynamic stems where the PIE ending-oi-m became IIr -āiam (by Brugmann sect746) which is attested in OAvhušhaxāim (Skt saacutekhāyam) YAv kauuaēm can be the result of a shortening ofkauāiam ie -āiam gt -aiam On the acc raēm Skt rayiacutem cf 1013mdash3 Thenomaccneut has a zero ending būiri-cā (Skt bhuri)mdash4 Thegensg of IIr PDtype -ai-š has sometimes been provided in YAv with an analogical i on thestem janiiōiš to jani-mdash5 The ablsg (cf sect1916) in -ōit is formed off the IIrending -aiš the -š of which has been substituted by the -t of the ablmdash6 Thedatsg exhbits ablaut variants following two stem types One type comes from-ai-ai and is found as -ōiiōi in OAv axtōiiōi (to axtəiəi) and in YAv as -əe withcontraction of the final diphthong and loss of the intervocalic -i- frauuasəe lsquoforFravaširsquo The original sequence ismore clearly reflected before an enclitic nipā-taiiaēca lsquoto protectrsquo The other type of datsg comes from -i-ai paiθe (to pati-)

or hase (to haxai-) with absorption of the i by the preceding fricativemdash7 Theinstsg in general comes out of -i-H the HD ending -i-aH is found only inhasa from hax-i-āmdash8 The locsg has a zero ending LG of the suffix its -ācorresponds to the Skt forms in -ā and again attests to the loss of i in the PIEsequence -ēi-ōi

Dual 9 The nomaccvocdu in -i (aēθrapaiti) goes back to IIr -ī thoughhaxaiia showsFG in the suffixwhich couldbebasedonaLG cf Skt saacutekhāyāmdash10 The nomaccvocneutdu likewise shows -ī uši lsquotwo earsrsquo aši lsquotwoeyesrsquomdash11 The gendu shows the ending -ās in OAv haxtiiamdash12 Theabldatinstdu shows the usual bhiā ušibiia and ašibiia

Plural 13 The nomvocpl in -aiiō has FG of the suffix and the properending for the case inherited from PIEmdash14 The accpl coming from PIE-in-s preserves a trace of nasalization of the i in the ending -īšmdash15 Thenomaccvocneutpl has an ending -i and comes from PIE -i-h2mdash16 Thegenpl has taken -nąm as its ending from the n-stems just as was done in Sktbut without lengthening the stem vowel (or rather shortening it followingsect19118) YAv gairinąm lsquofrom themountainsrsquo versus Skt -īnām However thereare some forms that reflect the expected PIE ending -i-om Av kaoiiąm fromkau-i-ām hasąm from saxiām (cf Lat marium Gr πολίων) In Av the longvowel proper to the a-stems has been introducedmdash17 The abldatpl ends inthe familiar -biiō

As for the u-stems Avestan has regularized the paradigms in favor of theproterodynamic type (cf sect17) though some traces of the old distribution ofHD and PD stems which will be indicated immediately below still remain Onthe neuters cf sect19539ff

Singular 18 The nomsg has the ending -s xratuš pərətuš cf Skt kraacutetuḥThe nomsg degbāzāuš (in compounds) shows a nom with lengthened grade(HD) lt PIE ēu-š in contrast to the simplex bāzuš The nomsg of gauu- isgāuš (Skt gaacuteuḥ)mdash19 The vocsg has an ending -uuō lt IIr -au ərəzuuōlsquostraightrsquo but degmańiiō preserves in all probability the intermediate stage -ō invirtue of the preceding ii (sect1034)mdash20 The accsg lengthens the u beforethe -m ahūm daxiiūm (cf Skt daacutesyum) Forms with FG and LG of the suffixalso exist daŋhaom to dasiauam nasāum lt nasāuam In YAv texts daxiiūmand daŋhaom are used without any apparent semantic distinctionmdash21 Thenomaccneut has a zero ending vohu (OAv vohu-cā) cf Skt vaacutesumdash22 Thegensg in IIr -au-š (sect104) takes the form -əuš in OAv daxiiəuš meanwhilein YAv it takes the form -aoš rašnaoš In some cases it appears that YAvforms have been introduced into OAv ərəzaoš paraoš mərəθiiaoš Oppositethese PD endings some HD forms in -uuō (lt -u-as) are found YAv ərəzuuō

lsquofingerrsquo xraθβō pasuuō raθβō (sect11144) Forms ending in -əuš found in YAvmust be considered Gathicisms aŋhəuš HD stems have gradually taken onPD inflection cf Skt kraacutetoḥ and kraacutetvas In Skt the PD type has also beenextendedmdash23 The ablsg differs from the gensg only in YAv (cf sect1916)YAv xrataot da(i)ŋhaotmdash24 The datsg has an ending -auue (-au-ai) YAvda(i)ŋhauue remnants of HD forms meanwhile show an ending -uue (-u-ai)YAv xraθβe pərəθβe Some sound changes have partially disfigured this ending(sect1114) OAv ahuiiē (modernization of the YAv) and YAv aŋvhe lt ahuai cfSkt vaacutesave and kraacutetvemdash25 The instsg has an ending -u lt PIE -uh1 ahūxratū vohū (vohu-cā) TheHD forms have an ending -uua (sect11144) lt IIr -uaHxraθβā cf Skt kraacutetvā maacutedhvā (and maacutedhunā)mdash26 The locsg has a zeroending and shows ablaut in the stem vowel (LG and FG) -āu and -ō -uuō(both from IIr -au sect 1034) Av vaŋhāu xrata (read xratāu cf sect753) YAvdaiŋhō (and daiŋhuuō) gātuuō cf Skt vaacutesau kraacutetau In addition forms withthe postposition ā (sect168) are found YAv daiŋhauua aŋhauua (lt -au-a)

Dual 27 The nomaccvocdu of animates has an ending -u lt IIr -uHYAv daiŋhu cf Skt maacutedhū bāhu In YAv the isolated HD ending -auua isfound bāzauua (Skt bāhaacutevā) +zanauuamdash28 The nomaccvocneutduterminates in -uui vaŋvhi cf Skt urvi ( janunī) An ending -u as in themasc isnot uncommon pouru-ca vohu-camdash29 The gendu comes from -uuāh OAvahuua YAv pasuuamdash30 The abldatinstdu comes from -ubiā ahubiiāThe YAv form bāzuβe exhibits fricativization of the -b- and the development offinal -iā to -e (sect7103)mdash31 The locdu is attested in OAv aŋhuuō (ahu- lsquolifersquo)lt ahu-au

Plural 32 The nomvocpl continues PIE -eu-es in the ending -auuō-auuas-ca while the YAv forms daŋhāuuō (OP dahạyāva) and nasāuuō seem toreflect ou-esmdash33 Theaccpl in -ūšlt -un-s reflects nasalization on the vowelAv vaŋhūš nasūš The corresponding HD in -un-s appears in YAv pasuuō(Skt paśvaacuteḥ) and in pərəθβō lsquocrossing gate bridgersquo (from prtuacute-) versus theaccpl of the PD type inOAv xratūš pərətūš Some forms seem to have adoptedthe form of the nompl pəsauuō lsquobridgesrsquo (from prtu-) daŋhāuuōmdash34 Thenomaccvocneutpl seen in OAv vohū comes from IIr uasu-Hmdash35 Thegenpl as in daxiiunąm vohunąm could have retained the -u- in contrast tothe ending -ūnām of Skt and OP The HD form -u-ām is attested in YAv pasu-uąm vaŋhuuąmmdash36 The abldatpl has restored the -b- (eg daŋhubiiō)with the exception of hinūiβiiōmdashIn contrast the 37 instpl in u-bhiš showssystematic lenition of the -b- (auuaŋhūīš lt a-vaŋhu-βīš yātuš lt yātuβīš bothin Y 124) or employs the form of the datablpl (bāzubiiō) A YAv form in -ubīš is unknownmdash38 The locpl has -u-šu which with the postposition ālsquoinrsquo gives YAv pasušhuua lt pasušuā lsquoamong the sheeprsquo

A few neuter nouns whose inflection retains interesting remnants of ablautmust be mentioned as well āiiu- lsquolifersquo dāuru- lsquowoodrsquo zānu- lsquokneersquo 39 Thenomsg āiiu dāuru degzānu shows LG by Brugmann (cf sect746 cf Skt darujanu Gr δόρυ γόνυ) YAv žnūm is a secondary form but it illustrates the ZGof the stem that is also used in compoundsmdash40 The gensg is seen in OAvyaoš YAv draoš (Skt droacuteḥ lt dreu-s versus Hom Gr δουρός lt deru-os)mdash41The datsg is OAv yauuōi yauuēmdash42 The instsg is yauuāmdash43 The ablplis YAv žnubiias-cit (cf žn- in sect11254)

sect20 The Adjective

Just as in Indo-European adjectival inflection is not in any way distinct fromnominal inflection in Avestan The Indo-European situation was preserved inIndo-Iranian down into Avestan with the exception of some innovations incertain adjectives that have been pronominalized (sect202) The function of theadjective is expressed through its position and agreement in the sentence aswell as by the semantics of its formative suffix

Regarding gender itmay be noted that the neuter differs from themasculineonly in the nom and acc cases The athematic classes usually form the femi-nine bywayof themotion suffix -īltPIE -ih2 while the thematic adjectives areserved by -ā pərəθu- m pərəθβī- lsquobroadrsquo versus paθana- neut paθanā- f lsquodis-tant vastrsquo Thematic adjectives with themotion suffix -ī are occasionally foundIn those cases an individualizing value (with substantivization) is discernableYAvapuθra-mapuθrā- lsquowithout sonsrsquo versushupuθrī- lsquoshewhohas good sonsrsquo

sect201 Degrees of Comparison (Gradation)Degrees of comparison in the adjective were expressed in the parent languagethrough special suffixes In the same fashion Avestan forms comparatives andsuperlativeswith inherited suffixes Two types of suffixes used to express degreeof comparison on adjectives are found

1 The more archaic type used for adjectival comparison stricto sensu isformed using a pair of suffixes coming from IIr -ias- for the comparativeand IIr -išta- for the superlative These are primary suffixes both are addeddirectly to the root with FG ie the stem is stripped of its suffix the compara-tive of vah-u- lsquogoodrsquo is OAv vah-iiah- (cf Gr ἡδύς ἡδ-ίων ἥδ-ιστος) This kind ofadjectival comparison ceased to be productive in the Avestan period

Examples uɣra- lsquostrongrsquo gives aojiiah- aojišta- kasu- lsquosmallrsquo gives kasiiah-kasišta- mazaṇt- lsquolargersquo gives maziiah- mazišta- vaŋhu- lsquogoodrsquo gives OAvvahiiah- (YAv vaŋhah-) vahišta- srīra- lsquobeautifulrsquo gives sraiiah- sraēšta-

sect 20 middot the adjective 65

2 The second type is formed using a pair of secondary suffixes coming fromIIr -tara- and -tama- (cf Gr πρέσβυς πρεσβύ-τερος πρεσβύ-τατος) the origin ofwhich seems to lie in formationshavingoppositional or contrastive function Ineffect the PIE suffix -tero- served to express the notion of a binary oppositionfirst with adverbs and pronouns cf Gr πρότερον lsquobeforersquo Skt uacutettara- lsquoaboversquoSkt kataraacute- and Gr πότερος lsquowhich (of two)rsquo Later the use of this suffix wasextended toothernominal classes aswell In the same fashion the suffix -tamawas also first used with adverbs cf Skt aacutentama- lsquothat which is nearestrsquo Latintimus Skt katamaacute- lsquowhich (of several)rsquo

This second type of of adjectival comparison is the only one that has con-tinued to be productive beyond Proto-Avestan The suffixes are appended tothe stem (ie they are secondary) and are even found attached to compoundsašaojastara- lsquostrongerrsquo from ašaojah- lsquowithmuch forcersquo vərəθrająstəma- lsquomostvictoriousrsquo (from vərəθra-jan- lsquodestroying the obstaclersquo)

sect202 Pronominalized AdjectivesThe semantic proximity of some adjectives to the pronouns induced theseadjectives to partially adopt some endings from the pronouns This phenome-non is not unknown in other Indo-European languages cf Lat gensg ullīusdatsg ullī This formal reshaping must have taken place already in part dur-ing the Indo-Iranian period judging from various forms of the mn plural ofa-stems (cf sect191) such as IIr -aibhias and -aišu with correspondents in San-skrit Avestan andOld Persian Beyond these forms this phenomenon is foundto be much less extensive in Avestan than in Sanskrit

The forms that we find are as follows datsgmn YAv ańiiahmāi lsquofor theotherrsquo (Skt anyaacutesmai) vīspəmāi lsquofor allrsquo and YAv +vīspəmāi (sectsect525 792 Sktviacuteśvasmai the nominal form vīspāi is also found) thenomplm YAv ańiie (Sktanyeacute) vīspe (Skt viacuteśve) versus OAv vīspaŋhō the genpl YAv ańiiaēšąm (Sktanyeacuteṣām) YAv vīspaēšąm (Skt viacuteśveṣām) versus Av vīspanąm Some pronom-inalized forms of the numeral aēuua- lsquoonersquo are likewise evident locsgm aē-uuahmi (see Skt eacutekasmin) gensgf aēuuaŋha (see Skt eacutekasyās)

table 11 Numerals

Cardinals Ordinals Cardinals Ordinals

aēuua- lsquo1rsquo fratəma- paoiriia- duuadasa lsquo12rsquo duuadasa-duua- lsquo2rsquo daibitiia- bitiia- vīsaiti- lsquo20rsquo vīsąstəma-θri- tišr- lsquo3rsquo θritiia- θrisąsas θrisat- lsquo30rsquocaθβar- cataŋr- lsquo4rsquo tūiriia- caθβarəsat- lsquo40rsquopaṇca lsquo5rsquo puxẟa- paṇcāsat- lsquo50rsquoxšuuaš lsquo6rsquo xštuua- xšuuašti- lsquo60rsquohapta lsquo7rsquo haptaθa- haptāiti- lsquo70rsquoašta lsquo8rsquo aštəma- aštāiti- lsquo80rsquonauua lsquo9rsquo naoma- nauuaiti- lsquo90rsquodasa lsquo10rsquo dasəma- sata- lsquo100rsquo satōtəma-

sect21 Numerals

sect211 Cardinal NumbersThe numbers lsquo1rsquo through lsquo4rsquo have a full nominal inflection in case and genderbut inflection for number depends on the numeral involved lsquo1rsquo inflects in thesingular lsquo2rsquo in the dual while lsquo3rsquo and lsquo4rsquo inflect in the plural The numbers lsquo5rsquo tolsquo19rsquo are indeclinable and all following numbers are inflected depending upontheir respective stems

lsquo1rsquo is aēuua- (OP aiva- Gr οἶϝος lsquoalonersquo) and differs in suffix from Skt eacuteka-(from aika- Mittani aikadeg) though it is found in the Skt adv evaacute(m) lsquoindeedrsquolt PIE oi-uo lsquojust thatrsquo on which the Av form rests The numeral aēuua- isdeclined as an a-stem although some pronominal forms occur (sect202) Oneform that calls for comment is the accsg ōiiūm which is the regular reflex ofIIr aiuam by way of əiuəm gt əiuum gt əium In some texts the simplifiedvariants ōim and ōīm can be found

lsquo2rsquo is duua- (Skt duva Gr δύο) and also OAv uba- YAv uua- lsquothe two bothrsquo(Skt ubha OP ubā OCS oba with a nasal Gr ἄμφω Lat ambō) Both stemsagree in their inflectionwith the dual of an a-stem (cf sect191) nomaccm duuauua7 (OP ubā Skt ubha) nomaccneutf OAv ubē YAv duiie duuaēca uiie

7 This is the only Av form with initial uu- because u- always becomes v- (sect1112) The manu-scripts often show va vā auua

sect 21 middot numerals 67

(Skt ubheacute cf sect1023) instdatablm OAv ubōibiiā YAv duuaēibiia (Sktdvabhyām) uuaēibiia (Skt ubhabhyām) genm duuaiia uuaiia locm OAvubōiiō YAv +uuaiiō (Skt ubhaacuteyoḥ)

lsquo3rsquo has a stem θri- for the masculine and neuter but tišr- for the femininejust as with Skt tri- and tisr- This divison goes back to PIE to judge fromOIr teacuteoir lt tisres In the other IE languages the feminine stem is completelylost The forms attested in Avestan are nomm θrāiiō θraiias-ca (Skt traacuteyasnote the ā of the Av versus the short a of the Skt Perhaps Av has taken thisā from the number lsquo4rsquo) The accm θrīš (Skt tri n) derives from PIE trins TheYAv nomaccneut θrī (cf sect72 Skt tri ) derives from PIE tri-h2 The instm isθribiiō (Skt inst tribhiacuteḥ dat tribhyaacutes) The genm exhibits two forms θraiiąmand θriiąm though it is difficult to know which is the original given that Skttrīṇam offers no help The feminine possesses a nom θrāiiō (originally masc)the acc tišrō (Skt tisraacutes) and the gen tišrąm

lsquo4rsquo possesses two stems that depend upon gender Themasculine and neuterare formed from a stem caθβar-catur- while the feminine is built to a stemcataŋr- The nommasc is caθβārō with ā resulting from Brugmann (sect746)just like Skt catvaras with an enclitic a shortened vowel is found thuscaθβaras-ca following sect731 The accm caturə shows an ending introducedfrom the thematic nouns in -a (Skt catuacuteras) The same has happened with thenomaccneut catura but not with the gen caturąm The feminine of lsquo4rsquo alsocarried a formant -sr- like that of lsquo3rsquo whence YAv acc cataŋrō from IIr čaacutetas-ras (Skt caacutetasras) As was already mentioned above these forms can go backto PIE to judge from the OIr continuant cetheacuteoir lt kuetesr-

The cardinal numbers lsquo5rsquo through lsquo19rsquowere originally indeclinable but thereare nevertheless forms of the gen attested for lsquo5rsquo lsquo9rsquo and lsquo10rsquo paṇcanąm (Sktpantildecānam) nauuanąm (Skt navānam) dasanąm The form paṇcā-ca inpaṇcāca vīsaiti- lsquo25rsquo has secondary ā (cf sect1612) opposite the regular nauuacanauuaiti- lsquo99rsquo These forms correspond exactly to their Skt equivalents Notethat the initial x- in xšuuaš lsquo6rsquo results from the secondary prothesis of x- ontoan initial cluster of š plus consonant (cf sect1116) Of the numbers from lsquo11rsquo to lsquo19rsquoonly duuadasa lsquo12rsquo and paṇcadasa lsquo15rsquo are attested as cardinal numbers the restappear only as ordinals

The decads inflect as follows the decads from lsquo20rsquo to lsquo50rsquo behave as -ant-stems while those from lsquo60rsquo to lsquo90rsquo are abstracts in -ti lsquo20rsquo corresponds to Sktvimśatiacute- (with secondary nasal) from vi-ćati- lt PIE dui-dḱmt-i lsquotwo decadsrsquoFor lsquo30rsquo we have the nomm θrisąs which continues the PIE form tri(h2)-dḱomt- (Gr τριακοντα OIr tricho) the nomaccneut θrisatəm and the genθrisatanąm which point to a secondary thematization of the oblique stemθrisat- retained in θrisaθβaṇt- lsquo30 timesrsquo Another athematic form occurs in

paṇcāsatbīš-ca the inst of lsquo50rsquo the long ā of which calls for comment Boththis form and Skt pantildecā-śaacutet show lengthening of an e following the loss ofa preconsonantal d proceeding from PIE penkue-dḱmt- The long vowel ofhaptāiti- and aštāiti- which the Skt forms saptatiacute- and aśītiacute- lack may be dueto the form of lsquo80rsquo if it was built off the simplex lsquo8rsquo (Gr ὀκτώ PIE h3eḱtohx) iefrom IIr aćtaH-ti-

The numbers sata- lsquohundredrsquo and hazaŋra- lsquothousandrsquo inflect as a-stems butbaēuuarə lsquoten thousandrsquo inflects as a neuter rn-stem Av sata- is equivalent toSkt śata- and to forms in other IE languages that allow for the reconstructionof a PIE ḱmtoacute- from dḱmt-oacute- lsquo(the) tenth (decad)rsquo It is notable that a formfor lsquo1000rsquo cannot be reconstructed for PIE but Av hazaŋra- as well as Sktsahaacutesra- do contain an IIr element -źhasra- lt PIE sm-ǵheslo- (cf Lat mīlle ltsmih2-ǵheslih2)which canbe comparedwithGr (Ionic) χείλιοι (Aeolic) χέλλιοιlsquothousandrsquo lt ǵhesliio-

sect212 Ordinal NumbersFor lsquofirstrsquo fratəma- the original sense of which was lsquothe foremostrsquo (cf Sktprathamaacute-) and which was a superlative to fra lsquoforth in frontrsquo is used lsquoFirstrsquoin the temporal sense was prHuaacute- in IIr (derived from PIE prh2oacutes lsquobeforersquo)cf Skt purva- Av pauruua- lsquopreviousrsquo The suffix -ia- was added to this stemalready in (Proto)-Iranian prHuia- which results in Av paoiriia- (cf sect82)

lsquoSecondrsquo was IIr dui-tiia- which gave OAv dbitiia- written daibitiia-(sect1113) and with loss of d- YAv bitiia- cf Skt dviti ya- The same formationis encountered in θritiia- lsquothirdrsquo starting from a stem θrita- (cf Gr τρίτος a dif-ferent stem in Skt trti ya-) which is also found in names The Av form tūiriia-lsquofourthrsquo lt IIr ktur-(ī)ia- lt PIE kuturdeg with ZG of the root had already lost thek- in IIr times judging from Skt turi ya- but the k- is retained in Av āxtūirīmlsquofour timesrsquo lt ā-kturīiam Av puxẟa- lsquofifthrsquo seems to be a product of an ear-lier paxθa- (Skt pakthaacute-) also with ZG in contrast to paṇca lsquo5rsquo which wouldhave taken the -u- from turia- lsquofourthrsquo and from a supposed xšušta- lsquosixthrsquo theactually attested form of which xštuua- lacks a definitive explanation

The ordinals from lsquoseventhrsquo to lsquotenthrsquo correspond exactly to their respec-tive forms in Skt and exhibit incipient generalization of the IIr suffix -maacute-lt PIE -moacute- which would become very productive in the later Iranian lan-guages lsquo7thrsquo Av haptaθa- (Skt saptaacutetha-) lsquo8thrsquo YAv aštəma- (Skt aṣṭamaacute-)lsquo9thrsquo YAv naoma- (Skt navamaacute-) lsquo10thrsquo Av dasəma- (Skt daśamaacute-) Mean-while lsquoeleventhrsquo to lsquonineteenthrsquo are formed with the same simple thematicinflection of the cardinal numbers thus aēuuaṇdasa- lsquo11thrsquo duuadasa- lsquo12thrsquoθridasa- lsquo13thrsquo caθrudasa- lsquo14thrsquo etc The form vīsąstəma- lsquotwentiethrsquo apparentlysubstitutes an earlier vīsastəma- (from vīsat-tama cf sect11202) which already

sect 22 middot pronouns 69

shows the suffix -tama- used also in satōtəma- lsquohundredthrsquo and hazaŋrōtəma-lsquothousandthrsquo

The form of the accsgneut of ordinals can serve as a temporal adverb thuspaoirīm lsquofor the first timersquo or lsquofirstlyrsquo bitīm lsquofor the second timersquo though thedatsgneut is also used for this expression thus paoiriiāi bitiiāi

sect213 MultiplicativesFor lsquooncersquohakərət a form identical to Skt sakrt is used Inboth forms theprefixsa- reflects sm- (ZG of PIE sem- lsquoone unitedrsquo cf Gr ἅ-παξ lsquooncersquo εἷς lsquoonersquo)Other multiplicatives are built by adding a suffix -s after the stem in the ZGbiš lsquotwicersquo θriš lsquothricersquo caθruš lsquofour timesrsquo and xšuuaš lsquosix timesrsquo For numbersgreater than lsquosixrsquo adjectives with a suffix -uant- are formed thus vīsaitiuuaṇt-lsquotwenty timesrsquo θrisaθβaṇt- lsquothirty timesrsquo etc It seems that this same suffix waslikewise used for the forms found in late texts bižuuat lsquotwicersquo and θrižuuat lsquothricersquo from biš and θriš

sect214 FractionslsquoHalf rsquo is expressed by arəẟa- (Skt ardhaacute-) or naēma- (Skt neacutema-) For theformation of other fractions a suffix -sua- which is attested in Avestan andOld Persian comes into play This suffix developed from ametanalysis degs-ua-beginning from lsquoone thirdrsquo and lsquoone fourthrsquo θrišuua- neut lsquoone thirdrsquo (OPccedilišuva-) lt triacuteš-ua- cf Gr θρῖον lsquofig leaf rsquo and neut θrižaṇt- lsquoidrsquo is also foundcaθrušuua- lsquoone fourthrsquo (OP čaccedilušuva-) lt catruš-ua- the form paŋtaŋhuua-lsquoone fifthrsquo is unexpected in comparison toOP pančauva- lt panca-hua- we alsofind haptaŋhuua- lsquoone seventhrsquo and aštaŋhuua- lsquoone eighthrsquo (OP aštauva-)

sect22 Pronouns

Already in the reconstructed proto-language the pronominal inflection wascharacterized by a set of its own case endings distinct from those belongingto the inflection of nouns and adjectives Suppletion is likewise very commonin the inflection of pronouns ie distinct stems co-occur within one and thesame paradigm In Avestan like in the rest of the Indo-European languagesthe pronominal inflection has preserved some peculiar features but analog-ical interchange and mutual influence between the nominal and pronomi-nal inflections are observable already from the oldest period (cf sectsect19119202)

In Table 12 the (Proto-Ir) endings fromwhich one must proceed in order toexplain the majority of the Avestan forms are given Where it is not possible to

table 12 The pronominal endings in their Proto-Iranian form

Singular Dual Pluralmascneut fem mascneut fem mascneut fem

nom -empty -h -š -empty -H -ai -ai -ai -t -H -H -āh

acc -(a)m -ām -anhgen -hia -hiāh -iāh -aišām -āhāmabl -hmāt -hiāt

-aibiah -ābiahdat -hmāi -hiāi inst -nā -ā -ia -ibiā -aiš -aibiš -ābišloc -hmi -hiā -aišu -āhu

abstract a concretemorpheme from the evidence the box in the table has beenleft empty The personal pronouns must be considered separately

sect221 Personal PronounsPersonal pronouns are characterized by suppletion and lack of grammaticalgender from the Indo-European period forward In Table 13 the attested formsof both stressed and enclitic personal pronouns are given

NB for accented pronouns1 The 1stsg has a nomsg azəm which agrees with Skt ahaacutem andOP adam

A hapax as-cīt of doubtful interpretation is also known The rest of the formsare built froma stemma- YAv accmąm (OPmām Sktmam) the abl -d (Sktmaacuted) the gen -na (OP manā OCS mene) the dat -bhia (cf Skt maacutehyam)YAvmāuuōiialt maβiia cf sect742 924 1114 The formmaibiiō with -ō insteadof -ā is due to the influence of pronominal datpl forms in -biiō such as aēibiiōand yaēibiiō (cf 222 f)

2 The 2ndsg uses the stems ta- and tua- but the nom shows old tuHgt Av tū alongside tuH-am (OP tuvam Skt tvaacutem) an innovation based on thelatter part of azəm lsquoIrsquo Cf further vaēm lsquowersquo lt vai-am (cf Gothweis) and yūžəmlsquoyou (pl)rsquo (cf Goth jūs)

3 The 1stdu vā (Skt vam) is of the same stem as the nompl vaēm In the1stpl a suppletive stem asma- is used (sect2215) A curious feature of thisinflection is that except in the nom and gen the cases of the sg and thepl are built with the same endings availing themselves of suppletion in thestem to convey the difference in number cf dat maibiiā ahmaibiiā (cf Sktmaacutehyamasmaacutebhyam) etc For the 2nddu we have yauuākəm (cf Skt yuvaku)Cf further the Skt forms nom yuvaacutem acc yuvam gen yuvoacuteḥ

table 13 Personal pronouns

1st Accented Enclitic 2nd Accented Enclitic

nomsg azəm azəm ascīt tuuəm tūm tūaccsg mąm mā θβąm θβāgensg mənā mana mōi mē tauuā tauua tōi tēablsg mat θβat datsg maibiiāmaibiiō

māuuōiiamōi mē taibiiā taibiiō tōi tē

instsg θβānomdu vāaccdu əəāuuāgendu nā yauuākəmnompl vaēm yūžəm yūžəm yūšaccpl əhmā ahma na nō va vōgenpl ahmākəm nə nō xšmākəm yūšmākəm və vōablpl ahmat xšmat yūšmat datpl ahmaibiiā nə nō xšmaibiiā xšmāuuōiia və vōinstpl əhmā xšmā

4 The 2ndpl OAv yūžəm YAv yūžəm (cf Skt yūyaacutem) has an unexpected ž(from external sandhi of yūš-am sect11251) The oblique formsmake use of thestems xšma- and yūšma- An IIr stem ušma- (cf Aeolic Gr acc ὔμμε) underliesboth of these stems The variant xšma- is explicable through loss of the u- gtšma- and subsequent prothesis of x- (cf sect1116) The variant yūšma- is due toinfluence from the nom yūš Cf dat OAv xšmaibiiā and yūšmaibiiā versus Sktyuṣmaacutebhyam

NB for enclitics (unaccented pronouns)5 The 1st Singular in the accmā is identical to Sktmā The oblique enclitic

(gendat) is OAvmōi YAvmē (OP -maiy Sktme)mdashPlural the stem na- is usedin the dual and plural and it is also contained in the stem asma- lt PIE nsme-In OAv distinct forms exist for the accpl na (Lat nōs) and the oblique casesnə (cf Lat nŏs-trum) in contrast to the single case form of YAv nō (and of Sktnas)

The 2nd Singular in the acc Av θβā is identical to Skt tvā The obliqueenclitic (gendat) is OAv tōi YAv tē (OP -taiy Skt te)mdashPlural In the pluralthe stem va- is used In OAv distinct forms exist for the accpl va (Lat uōs)

and the oblique cases və (cf Lat uŏs-trum) in contrast to the single case formof YAv vō (and of Skt vas)

6 For the enclitics of the 3rd person some forms of the old demonstra-tive pronoun a-i- which were substituted by the stem ima (sect222) are usedaccsgmf īm (Skt īm CypriotGr ἴν) accsgneutOAv īt YAv it (cf the Skt par-ticle iacutet) accplmf īš accplneut ī Some YAv forms with initial d- must haveoriginated in sandhi with a preceding dental (eg yad im) accsgmf dim (OP-dim) accsgneut dit accplmf dīš (OP -dīš) accplneut dī

Other forms took an s- by analogy to the paradigm of sata- Accentedfroms are nomsgf OAv hī and nomduneut OAv hī Enclitic forms are accsgfAv hīm (OP -šim Skt sīm) accplmf Av hīš (cf OP -šīš) and the gendatsgOAv hōi YAv hē šē (cf OP -šaiy) At times variation between h- and š- occurswhich is explicable as the result of ruki in external sandhi pairi šē but atcahē8

7 The accented reflexive pronoun has adopted the stem sua- from thepossessive pron In Av only the following forms are attested gen xvahe datsgYAv huuāuuōiia (from huaβia cfmāuuōiia above sect2211) and YAv xvāi

sect222 Demonstrative Pronouns1 a-i-ima- lsquothisrsquo This pronoun of anaphoric origin combines stems derivingfrom PIE h1ei-h1i- and h1e- (cf Lat is ea id) in a suppletive pattern Thenomsgm comes from aiam gt Skt ayaacutem (cf OP iyam)mdashThe accsgm arisesfrom an IIr innovation in which the old form im (Lat im) was ldquoaccusativizedrdquoby adding the ending -ammdashThe nomaccsgneut imat (cf OP ima) replacesthe -m of the new form with the -t of the neuter pronouns Starting from thetwopreceding case forms it becamepossible to extract a stem ima- fromwhichthe rest of the direct cases of the masc neut and fem with thematic endingsemerged

The oblique cases are built off the stem a- the gensgm comes from asiagt Skt asya9 the gendum a-iia (cf Skt ayoacuteḥ sect 19112) the instplm āiš theabldat and locsgm make use of a formant -sm- The instsgm from anā(OP anā cf Skt ena) is built with the stem ana- (cf below sect2224)mdashThefeminine formsof the genablsg come fromasiāsgtSktasyas (the formaŋhāt

8 In YAv however this old distribution is often disrupted Old Persian which maintains theuse of the 3rd person enclitic offers only variants with -š-

9 ahe is used attributively and anaphorically while aŋhe is only found in anaphoric use aheprobably represents the original development (cf the gensg of the a-stems) whereas aŋheintroduced -ŋh- from the fem pronouns

table 14 The demonstrative pronoun a-i-ima-

1 a-i-ima- lsquothisrsquo Masculine Neuter Feminine

nom sg aiiəm aēm īmacc iməm imąmnomaccneut imat gen ahiiā axiiāca ahe aŋhe aŋha aŋhascaabl ahmāt aŋha aŋhāt dat ahmāi axiiāi aŋhāiinst anā ana ōiiā aiialoc ahmī ahmi ahmiia aŋhenomm du imagen aiia ascādat ābiia ābiiānomm pl ime imaaccm imą imanomaccneut imā ima imagen aēšąm aŋhąmdat aēibiiō ābiiascā ābiiō aiβiiascainst āiš aēibiš ābīšloc aēšu aēšuua āhū āhuua

shows the late substitution of -s by -t) the datsg from asiāi gt Skt asyaacuteithe locsg is from asiā (cf Skt asyam) The instsgf from aiā (Skt aya) is anexception in that it does not contain an -s- There is also a form f āiia whichowes its long vowel to the preceding i in paiti āiia zəmā lsquoon this earthrsquo

In the plural the mn oblique cases are built off a stem ai- which recallsthe nomm ai-am just like the stems aēta- and aēuua- (see below) Theoblique cases of the fempl are formed starting from an unexpected stem ā-which probably derives from the inflection of the pronouns ta- ka- and ya-Note the ending -sām of the genpl versus PIE -som as reflected in Lateō-rum eā-rum and OCS těxъ lsquoof thesersquo

2 ta- lsquothatrsquo 3 aēta- lsquothat therersquo The first of these pronouns continues theold demonstrative Its paradigm conforms to the usual pattern of suppletionThe nomsg was suppletive even in PIE m soacute neut toacuted f seacuteh2 gt Av hā tathā (Skt saacute taacutet sa Goth sa thornata so Gr ὁ τό ἡ) The nomsgm attests to asigmatic variant OAv hə YAv hō has-cit The stem takes thematic inflection inthe direct cases aswell as in the forms of the inst Apart from the inst there are

table 15 The demonstrative pronouns ta- aēta-

2 ta- lsquothatrsquo3 aēta- lsquothat therersquo Masculine Neuter Feminine

nom sg hā hə hō hascit aēša aēšō hā aēšāacc təm təm tąm aētąmnomaccneut tat aētat gen aētahe aētaŋha aētaiiaabl aētahmāt dat aētahmāiinst tā aēta aētaiialoc aētahmi aētahmiianomacc du tā tācanomaccneut tē aētegen aētaiianom pl tōi taēcīt tē aēte aētaēca ta tascit aētasətēacc təṇg tą tə aētə aētą ta tascā aētanomaccneut tā aēta aētācit gen aētaēšąm aētaŋhąmdat aētaēibiiō aētābiiōinst tāišloc aētaēšu aētaēšuua

nooblique formsattested to the stem ta- Instead the stemaēta- appearswhichhas a complete inflection apart from the suppletive nomsg which comes fromm aiša (Skt eṣaacute) f aišā (Skt eṣa)

The inflection of these pronouns follows that already seen under sect22212252 ie through the insertion of typically pronominal elements such as -sm-in the oblique cases of the masc or -ai- and -ā in the oblique cases of themascfempl There are some forms worthy of note the genplfem aētaŋhąmshows shorteningof the -ā- (Skt etasām) the gensgfemaētaŋha is equivalentto Skt etaacutesyas while aētaiia and aētaiiascit owe their endings to the influenceof feminines in -ā (sect1924)

The fact that no forms of aēta- are found attested in OAv may be merecoincidence but the total absence of oblique forms of ta- in YAv (except inthe inst) is probably an innovation of YAv in which ta- was replaced by aēta-

4 ana- lsquothisrsquo is a suppletive stem in Avestan that is found attested in otherlanguages OCS onъ lsquothat therersquo Lith anagraves lsquothatrsquo lt PIE h1ono- which has left

traces in IIr cf the Skt adv ana lsquothereforersquo (instsgneut) anayā (instsgf)Avestan attests to OAv instsgm anā (OP anā Skt ana) instplmneut anāišgensgm +anahe ablsgm anahmāt and the instsgmneut ana

5 The stem of the demonstrative auua- lsquothat therersquo may be compared withthe Skt gendu avoacuteḥ (OP ava and also OCS ovъ lsquothisrsquo lt PIE h2euo-) The Aves-tan paradigm possesses a nomsgm OAv huuō (hau cf sect1034) and YAvhāu which is in origin a fem form also attested as a nomsgfem YAv hāumade froma supplementary stemcomparable to the Skt nomsgmf asaacuteu lsquothattherersquo or OP hauv The other case forms allow for derivation from the stemauua- with its already familiar pronominal endings nomaccsgneut auuat (OP ava) accsgm aom (OP avam) gensgmneut auuaŋhe and auuaheca (OPavahayā) instsgm OAv auuā YAv auua nomplm auue (OP avaiy) accplm+auuə nomaccplneut auua and auua (cf sect19117) genplm auuaēšąm (OPavaišām) instplm auuāiš accsgf auuąm (OP avām) gensgf auuaŋhaablsgf auuaŋhāt datsgf auuaŋhāi accplf auua and auuaŋha (in a late text)instplf auuabiiō (-ābiiō)

sect223 Relative PronounThe relative pronoun ya- lsquowhich whorsquo (Skt yaacute- Gr ὅς lt PIE [h1]ioacute-) follows thesame inflection as the pronominal stem ta- aēta- etc seen above for whichreason the enumeration of all the forms here would be superfluous Keep inmind that the initial y- in combinationwith -i- in the following syllable resultsin raising of the -a- (sect710) and one therefore finds gensg OAv yehiiā yexiiācāYAv yeŋhe (Skt yaacutesya) gensgf yeŋha (Skt yaacutesyās) ablsgf yeŋhāt yeŋhāẟ-alocsgf yeŋhe (vl with ŋh) Curious are the nomplm YAv yōi (Skt yeacute) whichdid not develop to daggeryē (cf sect1022) and the nomaccsgneut OAv hiiat (versusYAv yat Skt yaacutet) which may be the result of external sandhi degh yat On theother hand the accplm formOAv yəṇgs-tū lsquowhich yoursquo apparently arose froma blending of the regular forms OAv yəṇg and yąsdeg (cf Skt yan yaṃś ca)

sect224 Possessive PronounsThe possessive pronouns for the 1st and 2nd persons are attested in OAv alonewhile the gen of the corresponding personal pronouns assumes the functionsof the possessive in YAv Various formations co-occur in the possessive pro-nouns as will be seen below

Singular The 1st person is formed in OAv with a stem ma- lsquomyrsquo (Gr ἐμός ltPIE h1mo-) nomsgm mə (sect794) gensgneut mahiiā datsgneut mahmāiinstsgneut mā locsg mahmī nomaccplneut mā instsgf maiiā gensgfmaxiia (x cf sect1128)

The 2nd person is formed in OAv with a stem θβa- lsquoyourrsquo (Skt tvaacute- Lattuus Gr σός) nomsgm θβə gensgm θβahiiā ablsgm θβahmāt datsgmθβahmāi instsgmneut θβā locsgm θβahmī nomplm θβōi nomaccplneut θβā nomsgf θβōi gensgf θβaxiia locplf θβāhū

Plural The 1st person is formed with the stem ahmāka- lsquoourrsquo (Skt asmaka-)nomaccsgneut ahmākəm accplm ahmākəṇg instplm ahmākāiš For the2nd person two familiar variants (already commented upon in sect2214) arefound xšmāka- (with the accsgm xšmākəm nomaccsgneut xšmākəmgensgm xšmākahiiā datsgm xšmākāi instsgm xšmākā accsgf xšmākąm)and yūšmāka- (with the accsgm yūšmākəm gensgm yūšmākahiiā datsgmyūšmākāi)

Concerning the pronominal stems OAvYAv xva- and YAv hauua- the FGin hauua- may have been introduced from the pers and dempron in ha-As regards its inflection xva- follows the pronominal type (eg locsgm YAvxvahmi (cf Skt svaacutesmin)) while hauua- follows the thematic type in all ofits forms (cf sect191) eg locsgm hauue (cf Skt sveacute) nomplm hauuaŋhōgenplm hauuanąm (Skt svanām)

sect225 Interrogative and Indefinite PronounsThe interrogative and indefinite pronouns in Av are formed on the basis of thestems ci-ca- and ka- lsquowho somersquo the comparison of which with Skt kiacute- kaacute-and Gr τίς τί and especially with OCS čьto kъto allows for the reconstructionof an IE pron kuid kuo-s In principal the accented pronouns functionedas interrogatives while the enclitics functioned as indefinites However theindefinite function could also be indicated by postposing the IE particles kueor kuid cf Lat quis-que OP kas-ciy Skt kaś-cit

1 To ci-ca- the following forms are found nomsgm OAv YAv ciš (cfSkt kiacuteḥ) ciš-ca lsquosomeonersquo naē-ciš lsquono onersquo accsgm YAv ci m OAv naē-ci mnomaccsgneut YAv cit (cf Skt particle cit) naē-cit cīm (cf Skt kiacutem) cišgensgmneut OAv cahiiā datsgm YAv cahmāi locsgm YAv cahminomplm OAv caiiascā YAv caiiō nomaccplneut OAv cī-cā YAv ci-ca

2 The same inflection as in the pronouns a-ima- ta- and ya- is found withka- so there is no need to enumerate forms Nevertheless cf the gensgmOAv kahiiā YAv kahe kaŋhe (Skt kaacutesya) Note further the concurrence of theinstsgmneut forms Av kā and YAv kana (cf Skt keacutena) the latter of whichseems to have been made after the instsgmneut of the demonstrative ana-(sect2224 like the instsgm of a-i-ima- in sect2221)

sect 23 middot prepositions and preverbs 77

sect23 Prepositions and Preverbs

A distinction between adnominal prepositions and preverbs exists only par-tially since themajority of the forms admit of both uses Prepositions can occurbefore the noun (ie as a preposition stricto sensu) or after it (as a postposi-tion) though there is a small number of forms that always precede the nounThe majority of preverbs immediately precede the verb

In the following list prepositionspostpositions are given followed by thecase that they govern Keep in mind that in large part these words may alsoserve as adverbs the sense of which can be derived without further difficultyfrom the meaning given for the basic forms Those forms that are exclusivelyadverbial will be expressly indicated as such

1 aiti (Skt aacuteti Gr ἔτι) adv lsquotrans- beyond sidewaysrsquo2 aipi (Skt aacutepi Gr ἐπί) + acc lsquoabove during onrsquo + inst lsquoafterrsquo [temporal]3 aibī aiβi auui aoi (Skt abhiacute Lat amb-) + acc lsquotowards against forrsquo + loc

lsquoaround aboutrsquo4 aẟairi (Goth undar) + acc lsquobelowrsquo5 apa (Skt aacutepa Gr ἄπο Lat ab) adv lsquoaway dis-rsquo6 ana (Gr ἄνα) + acc lsquoon alongrsquo7 əəānū anu (Skt aacutenu) + acc lsquotowards followingrsquo8 aṇtarə (Skt antaacuter Lat inter) + acc lsquobetween insidersquo9 ā (Skt a) + acc lsquoto in onrsquo + loc lsquoonrsquo + abl lsquosincersquo lsquo(away) from fromrsquo OAv

+ inst lsquofor becausersquo cf further sect3610 upa (Skt uacutepa Gr ὕπο Lat sub) + acc lsquoabout towards up to intorsquo + loc

lsquoinrsquo11 upairi (Skt upaacuteri Gr ὕπερ Lat super) + acc lsquoover aboversquo + inst lsquobeyondrsquo

and in comparison12 us uz- (Skt uacuted) adv lsquoout uprsquo13 OAv tarə YAv tarō tarasca (Skt tiraacutes) + acc lsquothrough by way of ex-

ceptrsquo14 paiti (Skt praacuteti Gr ποτί [πρότι πρός]) + acc lsquoagainst by with throughrsquo +

loc lsquoby throughrsquo15 pairi (Skt paacuteri Gr περί) + acc lsquoaround aboutrsquo + abl lsquofrom (without)rsquo16 para (Skt pura) + acc abl or loc lsquobeforersquo17 YAv parō (Skt puraacutes) + gen lsquoin front of beforersquo + abl lsquoby because of since

forrsquo18 pasca (Skt paśca) + acc lsquobehind afterrsquo + gen lsquoafter behindrsquo + abl or inst

lsquoafterrsquo19 fra fəra- (Skt praacute Gr πρό) adv lsquoalongrsquo

20 ni nii- (Skt niacute) adv lsquodownrsquo21 ni š niž- (Skt niṣ- nir-) adv lsquooutrsquo22 mat (Skt smaacutet) + inst lsquowith togetherrsquo23 vī vi- vii- (Skt viacute) adv lsquoapart separatelyrsquo cf Lat dis-24 haca (Skt saacutecā) + abl lsquo(out) of from in relation to according torsquo with the

agent of the passive also lsquobyrsquo OAv + acc or inst lsquoof by (reason of)rsquo25 hadā haẟa (Skt sahaacute) + inst lsquotogether withrsquo26 haθra (Skt satra) + inst lsquotogether withrsquo27 həm hə(n) ha- hąm(-) ham- (Skt saacutem) adv lsquotogether conjointlyrsquo

sect24 The Verb

Just as is the case for nominal inflection (sect13) the study and description of theAvestan verbal systemmust first be contextualized among the old Indo-Iranianlanguages thanks to whose comparative study we can reconstruct the pre-history of the Indo-Iranian verb The Avestan verb has retained some notablearchaisms but at the same time also exhibits clear formal and functional inno-vations with respect to earlier linguistic stages The following sections will dis-cuss both of these aspects making constant reference to Sanskrit and insofaras possible to Old Persian

sect25 Component Elements

sect251 The Root The StemThe root is the element on which the verbal system is based in that it deter-mines the lexical content of the forms that are derived from it The root isusually subject to ablaut (sect132) though in certain verbal classes it is invariablesuch as in the case of denominative formations (eg nəmaxiia- lsquodo homagehonorrsquo from nəmah- lsquohomagersquo etc cf sect2613) This method of morphologicalcharacterization is inherited fromProto-Indo-European and is of great interestand help for comparison with other Indo-European languages and especiallywith equivalent Sanskrit forms which are often very similar to the Avestanforms

1 Ablaut serves to characterize each inflectional form and to distinguishverbal stems The different types of ablaut patterns can show the root in AFGZG eg 3sg OAv as-tī Skt aacutesti versus 3pl OAv h-əṇtī Skt saacutenti (lt PIEh1eacutes-ti h1s-eacutenti) The FG usually appears in the root or in the infixsuffix ofthe active singular indicative and injunctive as well as throughout the entire

sect 25 middot component elements 79

paradigmof the subjunctive active andmiddlemdashB LGFG eg in the s-aoristOAv dāiš-dōiš- to dis lsquopointrsquo (-āi--ai-)

Some further examples of ablaut in the root are bar lsquobearrsquo (PIE bher)Av presind bara- causind bāraiia- perfopt baβriiąnmdashmrū lsquospeakrsquo (PIEmleuH) Av presactind mraomi presmidind mruiiēmdashvaxš lsquogrowrsquo (PIEh2ueḱs) Av causind vaxšaiia- presind uxšiia- zan lsquogeneratersquo (PIE ǵenh1)Av presind zīzana- passind zaiia- futind ząhiia-

2 The rootrsquosmeaning canbemodified through theuse of preverbs (sect23) egthe root dā- lsquogive makersquo forms several compounds ā-dā- lsquoaccept receive takersquous-dā- lsquoset up installrsquo paiti-dā- lsquoconferrsquo para-dā- lsquograntrsquo fra-dā- lsquotry performrsquoni-dā- lsquogatherrsquo vī-dā- lsquodistributersquo The preverb usually precedes its verb whetheradjacent to or in tmesis from the verb At times the preverb appears to bedoubled In late texts a tendency toward fusion of the preverb and the verbmay be observed

3 The combination of the root with certain affixes (infixes suffixes or somecombination of these) comprises a lexical unit called the lsquostemrsquo (cf sect131)Among thedifferent verbal types a fundamental division canbemadebetweenthematic formations (ie formations built with the suffixal vowel -a- lt PIE-eo known as the lsquothematic vowelrsquo) and athematic formations (all the rest)A characteristic feature of old Indo-European languages is the large numberof forms that can be built to a temporal stem owing to the interaction of thevarious verbal categories

sect252 DiathesisAvestan has inherited from Indo-European the distinction between the activeand middle voice each characterized by a specific set of endings for all thetenses and moods The original function of the middle is to highlight the roleof the subject of the verbal action Oftentimes the middle can be translatedas a passive eg act aŋhat lsquoshot (an arrow)rsquo mid aŋhimnaiia lsquo(arrows thathave been) shotrsquo In other cases the middle gives the verb reflexive (act fra-pinaoti lsquofattenrsquo mid frapinuuata lsquoswellrsquo) or reciprocal (act hacaiti lsquoaccompa-niesrsquo mid hacaiṇte lsquogo togetherrsquo) value It should be noted that even in theparent language there are many verbs that occur only in a single diathesis so-called activa tantum ormedia tantum verbs YAv saēte Skt śeacutete Gr κεῖται Hittkitta

The passive does not exist as a separate diathesis but as will be seen thepresent formation in -iia- has passive meaning In addition an isolated endingof the 3rd person in -i which goes back to IIr is found in the aorist withpassive value Av vācī lsquowas saidrsquo (Skt aacute-vāci) srāuuī lsquowas heardrsquo (Skt śravi) cfsect321c

sect253 TenseThe expression of tense is carried out through the usage of specific verbal stems(sect2513) From the point of view of tense threemain stems are distinguishablepresent aorist and perfect The future stem is in fact a present formation(sect2618)

The Avestan tense system based on these three stems derives from anaspectual system that is still present in Greek and residual in Sanskrit Thissystem opposed the imperfective aspect of the present stem (action seen inits development) to the perfective aspect of the aorist stem (action seen ascomplete in its entirety) The perfect was not part of this aspectual oppositionand served to express a resultative (attained state) It is crucial to distinguishbetween aspect which is a binary opposition and type of action (Aktionsart)which is expressed by multiple formations that were always opposed to anunmarked base From a functional perspective Old Avestan still retains a largeproportion of the old IE system of oppositions while Young Av has developedmore towards a temporal system based on the opposition present injunctive(impf sectsect31 372)

sect26 Present Stems

Athematic Formations1 Root Presents some roots have ablaut (sect2511) eg ah- lsquobersquo mrū- lsquospeakrsquo

i- lsquogorsquo while in others the stem is invariable tac- lsquorunrsquo hah- lsquosleeprsquo aoj-lsquospeakrsquo

2a Presents with partial reduplication (the root has FGZG ablaut) egdadā-dad- lsquogive putrsquo (the two verbs attested in Skt as daacutedāmi lsquogiversquoand daacutedhāmi lsquoputrsquo fall together in Avestan) hišhak-hišc- lsquofollowrsquo (Sktsiacuteṣak-saacuteśc-)

2b Presents with total reduplication (intensives) reduplication with the en-tire FG root and ablaut FGZG in the root Examples carəkərə- lsquoexaltrsquodaēdōiš- lsquoshowrsquo zaozao- lsquocallrsquo

3 Presents in -n the root contains an infixwith ablauting -na--n- before thefinal consonant of the root eg vinad-viṇd- lsquofindrsquo Class 9 is a secondarysubtype of this type

4 Presents in -nu root (generally aniṭ) in ZG + an ablauting suffix -nao--nu- (lt -nau--nu-) eg surunauu-surunu- lsquohearrsquo (IE ḱleu) kərənauu-kərənu- lsquomake dorsquo

5 Presents in -nā root (of seṭ origin) in ZG + ablauting suffix -nā--n- (lt-naH--nH-) gərəβnā- lsquoseizersquo frīnā- frīn- lsquopleasersquo

sect 26 middot present stems 81

These three infixed present formations can be traced back historically to asingle type that split apart on account of particular phonological developmentsand synchronic reanalysis Thus class 4 in fact comes from infixed roots thatended in -u- whose stem final sequence -na-u--n-u- became productive as aindependent suffix eg to kar lsquomakersquo YAv kərənaoiti Skt krṇoacuteti Meanwhileclass 5 is usually limited to old seṭ roots ie -na-H--n-H- eg YAv gərəβnāitiSkt grbhṇati

Thematic FormationsThematic formations (characterized by suffixation of the thematic vowel -a--ā- lt PIE -e--o- which precedes the ending) were still productive in theAvestan period Fourteen different formations which have precise semanticfunctions only in part can be distinguished

6 Root in FG (root-accented Skt bhaacutevati type) eg bara- lsquobearrsquo yaza- lsquowor-shiprsquo haca- lsquofollowrsquo This is the most productive type in Av

7 Root in ZG (accent on the thematic vowel Skt tudaacuteti type) eg iša- lsquosetin motionrsquo θβərəsa- lsquocutrsquo

8 Root in ZG and partial reduplication (Skt piacutebati type) eg hišta- lsquostandrsquonišhiẟa- lsquosit downrsquo jaɣna- lsquostrikersquo

9 Root in ZG with -n- infix eg kərəṇta- lsquocutrsquo (Skt krntaacuteti) hiṇca- lsquosprinklersquo(Skt sintildecaacuteti) This is a thematization of 263

10 Root in FG + suffix -ia- eg jaiẟiia- lsquoprayrsquo mainiia-mańiia- lsquothinkrsquo (Sktmaacutenya-)

11a Root in ZG + suffix -ia- (root-accented non-passive Skt type di vyati)eg OAv drujiia- YAv druža- lsquodeceiversquo (Skt druacutehyati) vərəziia- lsquoworkrsquo(Goth waurkjan)

11b Root in ZG + suffix -iaacute- (passive Skt type nahyaacutete) egmiriia- lsquodiersquo (Sktmriyate) This type employs active or middle endings without distinctionin Av

12 Root in ZG with reduplication + suffix -ia- eg iziia- lsquodesirersquo (lt i-iz-ia-)yaēšiia- lsquoboilrsquo (lt ia-iš-ia-)

13 Denominatives with suffix -ia- eg fšuiia- lsquorear livestockrsquo (Av pasu- fšu-lsquolivestockrsquo) bišaziia- lsquohealrsquo (cf Skt bhiṣaacutej- lsquohealerrsquo) viiāxmainiia- lsquomake aspeechrsquo from viiāxman- lsquoassemblyrsquo

14 Root in ZG + suffix -aiia- eg guzaiia- lsquohidersquo saẟaiia- lsquoseemrsquo zbaiia- lsquocallrsquoThis type includes some archaic OAv causative forms with ZG OAvurūdōiia- lsquomake cryrsquo urūpaiia- lsquomake sickrsquo

15 Root in FG (ā in an open syllable sect746) + suffix -aiia- (causative) rao-caiia- lsquolight uprsquo dāraiia- lsquoholdrsquo This type exhibits a distinction between

roots with FG of the root such as vaxšaiia- lsquomake growrsquo (Skt vakṣaacuteya-)and verbs with LG of the root eg tāpaiia- lsquoheatrsquo (Skt tāpaacuteya-) This dis-tinction results from the fact that the root vowel of the causative was aPIE o which has different outcomes depending on its position in thesyllable (ie Brugmann sect746) It should be noted that the causative(sub)type tāpaiia- became very productive in Avestan Cf for examplethe causative of sū lsquoenlargersquo OAv sauuaiia- (lt PIE ḱouh1-eacuteie-) versus YAvsāuuaiia- with LG introduced here

16 Root in ZG + suffix -sa- (including the inchoative) eg pərəsa- lsquoaskrsquo (Sktprcchaacuteti) tafsa- lsquobecome warmrsquo The suffix -sa- continues the PIE suffix-skeo- Old present formations (non-inchoative of the type jasa- togam) as well as Avestan inchoative formations fall under this type

17 Root in ZG+ suffix -hasaža- (desiderative) Two subtypes appear here asimple gərəfša- lsquotry to grabrsquomdashb with partial reduplication in i diβža- lsquotryto deceiversquo (cf Skt diacutepsati) The diffent forms of the suffix are historicallyexplicable from the IIr suffix -(H)sa- in different environments

18 Root in FG + suffix -hiiasiia- (future) eg vaxšiia- to vac lsquospeakrsquo (Sktvakṣyaacuteti) ząhiia- to zan lsquogeneratersquo (Skt janiṣyaacuteti)

sect27 Aorist Stems

1 Athematic root aorist (the root has FGZG ablaut) The root itself is thestem of the aorist eg jam-gəm-ga- to gam lsquogo comersquo dā-d- to the tworoots dā lsquogive putrsquo srauu-sru- to sru lsquohearrsquo

2a Thematic root aorist ZG of the root + -a- (root-accented) eg vīda- to vidlsquofind knowrsquo Skt viacuteda- sīša- lsquoteachrsquo to sāh Skt śiṣa- In some formationsFG of the root appears but this generally occurs for phonetic reasonstaša- (Skt taacutekṣa-) hana- (Skt saacutena-)

2b Reduplicated thematic aorist ZG of the root with partial reduplication ina + suffix -a- eg vaoca- (Skt voacuteca-) to vac lsquospeakrsquo nąsa- (na-nś-a-) to naslsquodisappearrsquo

3 Sigmatic aorist (athematic) root with ablaut pattern LG (indicative andactive injunctive) FG (other) + -s- eg θraŋh- to θrā lsquoprotectrsquo baxš- tobaj lsquodividersquo raos- to urud- lsquocryrsquo məṇgh- to man lsquothinkrsquo dāiš-dōiš- to dislsquopointrsquo

sect 30 middot personal endings 83

sect28 Perfect Stem

The perfect stem is an athematic formation with reduplication and ablaut (ltozero) in the root When the root contains or ends in i the reduplicationvowel will be i when the root contains or ends in u the reduplication vowelwill be u in all other cases the reduplication vowel is a (or rarely ā)

The root takes FG in the active singular (but ā in an originally open sylla-ble cf Brugmann sect746) FG throughout the entire subjunctive but ZG inall other forms In contrast to the other two stems the perfect is further char-acterized by a set of special endings in the active and middle indicative

Examples of perfect stems are diẟaii-diẟī- to dī lsquolookrsquo susru- to sru lsquohearrsquovauuac-vaoc- to vac lsquospeakrsquo bauuar-baβr- to bar lsquobearrsquo jaɣm- to gam lsquogo comersquovāuuarəz-vāuuərəz- to varz lsquoworkrsquo dadā-dāẟ-daẟ- to dā lsquoput giversquo hazd- tohad lsquositrsquo

The root vid lsquofind knowrsquo constitutes an exception in that it forms an (inher-ited) perfect without reduplication vaēd-vōid-vīd-

sect29 Moods

Avestan possesses fivemoods each ofwhich has its ownmeaning (cf sect37) andwhich are expressed through special formations The subjunctive and optativeare formed with suffixes on the three types of primary stems The subjunctiveis formed with a suffix -a- and primary or secondary endings (without distinc-tion) The root always takes FG even in themiddle voice The optative employsthe (ablauting) modal suffix -iiā--ī- (lt PIE -ieh1ih1-) and secondary endingsThe present indicative uses primary endings the indicative of the aorist usessecondary endings while the perfect indicative has its own special endingsThe injunctive does not carry the augment (sect31) and is served by secondaryendings (with the augment the imperfect which serves as the preterite for thepresent would be formed) The imperative has its own endings

sect30 Personal Endings

Personal endings are an essential element for the expression of the variousverbal categories Endings are added to the verbal stem and mark person (3)number (3 singular dual plural) and diathesis (2) The endings are multi-functional in the sense that each one expresses several paradigmatic roles forexample -mahi is a 1stpers plural active InAvestan just as in IE there is a basic

table 16 The verbal endings of the active

Primary Secondary Imperative Perfect

1st sg -mi -a -m -am mdash -a2nd -hi -ši -h -s -š -empty -di -ẟi -θa3rd -ti -t -t -tu -a1st du -uuahī -uuā mdash wa2nd wa wa wa wa3rd -tō -θō -təm wa -atarə1st pl -mahi -ma mdash -ma2nd -θa -ta -ta wa3rd -ṇti -ati -aiṇti -n -at -ārə -ārəš -ṇtu -arə -ərəš

distinction between primary endings (PE used in the presind and partly thesubjunctive) and secondary endings (SE used in the presinj the aorist and theoptative) in addition there are other sets of endings for the imperative and theperfect indicative The subjunctive has a special ending just in the 1sg10

sect301 Active EndingsBe aware that some endings are not attested in Avestan these are marked hereas ldquowardquo (= without attestation) Those endings with variants conditioned byphonetic environment are given with a comma separating the variants forexample the secondary ending of the 2sg which comes from IIr -s appearsas -š (mraoš lsquoyou saidrsquo cf sect11205) as -s (before enclitic -ca sect 11201) and asthe outcome of -h (in the thematic ending eg jasō lsquoyou camersquo cf sect7131) Asemicolon separates endings of different origin such as those of the 3du ofwhich -tō corresponds to the original 3du ending (cf Skt -tas) while -θōmusthave been taken over from the 2du (cf Skt -thas) As regards the thematicformations it must be noted that some forms have been partially disfigured byphonetic developments eg the already cited 2sg -ō lt -a-h

NB a Primary Endings The agreement with the endings of Skt sg -mi -si-ti and pl -masi -tha -nti-ati is evident The 1sg thematic -āmi exhibits an ā

10 The terms ldquoprimaryrdquo and ldquosecondaryrdquo are traditional descriptively the primary endingsare derived from the secondary ones by adding an element -i which in PIE was a markerof current relevance (hic et nunc)

lt PIE o (sect746) after ii we do not find -āmi but -emi here āwas analogicallyreplaced by a cf 7101 On the other hand a 1sg ending -ā (Gr -ω Lat -ōlt PIE -oh2) exclusive to thematic formations also occurs This distinctionbetween the thematic and athematic conjugations is old and ceases to beproductive in YAv which adopts the ending -mi for both degbarāmi (and inSanskrit bhaacuterāmi)mdashThe 1du in comparison with Skt -vas has taken the -ifrom the 1pl

b Secondary Endings The agreement of these endingswith those of Skt sg-(a)m -s -t 1du -va pl -ma -ta -(a)n-ur is evidentmdashThe 3du -təm concurswith OP -tam but in Skt -tam is the form of the 2du while Skt -tām is theform of the 3du In Iranian the endings of the 2du were introduced into the3du the same happens in the middle (cf sect302a)mdashThe endings -ārə and-ārəš are found only in the athematic optative the -ā- is part of the suffix -iiā-and the ending is -rə(š) which corresponds exactly to Skt -ur (3plaoroptbuiiąn togetherwith buiiārəš Skt bhūyuacuter) The 3pl thematic ending is -ən YAvpacaiiən

c The subjunctive has a unique ending in the 1sg -āni which coexists with-a The 3du and the 2pl have primary endings the 1du and the 1pl havesecondary endings The remaining persons take both PE or SE without dis-tinction (but Skt has the SE in the 3pl)mdashThe imperative has forms only forthe 2nd and 3rd persons of the sg and pl Just as in IE the 2sg can take anending empty (thematic stems) or in athematic stems take the IEIIr ending -dhi gt Gr -θi Skt -dhihi The remaining Avestan endings also correspond tothose of Sanskrit -tu -ta and -ntu However the ending that corresponds toSkt -tāt Gr -τω Lat -tō(d) is not found The 2pl uses the secondary end-ing

d The perfect has its own set of endings only in the indicative Theseendings in large part agree with the Skt forms sg -a -tha -a 1pl -ma The3du -atarə comes out of -atr while Skt -atur reflects -atrš with the sameending -rš that Skt has in the 3pl -ur Av has the 3pl in -arə lt -r (the -ršappears only in the ldquoplupfrdquo cikōitərəš)

e The participles of the present active are formed with the suffix -nt-(inflection in sect183) its feminine is marked with the suffix -ī- (sect193) həṇt-f haitī- šiiąs f šiieitīmdashThe perfactpart has its own suffix -uuāh--uš- (inflec-tion sect188) vīduuāh-vīduš- (vid) daẟuuāh-daduš- (dā) its feminine takes thesuffix -ī- (sect193) eg jaɣmūšī- (gam Skt jagmuacuteṣī-)

sect302 Middle EndingsThe earlier remarks made in the paragraph above sect301 apply equally toTable 17

table 17 The verbal endings of the middle

1st sg -e -ōi -i -a ndash -e2nd -he -ŋhe -še -ha -ŋha -ša -huua -ŋvha -šuua wa3rd -te -e -ta -i -tąm -ąm -e -oi1st du wa -uuaidī ndash wa2nd wa wa wa wa3rd -aēte -ōiθe -āite -aētəm -ātəm wa -āite1st pl -maide maiẟe -maidi ndash wa2nd -duiiē -ẟβe -θβe -dūm -ẟβəm -dūm -ẟβəm wa3rd -ṇte -aite -re -āire -ṇta -ata -rəm -ṇtąm -re

NB a Primary Endings The endings correspond in large part to the seriesof endings in Skt sg -e (lt -ai) -se (lt -soi) -te (lt -toi) 3du -ete (the-matic) and -āte pl -mahe (-madhai) -dhve -nteatemdashThe 3sg has a fur-ther ending -e Skt -e which is used for verbs with stative meaning it is thesame form as the ending of the 3sgperfmidmdashThe co-occurrence in the 3duof -aēte and -ōiθe (thematic endings) is explained by the fact that the end-ing of the 2dumid -aiθai (Skt -ethe) was adopted by the 3du (sect301b)mdashThe endings of the 3pl -re and -āire (lt -āre cf Skt -re) were used in PIEfor the stative They originate in the PIE ending -ro of the 3pl of the mid-dle

b Secondary Endings The endings correspond to the series of endings inSkt 1sg -i-a 3sg -ta 1du -vahi (lt -uadhi) 3du -etām (thematic)-ātāmpl -mahi -dhvam -nta-ata and -(i)ram-(i)ranmdashFor the 3du -aētəm it mustagain be presumed that the final short vowel was introduced from the 2du-aitam (Skt has innovated with -ethām)mdashIn 3sg we find an ending -i (Skt-i) which is utilized for the isolated passive aorist (sect252)mdashThe endings of the3pl with -r- are endings of the stative which continues the old PIE middleendings in -rowith a secondary -nt thus -ront

c The subjunctive has a unique ending in the 1sg -āne which coexists withthe old -āi (a-ai) cf Skt -ai versus OP -ānaiy The remaining persons of themiddle have primary endingsmdashThe imperative shows forms that correspondto endings of Skt 2sg -sva 3sg -tām 2pl -dhvam (= SE) 3pl -ntām It ispossible that there may have been a ldquopassiverdquo form (parallel to the 3sg ofthe passive aorist sect252) 3sg Av -ąm (Skt -ām) but the evidence is notconclusive

sect 31 middot the augment 87

table 18 The use of the augment

Unaugmented Augmented

Present inj impfAorist inj indPerfect ind plupf (absent in Av)

d In the perfect there are very few forms attested but they agree with thecorresponding forms of Skt 1sg -e 3sg -e 3du -āte 3pl -re

e The middle participle exhibits a suffix -āna- (also -ąna- and -ana- Skt-āna-) in athematic forms and -mna- (OP -mna- cf Skt -māna- versus Pāli-mina) in thematic forms This distribution of allomorphs is due to the develop-ment of the PIE suffix -mh1no- gt IIr degC-mHna- gt -Cāna- (after a consonant)versus degV-mHna- gt -Vmna- (after a vowel) The perfpartmid makes use onlyof the suffix -āna- (Skt -āna-)

sect31 The Augment

An accented prefix eacute- (h1e-) through which indicatives with preterital valuewere made existed in Proto-Indo-European When added to an injunctivepresent form (the basic unmarked form) the augment transforms an injunc-tive into an imperfect if an augment is added to a perfect stem it would form apluperfect The preterital value of the aorist stem was also formally expressedthrough aorist injunctive forms with the augment

The augment is systematically employed in Classical Greek (pres λύω impfἔλυον) in Sanskrit (bhaacuterāmi aacutebharam) and inOld Persian (degbarāmiy abaram)its use in Avestan however seems to bemuchmore limited since themajorityof preterital formsdonot show the augment the forms of the injunctive servingto express the past tense This use could be due inmany cases to the particularcontent of the texts In any case the (new) function of the injunctive inAvestanis not very well understood

In Old Av there is no clear evidence for any imperfect forms while in YoungAv the few imperfect forms seem to have disparate functions (in some casesit can be interpreted as an anterior to the injunctive)

Descriptively forms with secondary endings can bear or not bear the aug-ment In the case of forms without the augment they are termed lsquoinjunctivesrsquofollowing tradition In the case of forms that bear the augment they are called

lsquoimperfectsrsquo (in the present stem) or indicative (in the aorist stem) For its partthe perfect with its own set of endings has both forms without the augmentlsquoindicativesrsquo and forms with the augment lsquopluperfectsrsquo

Furthermore distinguishingbetween the augment and thepreverbā is oftendifficult on account of the partial phonetic confusion between a and ā in Avdepending upon phonetic environment (eg sect73) Thus a form paitiiāmraot lsquohe addressedrsquo can reflect paiti āmraot (with thepreverbā) paiti amraot (withimpf) or paiti ā amraot

sect32 Paradigms

In the following section we present verbal paradigms consisting of attestedforms with one form to exemplify each person as well as the distinct phoneticvariants that an endingmay exhibit (cf eg NB under sect301) The forms givenin the tables belong solely to YAv except where expressly indicated to thecontrary using italics Forms of the subjunctivewith secondary endings appearin bold italic type historically these forms aremore archaic but they are in theprocess of being replaced by primary endings in Avestan

sect321 Athematic Root Present and Root AoristGiven that the inflection of both of these formations is the same they are pre-sented together in Table 19 To provide examples of the paradigm we offerforms from the following present stems ah-h-x-s-z-empty- lsquobersquo aii-i-y- lsquogorsquoaoj- lsquospeakrsquo āh- lsquobe seatedrsquo is- lsquocontrol rulersquo jan- ja-ɣn- lsquokillrsquo tac- lsquorunrsquo tāš-taš-lsquoshape creatersquo pā- lsquoprotectrsquo mrauu-mrū- lsquospeakrsquo vas-us- lsquowishrsquo vā- lsquoblowrsquo saii-lsquoliersquo sāh- lsquoteachrsquo stauu-stu- lsquopraisersquo šaii-ši- lsquodwellrsquo Likewiseweoffer forms fromthe following aorist stems car-kərə- lsquomake dorsquo jam-gəm-ga- lsquocomersquo caii-sii- lsquoperceiversquo cōiθ-ciθ- lsquoshowrsquo cōiš-ciš- lsquogatherrsquo dar-dr- lsquoholdrsquo darəs-dərəs-lsquolookrsquo dā-d- lsquogive putrsquo bauu-bū- lsquobecomersquo man- lsquothinkrsquo mōiθ-miθ- lsquothrowrsquoyaog-yuj- lsquoyokersquo van- lsquowinrsquo 1var- lsquocoverrsquo 2var- lsquowantrsquo varəz- lsquoworkrsquo rād- lsquomakersquosrauu-sru- lsquohearrsquo hac-sc- lsquofollowrsquo

sect 32 middot paradigms 89

table 19 The root present and root aorist indicative and injunctive

a Pres Indact Indmid Injimpfact Injmid

1st sg ahmi ni-ɣne mruiie aojōi mraom aojī2nd ahi vaši taxše paŋhē mraoš pairii-aoɣžā3rd asti jaiṇti mraoiti mrūite ište aoxte mraot tāšt ās aogədā aoxta

mruiie isē1st du usuuahī wa wa wa3rd stō wa impf auuāitəm wa

(auua-i-)1st pl mahi mrūmaide wa wa2nd stā wa mraotā wa3rd həṇti yeiṇti vaṇti aojaite aŋhāire saēre impf auuāin wa

b Aor Injact Injmid

1st sg darəsəm wa2nd cōiš da varəš-cā daŋhāməṇghā3rd jən dātmōist maṇtā1st du wa duuaidī3rd wa a-sruuātəm1st pl dāmā varəmaidī2nd dātā a-srūdūm3rd gəmən dąn yūjən vī-siiātā

c Passive AoristWithin the aorist system there is an isolated 3rd pers indicativeinjunctiveform that adds an ending -i (Skt -i) directly to the aorist stem in which theroot seems to show LG (by Brugmann sect746) The roots that exhibit thisformation are ciš lsquogatherrsquo vac lsquosayrsquo and sru lsquohearrsquo (and perhaps 2mrū lsquomistreatrsquo)Forms of the 3rdsgindinj of the passive aor are OAv cəuuīšī vācī and a-uuācī(Skt aacutevāci) srāuuī (Skt śravi) Later this ending is extended to other secondaryformations such as the present stems ərənu- (ar lsquoset inmotionrsquo) jan lsquokillrsquo or theperfect stem āẟ- lsquosayrsquo YAv ərənāuui jaini āiẟi

table 20 The root present and root aorist other moods

d Subj Presact Presmid Aoract Aormid

1st sg fra-mrauua fra-mra- mrauuāne yaojā varānī mənāi varānēuuāni aojāi

2nd aŋhō wa dāhī daŋhē3rd aŋhaiti aŋhat wa dāitī dāt yaož-dāitē

cōiθaitē1st du wa wa wa jamaētē3rd wa wa wa wa1st pl aŋhāmā aiβi-šaiiama išāmaidē darəsāma wa2nd wa wa vī-caiiaθā daduiiē3rd aŋhən apatacin wa daiṇtī rādəṇtī jimən daṇtē yaojaṇtē

e Opt Presact Presmid Aoract Aormid

1st sg xiiəm wa diiąm diiā2nd mruiia mruuīšā jamiia dīšā3rd mruiiāt sāhīt aojīta jamiiāt vainīt drītā1st pl xiiāmā wa jamiiāmā buiiama mainimaidī

srəuuīmā2nd xiiātā wa dāiiata wa3rd hiiārə wa jamiiārəš jamiiąn wa

f Impv Presact Presmid Aoract Aormid

2nd sg mrūiẟi zdī idī wa dāidī kərəšuuādāhuuā

3rd mraotu astū wa dātū wa2nd pl staota wa dātā wa3rd yaṇtu həṇtū wa scaṇtū wa

g Part Presact Presmid Aoract Aormid

həṇt- f haitī-mruuaṇt- mruuāna- daṇt- sr(a)uuana-nomsgm šiiąs aojana-f šiieitī-

sect322 Athematic Reduplicated PresentTo provide examples of the paradigm we offer forms of the following presentstems (with partial reduplication) kuxšnu- (xšnu lsquogreetrsquo) cikaii- (ci lsquoperceiversquo)dadā-dad- (dā lsquogive putrsquo) didaii-dīdi- (dī lsquowatchrsquo)mim- (mā lsquomeasurersquo) zazā-zaz- (zā lsquoleaversquo) zaz- (zā lsquorisersquo) hišhāk-hišc- (hac lsquofollowrsquo) The rare formswithtotal reduplication (sect262b) have the same endings

table 21 The reduplicated present

Indact Indmid Subjact Subjmid

1st sg daẟąmi daiθe dadē daθāni yaož-daθāne2nd daẟāhi wa zazāhi yaož-daθō wa3rd daẟāiti daste dazdē yaož-daθāiti daθat daθaite3rd du wa zazāite cikaiiatō wa1st pl dadəmahī dadəmaidē daθāma hišcamaidē2nd wa wa fra-mīmaθā wa3rd dadaitī wa zazəṇti daθən yaož-daθəṇte

Injact Injmid Optact Optmid

1st sg daẟąm dīẟaēm wa wa daiẟe2nd dada wa daiẟīš daiθiia daiθīša3rd daẟāt didąs dasta dazdā daiẟīt daiẟiiāt daiθīta daidītā3rd du wa wa daiẟītəm wa3rd pl ā-dadat wa daiθiiąn daiθiiārəš wa

Impvact Impvmid Partact Partmid

2nd sg dazdi dasuuā daẟat- daθat- daθāna- kuxšnuuąna-yaož-daθəṇt-

3rd dadātū wa2nd pl dasta mąz-dazdūm

sect323 Presents in -n -nu and -nāIn what follows we present a synopsis of all types of presents with a nasal infixMembership in each specific type of formation will be expressly indicated (inthe text and in the tables) using the following numbering system 1 presents in-n 2 presents in -nu 3 presents in -nā

To provide examples of the paradigm we offer forms of the following stems1 cinaθ- to ciθ lsquoshowrsquo cinah-cīš (lt ciNš- cf sect715) to ciš lsquogatherrsquo mərəṇc-to marc lsquodestroyrsquo minas- to miias lsquomixrsquo vinad-viṇd- to vid lsquofindrsquo 2 ərənauu-ərənu- to ar lsquoset in motionrsquo kərənauu-kərənu- to kar lsquomake dorsquo tanauu-tanu-to tan lsquostretchrsquo dəbənauu- to dab lsquodeceiversquo vərənauu-vərənu- to var lsquocoverrsquospašnauu-spašnu- to spas lsquowatchrsquo srinauu-srinu- to sri lsquolean onrsquo surunauu-surunu- to sru lsquohearrsquo hunauu-hunu- to hu lsquopress outrsquo 3 gərəβnā- to grablsquoseizersquo dərən- to dar lsquotearrsquo pərənā-pərən- to par lsquofightrsquo frīnā- frīn- to frī lsquopleasersquovərən- to var lsquowantrsquo stərənā-stərən- to star lsquodeploy scatterrsquo hunā-hun- to hūlsquoimpelrsquo

table 22 Nasal presents

a Indact Indmid b Subjact Subjmid

1st sg 1 cinahmī 2 kərənauuāni 2 kərənauuāne2 kərənaomi tanauua 3 pərənāne3 frīnāmi 3 pərəne 3 frīnāni frīnāi

2nd 3 timeshunāhi wa 2 timesni-srinauuāhi wa3rd 1 cinasti 1mərəɣəṇte 2 hunauuat 2 vərənauuaitē

2 kərənaoiti (mərəŋte) 3 frīnāt 3 pərənāite3 gərəβnāiti 2 vərənūite

3 vərəṇtē3rd du 2 hunutō1st pl 1 cīšmahī 1 cīšmaide wa 1 cinaθāmaide

3 friiąnmahī ltfrįnmahi

2nd 2 +spašnuθā 1mərəṇgəduiiē3rd 1 mərəṇciṇti 1mərəṇcaitē 2 kərənaon 2 ərənauuaṇte

2 kərənuuaiṇti 3 gərəβnąn3 frīnəṇti

c Injact Injmid d Optact Optmid

1st sg wa wa wa 2 tanuiia2nd 1minaš wa 2 surunuiia wa

3 xdegstərəniia3rd 1 cinas 2 hunūta 1 cīšiiāt 1 mərəṇcīta

2 kərənaot 3 vərəṇta 2 kərənuiiāt 3rd du wa wa wa2nd pl 2 dəbənaotā wa3rd 1 viṇdən 3 vərənātā 1 cīšiią wa

2 +hunuiiārəš

e Impvact Impvmid Partact Partmid

2nd sg 1 cīždī wa 2 kərənuuaṇt- 1 viṇdāna-2 kərənūiẟi 3 dərənaṇt- 2 hunuuana-3 pərənā f uruuīnaitī-

2nd pl 2 srinaota wa3rd 3 frīnəṇtu wa

sect324 Thematic Presents and AoristsTo provide examples of the paradigm we offer forms of the following stemspres xraosa- lsquoshoutrsquo xšaiia- lsquorule controlrsquo gūša- lsquohearrsquo cara- lsquogorsquo jaiẟiia- lsquoprayrsquojasa- lsquocomersquo juua- lsquoliversquo taca- lsquorunrsquo tauruuaiia- lsquoconquerrsquo daoiia- lsquobe deceivedrsquodāraiia- lsquoholdrsquo dīdraɣža- lsquowant to holdrsquo θrāiia- lsquoprotectrsquo pərəsa- lsquoaskrsquo bauua-lsquobecomersquo bara- lsquobearrsquo nasiia- lsquodisappearrsquomaniia- lsquothinkrsquo yasa- lsquotakersquo yaza- lsquowor-ship sacrificersquo yūiẟiia- lsquofightrsquo vərəca- lsquopull apartrsquo vərəziia- lsquoworkrsquo vīsa- lsquoserversquosrāuuaiia- lsquoproclaimrsquo srarāiia- lsquoleanrsquo zaiia- lsquobe bornrsquo haca- lsquofollowrsquo hišta- lsquostandrsquoaor vaoca- lsquosayrsquo

table 23 The thematic present and aorist

1st sg barāmi jaiẟiiemi baire ā-iiese barāni srāuu- jasāipərəsā aiieni xšaiiā

2nd barahi jaiẟiiehi hištahe xšaiiehe barāhi srāraiia pərəsaŋhe3rd baraiti nasiieti baraite jasāiti jasāt yazāite1st du wa wa juuāuua wa3rd baratō yūiẟiiaθō vīsaēte fra-carōiθe jasātō wa1st pl barāmahi barāmaide juuāmahī ba- wa

rāma2nd xšaiiaθā fra-caraθβe dīdraɣ- wa wa

žōduiiē3rd barəṇti bauuaiṇti vīsəṇte θrāiieṇte baraṇti barąn zaiiaṇte

taciṇti jaiẟiieiṇti haciṇte

c Injimpfact Injimpfmid d Optact Optmid

1st sg barəm abaom baire wa isōiiāvī-ẟāraēm

2nd jasō zaiiaŋha vī-ẟāraiiōiš yazaēša3rd jasat zaiiata jasōit maniiaēta3rd du jasatəm jasaētəm wa a-pərəsaiiatəm1st pl aor ā-uuaocāmā wa jasaēma vaēnōimaidī

būiẟiiōimaiẟe112nd tauruuaiiata wa frā-θβərəsaēta rāmōiẟβəm3rd jasən baon mainiiaṇta fraorəci- baraiiən yazaiiaṇta

ṇta vīsəṇta kāraiiən

e Impvact Impvmid f Partact Partmid

1st sg jasa nase baraŋvha gūšahuuā jasaṇt- barəmna-vərəziiaṇt- hacimna-

2nd baratu vərəziiātąm vərəziṇt- a-ẟaoiiamna-2nd pl barata dāraiiaẟβəm gūšōdūm3rd barəṇtu xraosəṇtąm

11 With primary ending

sect325 Sigmatic AoristTo provide examples of the paradigm we offer forms of the following aoriststems uruuaxš- (uruuaj lsquowalkrsquo) xšnaoš- (xšnu lsquogreetrsquo) θβarš- (θβars lsquocutshapersquo) θraŋh- (θrā lsquoprotectrsquo) darəš- (dar lsquoholdrsquo) daŋh- (dā lsquoputrsquo) dāiš-dōiš-(dis lsquopointrsquo) fraš- ( fras lsquoaskrsquo) baxš- (baj lsquodividersquo) naš- (nas lsquobringrsquo) naēš- (nīlsquolead guidersquo)məṇgh-məh- (man lsquothinkrsquo) vaŋh-vəṇgh- (van lsquowinrsquo) varəš- (varzlsquoworkrsquo) važ-vaš- (vaz lsquogo leadrsquo) raēxš- (iric lsquoabandon removersquo) rāh-raŋh- (rālsquobestowrsquo) sąs- (saṇd lsquoappearrsquo) staŋh- (stā lsquostandrsquo) zāh- (zā lsquoleaversquo)

table 24 The sigmatic aorist

a Indinjact Indinjmid b Subjact Subjmid

1st sg wa frašī məṇghī varəšā xšnaošāiməṇghāivarəsānē

2nd dāiš wa wa raŋhaŋhōi3rd dārəšt sąs vąs xšnaošta staŋhaiti varəšaitī varəšaitē vašata

mąsta baxšaitī vəṇghat naēšat 1st pl wa a-məhmaidī nāšāmā wa2nd wa θβarōždūm wa maz-daŋhōdūm3rd uruuāxšat wa varəšəṇtī xšnaošən vašaṇte

vəṇghən

c Optact Optmid d Impvact Impvmid

1st sg wa wa2nd wa raēxšīša dōišī fərašuuā3rd fra-zahīt wa1st pl nāšīma wa2nd wa wa sąstā θrāzdūm3rd aēšiiąn wa

e Partact Partmid

vaŋhəṇt- maŋhāna-

sect326 PerfectTo provide examples of the paradigm we offer forms of the following perfectstems ād- (to ad lsquosayrsquo) āh- (ah lsquobersquo) iiei- (i lsquogorsquo) irīriθ- (iriθ- lsquodiersquo) urūraod-(urud lsquoobstructrsquo) cikōit-cicit- (cit lsquounderstandrsquo) jaɣm- (gam lsquocomersquo) jaɣār- (garlsquowakersquo) jaɣauruu- (grab lsquoseizersquo) jigaē- ( jī lsquoliversquo) dadā-dāẟ-daẟ- pāfr-pafr-(par lsquofillrsquo) mamn- (man lsquothinkrsquo) yaiiat-yaēt-yōit- (yat lsquooccupy a positionrsquo)vauuan-vaon- (van lsquowinrsquo) vauuac-vaoc- (vac lsquosayrsquo) vauuaz-vaoz- (vaz lsquogoleadrsquo) vaēd-vōid- (vid lsquofindrsquo) vaorāz- (uruuāz lsquobe gladrsquo) rar- (rā lsquobestowrsquo)susru- (sru lsquohearrsquo)

table 25 The perfect

1st sg jaɣauruua vaēdā susruiie wa wa2nd dadāθa vauuaxẟa vōistā wa wa wa3rd jaɣauruua jaɣāra vaēẟa pafre daiẟe vaēθat +pafrāite

aŋha urūraost3rd du yaētatarə mamnāitē wa wa1st pl sūsrūma yaēθma wa wa wa2nd wa wa vaorāzaθā wa3rd irīriθarə aŋharə cikōitərəš +raire vaēθəṇti iieiiən wa

c Optact Optmid d Partact Partmid

1st sg jaɣmiiąm wa irīriθuš- irīriθāna-2nd wa jiɣaēša vīẟuuāh-viduš-3rd vaoniiāt aŋhāt wa f jaɣmūšī-3rd du aŋhāttəm wa2nd pl wa wa3rd +daiẟīn baβriiąn vaozirəm

sect33 Non-Finite and Nominal Forms

Some formations have a double nature in that they simultaneously showprop-erties of both verb and noun Formally they have nominal character in virtueof being declined or bearing specifically nominal suffixes while they belong tothe verbal system insofar as they are able to express tense voice andor aspect

sect 33 middot non-finite and nominal forms 97

These formations include infinitives participles (which have already been dis-cussedabove cf sectsect301e 302e) aswell as various verbal nouns andadjectivesThe most important formations will be treated in the following paragraphs

1 The infinitive The majority of formations categorized as infinitives showan ending -ai (OAv -ōi YAv -e) whichmatches the ending -ai of the datsg innominal inflection (sect1817) hence one can infer that the infinitive originallymarked the goal of a verbal action The Avestan infinitive occupies an interme-diate positionbetween the original use as a verbal noun (taking part in nominalinflection) and use as an impersonal verbal form (being incorporated into theverbal system)

The infinitive in -diiāi (Skt -dhyai) is added to the root in the ZG (egsrūidiiāi to sru lsquohearrsquo) or to the present stem (eg θrāiiōidiiāi built on θrāiia-lsquoprotectrsquo) This suffix provides a middle voice infinitive Other suffixes that areadded either to the root or to the verbal stem are -tōi-te mrūite lsquoto sayrsquo OAvstōi lsquoto bersquo -uuanōi-uuane OAv vīduuanōi to vid (cf the Gr inf suffix -ϝεναιεἴδεναι Cypriot δοϝεναι) -uuōi-uue OAv dāuuōi lsquoto giversquo the infinitive in -heOAv vaocaŋhē lsquosayrsquo is formed from the present stem

2 The verbal action noun formed with the accented PIE suffix -tiacute- and ZGof the root is also found in Avestan with the same function kərəti- lsquoact deedrsquoto karmaiti- lsquothoughtrsquo toman In Av forms with FG of the root also occur egxvarəti- lsquofoodrsquo to xvar which prove that the suffix remained productive until alate period Themajority of nomina agentis are attested in the datsg -aiai (-əe-aiiaēca) and given that the finality of the verbal action is thereby expressedthis formation comes very close to usage as an infinitive

3 Theperfect passiveparticiple is formedwith a suffix -ta- added to the rootin the ZG kərəta- lsquodonersquo to kar druxta- lsquotrickedrsquo to druj basta- lsquoboundrsquo to baṇdgata- lsquocomersquo to gam This formation continues the old PIE verbal adjective withZGof the root and accented suffix -toacute- cf Skt gataacute- Gr βατός Latuentus fromPIE gum-toacute- lsquocomersquo However the adjective -ta- was productive into youngerstages of the language Hence forms with FG occur to seṭ roots (ie in -ā) andto some roots whose ZG formally obscured its paradigmatic connection to therest of the finite forms dāta- lsquoputrsquo to dā (cf Skt hitaacute- with ZG lt dhh1-toacute-) rāta-lsquobestowedrsquo to rā tašta- lsquoconstructedrsquo to taš yašta- lsquohonoredrsquo to yaz (cf Skt iṣṭaacute-with FG) and baxta- lsquodistributedrsquo to baj (Skt bhaktaacute-)

chapter 4

Syntax

sect34 Syntax

The functions of the various nominal and verbal formations are in large partdescribed in the chapter on morphology In this chapter details that concernthe functioning of the constituent elements in the phrase are the focus ofdiscussion

sect35 Number

An important feature is agreement of the nomplneut with a verb in thesingular which is constistent in OAv but only sporadic in YAv which prefersthe plural Y 294 saxvārə hellip yā zī vāuuərəzōi (3sgperfmidind to varz) lsquoinsultsthat have been madersquo Avestan has preserved here an important archaism inwhich Sanskrit Greek and also Hittite share

Dual forms are usually found in three different situations 1 in conjunctionwith the number duua- lsquotworsquo Yt 5131 duua auruuaṇta yāsāmi lsquoI ask for twocoursersrsquo 2 in relation to a natural pair Yt 1091 frasnātaēibiia zastaēibiia lsquowithboth hands washedrsquo OAv Y 3210 vaēnaŋhē ašibiiā lsquoin order to see with his eyesrsquo3 in a dvandva ie a compound in which bothmembers are coordinated withone another Each member of the compound takes the dual Y 94 pasu vīralsquocattle andmenrsquomiθraahura lsquoMiθra andAhurarsquo (cf Sktmitravaacuteruṇā lsquoMitra andVarunarsquo)

Old Av always employs verbal forms in the dual to refer to two entitiestogether in Young Av the dual is disappearing gradually being substituted bythe plural The dual is though still regularly used to refer to natural pairs and indvandvas Y 125 apərəsaētəmmazdascā zaraθuštrascā lsquoM and Z discussedrsquo Thenumber lsquotworsquo usually takes plural forms or in late texts (cf sect402 411) even thesingular Vd 241 duua nara uszaiieiṇti lsquotwo men are bornrsquo Vd 752 duua mainiiurəna auuastaŋhat lsquothe two spirits will begin battlersquo

100 chapter 4 middot syntax

sect36 Case Syntax

1 The nominative is the case of the subject as well as the case of any predi-cation that refers to the subject The nominative can also assume the functionof the vocative which has its own endings only in the singular The vocativeis used for appellative functions and serves to directly address a referent Ifseveral vocatives occur in a clause they are usually coordinated asyndeticallymazdā asā lsquoMazdā and Asarsquo The accusative functions as the direct object oftransitive verbs Also used is the accusative of direction in order to indicate theend or the direction of a verbal action Y 461 kąm ząm aiienī lsquoto which land willI gorsquo The accusative of (temporal or spatial) extension is also a common func-tion Y 655 hąminəmca zaiianəmca lsquoin summer and in winterrsquo Vd 317 θrigāimhaca lsquothree steps fromrsquo Finally the accusative of relation occurs cuuat drājōlsquohow longrsquo Yt 598 īštīm səuuišta lsquomighty in heritagersquo Meanwhile constructionswith a double accusative (some of doubtless antiquitiy) are not foreign to AvY 115 yō mąm tat draonō zināt vā trəfiiāt vā lsquowho leaves me this share or robsme of itrsquo (cf Skt indro marutaḥ sahasram ajināt lsquoIndra left a thousand to theMarutsrsquo OP xšaccedilamšim adam adinam lsquoI left the kingship to himrsquo)

2 The genitive is the case of nominal dependency and thus serves to expressan enormous range of functions (appurtenance material partitive temporaletc) which are also present in the other IE languages Y 423 ātarš puθraahurahe mazda lsquofire son of Ahura Mazdārsquo Yt 1098 yō āsištō yazatanąm lsquowhois the quickest among the Yazatasrsquo Vd 92 upaθβaršti uruuaranąm lsquohe cuts (acertain quantity) of plantsrsquo On the other hand the genitive also functions as theobligatory complement of many verbs (is lsquoprovidersquo xšā lsquoorderrsquo baj lsquoapportionrsquoetc) Yt 1721 upamē sraiiaŋvha vāsahe lsquolean on my cartrsquo Y 584 fšūšə carəkəmahīlsquowe celebrate the cattle-herderrsquo

The ablative case has its own forms only in part (sect1415 153 166) Theablative refers to a point of departure (origin) Yt 1713 uštraŋhō +uzaiiaṇtōzəmat lsquocamels that rise from the earthrsquo The ablative functions as the obligatorycomplement of many verbs (nas lsquodisappearrsquo rah lsquodepartrsquo miθ lsquodepriversquo etc)Y 928 yastəm xšaθāt mōiθat lsquowho deprives him of sovereigntyrsquo The ablativeis used especially with verbs of salvation purification and protection Aog 57yahmat haca naēciš buṇjaiiāt lsquofrom which no one may be savedrsquo An importantfurther use is as the proper case for the second element of a comparison Y 4511nōit mōi vāstā xšmat aniiō lsquoI have no other shepherd than you [pl]rsquo

3 The dative governs a referent to whom the verbal action is directed Itis used to indicate the person who is advantaged or disadvantaged by whatoccurs Y 2910 aēibiiō aogō dātā lsquogive them strengthrsquo Vd 1512 ptərəbiiō āstriieitilsquohe sins against his parentsrsquo it also indicates that the person has a stake in the

sect 37 middot the use of verbal moods 101

outcome of the action (ethical dative) Y 455 yōi mōi ahmāi səraošəm dąn lsquotheywho gave him obedience for mersquo A temporal usage is also in evidence Vd 445maiẟiiāi asnąmca xšafnąmca lsquoat midday and at midnightrsquo

The instrumental expresses a referent that participates in the verbal actionwith the subject or the object this refererent can be instrumental proper comi-tative causative or agentive Y 5710 snaiθiša xvarəm jaiṇti lsquowith the weaponhe struck [him] a woundrsquo Y 292 yə drəguuōdəbīš aēšəməm vādāiiōit lsquowho giveschase to anger along with the liarsrsquo Y 472 ōiiā cistī lsquofor (the sake of) this idearsquoIn quasi-adverbial use the instrumental indicates a feature or characteristic Yt561 mərəɣahe kəhrpa lsquowith the body of a birdrsquo

The locative governs a referent in which or even towards which the verbalaction takes place For example Y 116 ahmi nmāne zaiiaṇte lsquothey will be born inthis housersquo Y 504 ā paiθī dəmānē lsquoon the way to the housersquo A temporal usage isalso in evidence Vd 213 ušahuua bišaziiāt lsquohe should heal [it] in the morningrsquo

sect37 The Use of Verbal Moods

1 The present indicative expresses a real and current state of affairs whether itbe specific or general whether a single or repeated action Yt 1717 kō ahi yōmąmzbaiiehi lsquowho are you who calls upon mersquo Y 653 vīspa ima āpō ya zəmā paitifrataciṇti lsquoall these waters which run across the earthrsquo The perfect indicativerefers to the result of an action in the past or an action that contributed to theformation of a present state Y 11 niuuaēẟaiiemi daθušō hellip yō nō daẟa lsquoI worshipon account of the creator hellip who has created usrsquo Y 91 kō narə ahi yim azəmvīspahe aŋhəuš astuuatō sraēštəm dādarəsa lsquowho o man are you the mostbeautiful whom I have seen in all my mortal lifersquo

2 The present and aorist injunctive refer to a real past event without anyindication as to the perfectivity or imperfectivity of the verbal action More-over there seems to have been no functional difference between the few aoristindicative forms and the aorist injunctive The injunctive is the mood of narra-tionpar excellence it is thus functionally equivalent to the imperfect of Sanskritor Old Persian It is used profusely in the great mythological and cosmogonicnarratives and in doctrinal and didactic texts Y 191 pərəsat zaraθuštrō ahurəmmazdąm lsquoZ askedAMrsquo Independent of themoodof themain clause the injunc-tive is always used in any subordinate clause that refers to an real past eventThe injunctive is the mood employed in prohibitive statements (sect392)

As was already mentioned in sect31 it is difficult to find unmistakable formsof the imperfect (such as for example forms belonging to ah lsquobersquo or i lsquogorsquo)Moreover its use does not seem to differ fundamentally from the use of the

injunctive although some rare passages may be noted in which the imperfectexpresses an action prior to the action expressed by the injunctive Yt 568 tąmyazata jāmāspō yat spāẟəm pairiauuaēnat lsquoJāmāspa sacrificed to him once hehad caught sight of the armyrsquo

3 The present and aorist subjunctive indicate an action that has not yetbeen initiated and which will be actualized only if certain conditions holdFrom this point of view the subjunctive takes on a voluntative value (veryclose to a future) for the 1st pers in main or independent clauses Yt 1947 aētat xvarənō haṇgrəfšāne lsquoI want to seize that xvarənahrsquo in the 2nd pers a stronglyprescriptive (almost imperatival) value is observable Vd 1851 iməm tē narəmnisrinaomi iməm mē narəm nisrāraiia upa sūrąm frašōkərətīm lsquoI entrust thisman to you return this man to me upon [the day of] the mighty frašōkərətirsquoin the 3rd pers (sometimes also in the 1st) a consecutive (sequential) valuedepending on a previous process can be felt Yt 19 yazaēša mąm zaraθuštra hellipjasāni te auuaŋhaēca rafnaŋhaēca azəmyō ahurōmazda lsquomake sacrifices tomeo Zarathustrahellip I who amAhuraMazdā will come to you in aid and assistance[of you]rsquo Vd 223 θrižatca gəuš apajasāt lsquoand a third of the cows will perishrsquo

The subjunctive is used to ask about an action which has not yet beeninitiated Vd 812 cāiiō āat aēte maēsma aŋhən yaēibiiō frasnaiiaṇte varəsascatanūmca lsquowhich are the (kinds of) urine with which hair and body should bewashedrsquo The perfect subjunctive is a rare YAv formation which expressesprospective anteriority Yt 839 tištrīm yazamaide hellip yō pairika titāraiieiti yauzaŋhat aŋrōmainiiuš lsquoweworship Tištriahellipwho passes [ie kills] the Pairikaswhich Angra Manyu would have sent uprsquo

4 The optative instantiates a number of disparate functions a Above allthe optative is used in a main or independent clause with direct speech andits usage implies that the speaker wants for the verbal action to be realized bythe interlocutor (cupitative) Yt 1023 apa nō haca ązaŋhat miθra barōiš lsquobring usaway from fear o Miθrarsquo A related usage is the prescriptive optative which isvery common in the Vidēvdād Vd 215 xuziiara uzīra huuarəxšaēta lsquoarise get upo solar orbrsquo b The optative also serves in the expression of comparisons andsimilies involving an imaginary action Yt 855 tištriiō hellip pairikąm ādarəzaiieitihellip mąnaiiən ahe yaθa hazaŋrəm narąm ōim narəm ādarəzaiiōit lsquoTištria holdsthe Pairikā like a thousand men would hold a single manrsquo c Likewise thepresent optative (almost always with the augment) functions as a past tenseiterative This usage has left traces in many Old Middle and Modern Iranianlanguages this function could therefore go back to Proto-IranianVd 1927 kuuatā dāθra paiti haṇjasəṇti masiiō astuuaiṇti aŋhuuō hauuāi urune paradaiẟiiāt lsquowhere do the donations go which the mortal has been offering for his ownspirit throughout his bony lifersquo

sect 38 middot clausal syntax 103

d The aorist optative occurs only in direct speech This usage termed lsquopreca-tiversquo seems to have been the product of a Proto-Indo-Iranian specializationY 704 yaθa īža vācim nāšīma lsquobecause we would bear the word with the liba-tionrsquo

e The perfect optative has as its primary function the expression of the pastirrealis Yt 824 yeiẟi zī mā hellip yazaiiaṇta hellip auui mąm auuibaβriiąm dasanąmaspanąm aojō lsquoif they would have made a sacrifice to me hellip I would haveacquired the strength of ten horsesrsquo

5 The imperative expresses orders and commands of an immediate char-acter Vd 24 āat mē gaēθa frāẟaiia āat mē gaēθa varəẟaiia lsquomake my creaturesprosper make my creatures growrsquo

sect38 Clausal Syntax

1 In the Avestan manuscripts no sign that serves as a marker of interrogationor exclamation appears Nevertheless wh-questions are usually introduced byan interrogative pronoun (cf sect225) or adverb OAv kadā YAv kaẟα lsquowhenrsquokaθa lsquohowrsquo OAv kū kudā lsquowherersquo YAv kudat lsquofrom wherersquo kuθa lsquohowrsquokuθra lsquowherersquo k(a)uua lsquowherersquo Yesno-questions are usually accompanied byspecific particles eg kat (Skt kaacutet) Vd 642 kat tā haoma +yaoždaiiąn aŋhənlsquoshould these haomas be purifiedrsquo

2Coordination Twoormore constituents or clauses canbe conjoinedusingthe enclitic particle -ca (Gr -τε Lat -que) or the word uta Y 573 ahe raiiaxvarənaŋhaca lsquothrough his wealth and abundancersquo The particle vā introducesdisjunctive coordination Y 4610 nā gənā vā lsquoman or womanrsquo The OAv particleat atcīt YAv āat introduces a proposition that contrasts with what was pre-viously said while aθa indicates a consequence of a previous statement Avzī (Skt hiacute) expresses causality Vd 536 juuō zī hellip spəṇtahe mainiiəuš dāmanąmhąmraēθβaiieiti lsquobecause (while it is) alive it mingles with the creatures of thebeneficient spiritrsquo

3 Subordination Subordination is introduced by relative pronouns (sect223)or by conjunctions

a In explanatory clauses OAv hiiat YAv yat (Skt yaacutet) or yaθa (Skt yaacutethā)lsquothat because sincersquo is normally used Yt 534 auuat āiiaptəm dazdi mē hellip yat bauuāni aiβivaniia ažīm dahākəm lsquodo me this favor hellip that I may be victorover Aži DahākarsquomdashFinal or consecutive clauses also begin with hiiatyat oryaθa lsquoin order that that so thatrsquo Vd 332 yat yauuō pouruš bauuāt aẟa mąθrəmtaẟa mairiiāt lsquoin order that the grain be plentiful this mantra should now berecitedrsquo

b Concessive clauses are served by yatcit lsquoalthoughrsquo (Skt yaacutec cid) Yt 1085yeŋhe vāxš hellip vī hapta karšuuąn jasaiti yatcit nəmaŋha vācim baraiti lsquowhosevoice hellip spreads throughout the seven karšvars although he raises his voicewith reverencersquomdashComparative clauses also begin with Av yaθa lsquolike asrsquo (withcorrelatives aθa auuaθa etc) Vd 232 āat yimō auuaθa kərənaot yaθa dim išat ahurō mazda lsquothen Yima did just as AM commanded himrsquo

c The formation of conditional clauses depends on the type of statementThe usual conjunction is yezi but hiiatyat yaθa also appears When dealingwith a necessary relation (reality) the protasis usually occurs in the indicativeand the apodosis in any mood other than the optative Vd 1876 yezi azāite təmahūm paiθiiāite yim asaonąm lsquoif he receives [the penance] then he will arriveto the existence of the followers of Asarsquo yeiẟi zī huuarə nōit uzuxšiieiti lsquoif thesun does not risersquo An irrealis relationship is expressed using the conjunctionye(i)ẟi (zī) lsquoif rsquo (Skt yaacutedi) with the perfect optative (sect374e) Yt 852 yeiẟi zīazəm nōit daiẟiiąm aom stārəm hellip pairika aŋhuuąm auuahisiẟiiāt lsquoif I had notcreated that star the Pairika would have entered into existencersquo A contingentrelation is established through use of the optative in both the protasis andapodosis

d For local subordinate clauses yaθra (Skt yaacutetra) lsquowherersquo and again yaθaare usedY 104 staomizəmōyaθaraoẟahehubaoiẟiš lsquoI praise the earthwhere yougrow fragrantrsquomdashTemporal clauses are introduced with hiiatyat or OAv yadā(Skt yada) Other temporal conjunctions with more or less specific meaningsalso exist yezi lsquoas soon asrsquo Yt 1943 yezi bauuāni pərənāiiu ząm caxrəm kərə-nauuāne lsquoas soon as I become older I will make the earth my wheelrsquo and alsoconstructions such as para ahmāt yat lsquobeforersquo vīspəm ā ahmāt yat lsquountilrsquo andlsquowhilersquo yauuata lsquountil whilersquo āat yat or yauuat (Skt yavat lsquosincersquo) pasca yat lsquoafterrsquo Vd 168 yezi nāirika vohunīš aiβivaēnāt yat hē θrāiiō xšafna sacaṇte hellip hēnišhiẟaēta vīspəm ā ahmat yat hē caθβārō xšafna sacaṇte lsquoif a woman noticesblood when three nights have passed hellip she should lie down until four nightspassrsquo

sect39 Negation

1 The basic negative particle is nōit lsquonot neither norrsquo Yt 1516 yimahe xšaθrenōit aotəm aŋha nōit garəməm lsquoduring the reign of Yima there was neithercold nor heatrsquo A repeated negation can be carried out with the OAv particlenaēdā YAvnaēẟaY 116nōit ahminmānezānaite āθrauuanaeẟα raθaēšta naēẟavāstriiō fšuiiąs lsquoin this house will be born neither a priest nor a charioteer nor acattle-herding farmerrsquo

sect 40 middot the system changes 105

The forms nōit and naēẟa are built from the IE negative particle nei whichis attested in OP naiy Lat nī OCS ni- In Avestan this particle is preserved inthe first syllable of the indefinite pronoun naēciš lsquono one nothingrsquo Y 436 yəmnaēciš dābaiieitī lsquowhom no one deceivesrsquo Yt 16 yat mąmnaēciš tauruuaiiāt lsquothatno one defeat mersquo

2 The particle mā (= Skt ma Gr μή) negates a command (with the imper-ative or the injunctive) or a desire (with the optative equivalent to nōit) InAv an inhibitive sense predominates1 Yt 1760 mā auui asmanəm frasusa lsquodonot move towards heavenrsquo H 217 mā dim pərəsō yim pərəsahi lsquostop questioninghimwhomyou questionrsquo Vd 62māca tąmząmkāraiiənmāāpō hərəzaiiən lsquoanddo not let them sow this land let them not run water (through it)rsquo Y 3117 māəuuīduua aipīdəbāuuaiiat lsquothat the ignorant one ceases to liersquo

3 To negate a noun or an adjective the privative prefix aanana- is fre-quently used its functions are similar to the prefixes un- (inherited Germanic)in- (borrowed from Latin and Romance languages) and a-an- (borrowed fromGreek) in English The origin of all three lies in the IE privative n- which isattested in Gothic un- Latin in- Gr α-αν- etc Just as in Greek IIr shows twovariants aC- (preconsonantal) and anV- (prevocalic) Av aməsa- Skt amrta-lsquoimmortalrsquo from n-mr-ta- Av an-asa- lsquounmilledrsquo from n-aacuterta- This prefix wasstill productive in Young Avestan Any participle could be negated using thisprefix anauuaŋvhabdəmna- lsquowho does not not remain asleeprsquo (prespartmidof auua-xvabda-) afratatkuuah- lsquowhich does not flowrsquo (perfpart fra-ta-tk-)

sect40 The System Changes

Not all Young Av texts represent the same phase of the language Indeedthey were composed in a living language subject to the same processes ofchange as any other language Some examples that illustrate how the systemhas undergone simplification have already been pointed out above (cf egthe diffusion of the ablative -t under sect1916) Other innovations include thefollowing

1 For purely formal reasons feminine ā-stems come to follow the inflec-tion of neuters in -ah on account of the coincidence of -a as the ending ofthe nomaccpl in both inflectional types YAv haēnā- lsquoarmyrsquo is twice found

1 Recall that prohibition is done in Skt with the particle ma and the aorist injunctive ma norīriṣaḥ lsquodo not let us suffer harmrsquo Cf further Gr μὴ ποίει τοῦτο lsquodo not do thatrsquo versus μὴποιήσηις τοῦτο lsquorefrain from doing thatrsquo

inflected as a neuter cf Y 5725 pairi druuatbiiō haēnəbiiō where the form dru-uatbiiō leaves no doubt as to the neuter gender of haēnəbiiō

The neut noun vąθβa- lsquoherdrsquo (from van lsquowinrsquo) attests an inflection in -ā inlate texts This inflection is probably due to the fact that vąθβa- is primarilyused as a collective (lsquothe herdsrsquo rarr lsquothe livestockrsquo) whose nomaccpl vąθβa isformally identical to the nomsg of an ā-stem

The accpl paθa to paṇt-paθ- lsquopathrsquo instead of the original paθō (cf ch 3 fn2) supplies another example The substitution in this case probably proceedsfrom the accsg paṇtąm which was interpreted as the accsg of a fem in -ā Inturn the ending of the accplf -a was by extension applied to the weak stempaθ- from which paθa arose

2 A further semantic motivation has promoted the development of them stem raθaēštā- lsquodriver charioteerrsquo (Skt ratheṣṭha-) into a nomen agentisraθaēštar- Since the nomsg of the root noun and of the nomina agentis (egdātā lsquogiverrsquo) had an identical ending the necessary formal condition was avail-able for a change of inflectional type and was sustained by semantic affin-ity acc raθaēštārəm nompl raθaēštārō later with thematicization gensgraθaēštārahe accpl raθaēštārəsca

A semantic reason for morphological change is also evident from the ten-dency found in late texts not to decline numerals Vd 1491mat θrisąs aiiōaɣrāišlsquowith thirty metal spikesrsquo Vd 411 tišrō sata upāzananąm lsquothree hundred blowsrsquoThese cases follow the model of the majority of the numerals (sect211) whichwere always indeclinable

chapter 5

Texts

sect41 Introduction

The Avestan texts which have been transmitted only in manuscript form aretraditionally divided into several books which constitute a single canon for thebelievers who preserved the recited text Each book is usually subdivided intochapters The most extensive book is the Yasna (lsquoLiturgical Prayerrsquo) which isin turn divided into 72 chapters or hāitis the book principally contains textsfor the yasna liturgy ie prayers and mantras that were recited during thecelebration of the religious ceremony In the middle of the Yasna lie the gāθās(lsquoGathas songsrsquo) of Zarathustra and the Yasna haptaŋhāiti (lsquothe Yasna of SevenChaptersrsquo) the only texts in Old Avestan

Other purely ritual books include collections of lesser scope such as theVīsperad (lsquoAll of the Ratusrsquo 24 chapters) the Nyāyišn (lsquoElegyrsquo 5 chapters) theGāh (lsquoParts of the Dayrsquo 5 chapters) the Sīrōza (lsquoThe 30 Daysrsquo 2 chapters) andthe Āfrīngān (lsquoThanksrsquo 4 chapters) The Yašt (lsquoHymnsrsquo 21 chapters) are eachdedicated to anAvestan deity and are in large part written in poetic formwithverses of eight syllables Their content is mythological at times encomiasticand thus allows us to see into the background inwhichMazdayasnianism cameinto being

The Vīdēvdād (lsquoThe Anti-Demon Lawrsquo 22 chapters) narrates the origin of theworld and of humanity Later the book turns to the enumeration of religiousrules and laws that a believermust observe in order to be a goodMazdayasnianThe book is composed in prose with some small poetic remnants

Some relatively minor fragments such as the Nīrangestān (lsquoCultic Prescrip-tionsrsquo) the Pursišnīhā (lsquoQuestionsrsquo) theHādōxt Nask (lsquoBook of Scripturesrsquo) andthe Frahang ī ōīm (an Avestan-Pahlavi dictionary) also exist but they havepassed through a transmission even more deficient than the rest of the texts

sect411 Young Avestan TextsA Yašt 8 relates the battle between the star Tištria and the demon ApaošaTištria is the star Sirius which announced the arrival of the rainy season

108 chapter 5 middot texts

The first ten nights o SpitamaZarathustra splendid beautifulTištria mixes his body flying amongthe lights in the form of a fifteenyear-old man radiant with whiteeyes tall very strong vigorousdextrous

He is then of the age when the girdlefirst comes onto a young man He isthen of the age when strength firstcomes into a young man He is thenof the age when a young man is givento puberty

He now proclaims he now asksldquoWho will now honor me withlibations of milk and haoma Towhom will I give wealth in men aflock of men purification of his ownspriti Now I am to be worshippedand to be praised for the bony lifeaccording to the best truthrdquo

The second ten nights o SpitamaZarathustra splendid beautifulTištria mixes his body flying amongthe lights in the form of a bull havinggolden horns

He now proclaims he now asksldquoWho will now honor me withlibations of milk and haoma Towhom will I give wealth in men aflock of men purification of his ownsprit Now I am to be worshippedand to be praised for the bony lifeaccording to the best truthrdquo

sect 41 middot introduction 109

The third ten nights o SpitamaZarathustra splendid beautifulTištria mixes his body flying amongthe lights in the form of a whitehorse lovely having yellow earshaving a golden bridle

Then he descends o SpitamaZarathustra splendid beautifulTištria towards the lake Vourukasain the form of a white horse lovelyhaving yellow ears having a goldenbridle

The demon Apaoša runs against himin pursuit in the form of a blackhorse hairless with hairless earshairless with a hairless backhairless with a hairless tail reddishfrighteningly harnessed

The two intermingle their legs oSpitama Zarathustra splendidbeautiful Tištria and Apaoša thedemon They fight o SpitamaZarathustra for three days and threenights He becomes overwhelmingin might he becomes victoriousApaoša the demon over splendidbeautiful Tištria

He chases him away from there fromthe lake Vourukasa for the distanceof a hāθra in length ldquoDefeat andretreatrdquo utters splendid beautifulTištria ldquoDefeat to me o AhuraMazda retreat o waters and plantsdisgrace o Mazdayasnian religionMen do not now worship me with aninvocatory sacrifice as the other godsare worshiped with an invocatorysacrificerdquo

ldquoFor if men had worshiped me withan invocatory sacrifice as theother gods are worshiped with aninvocatory sacrifice then I wouldhave obtained the might of tenhorses the might of ten camelsthe might of ten bulls the might often mountains the might of tenabundant watersrdquo

I Ahura Mazdā worship splendidbeautiful Tištria with an invocatorysacrifice To him I bring the might often horses the might of ten camelsthe might of ten bulls the might often mountains the might of tenabundant waters

Yt 826 and 827 = Yt 820 and 821 respectively828 hąm tācit bāzuš baratō | spitama

The two intermingle their legs oSpitama Zarathustra splendidbeautiful Tištria and Apaoša thedemon They fight o SpitamaZarathustra until midday To himgreat might comes to him comesvictory splendid beautiful Tištriaover Apaoša the demon

He chases him away from therefrom the lake Vourukasa for thedistance of a hāθra in length ldquoGoodfortunerdquo utters splendid beautifulTištria ldquoGood fortune to me AhuraMazda good fortune o waters andplants good fortune o Mazdayasnianreligion There will be good fortune ocountries Your water canals willrun over unimpeded (those) of thewheat of plump grain (those) of themeadows of fine grain and (those) ofthe bony creaturesrdquo

B One of themost important animals in the Avesta is the dog Chapter 13 of theVīdēvdād enumerates the prescriptions that believers must observe regardingthe animal

Vd 1312 dātarə gaēθanąm astuuaitinąm asāum yō spānəm jaiṇti yimpasušhaurum frazābaoẟaŋhəm snaθəm vīkərətuštānəm kā hē asti ciθaāat mraot ahurō mazda ašta sata upāzananąm upāzōit aspahe aštraiiaašta sata sraošōcaranaiia

Creator of the bony world true one he who strikes a blow on a shep-herd dog which takes away (its) consciousness which cuts away (its) lifewith what is he punished Thus spoke Ahura Mazdā 800 lashes with thewhip 800 with the scourge will be imposed on him

1313 dātarə etc yō spānəm jaiṇti yim višhaurum frazābaoẟaŋhəmsnaθəm vīkərətuštānəm kā hē asti ciθa āat mraot ahurō mazda haptasata upāzananąm upāzōit aspahe aštraiia ašta hapta sraošōcaranaiia

Creator of the bony world true one he who strikes a blow on a guarddog which takes away (its) consciousness which cuts away (its) life withwhat is he punished Thus spoke AhuraMazdā 700 lashes with the whip700 with the scourge will be imposed on him

1314 dātarə etc yō spānəm jaiṇti yim vohunazgəm frazābaoẟaŋhəmsnaθəm vīkərətuštānəm kā hē asti ciθa āat mraot ahurō mazda xšuuašsata etc

Creator of the bonyworld true one hewho strikes a blow on a huntingdog which takes away (its) consciousness which cuts away (its) life with

what is he punished Thus spoke AhuraMazdā 600 lashes with the whip600 with the scourge will be imposed on him

1315 dātarə etc yō spānəm jaiṇti yim taurunəm frazābaoẟaŋhəm snaθəmvīkərətuštānəm kā hē asti ciθa āat mraot ahurō mazda paṇca sata etc

Creator of the bony world true one he who strikes a blow on a youngdog which takes away (its) consciousness which cuts away (its) life withwhat is he punished Thus spoke AhuraMazdā 500 lashes with the whip500 with the scourge will be imposed on him

1316 hāu jažaoš hāu vīzaoš hā sukurunahe hāu xurupōiš tižidātahehāu xraopōiš xyaonōxvaptahe hāu vīspanąm spəṇtōmainiiauuanąmspaciθranąm aniia udra upāpa

This (is the punishment for the death) of a hedgehog this (hellip) of a vīzuthis (hellip) of a porcupine this (hellip) of a weasel having sharp teeth this (hellip) ofa fox asleep in its den this (hellip) of all the canines of the beneficient spiritother than the aquatic otter1

1317 dātarə etc kuua asti spā pasušhauruuōdāitiiōgātuš āat mraot ahurōmazda yō yūjiiastīm haca gaēθābiiō parāiti sraošəmnō tāiiūš vəhrkəmca

Creator etc where is it that the shepherd dog is in its proper placeThus spoke Ahura Mazdā (with him) who goes a yūjiiasti in length fromthe herds listening for thieves and the wolf

1318 dātarə etc kuua asti spā višhauruuō dāitiiōgātuš āat mraot ahurōmazda yō hāθrōmasaŋhəm aẟβanəm haca vīžibiiō parāiti sraošəmnōtāiiūš vəhrkəmca

Creator etc where is it that the guard dog is in its proper place ThusspokeAhuraMazdā (withhim)whogoes thedistanceof ahāθra in lengthfrom the settlement listening for thieves and the wolf

1319 dātarə etc kuua asti spā vohunazgō dāitiiōgātuš āat mraot ahurōmazda yō naēcim isaiti hunaranąm tanuiie isaite θrāθrəm

Creator etc where is it that the hunting dog is in its proper placeThus spoke Ahura Mazdā (with him) who seeks no skill (but) requiresprotection for his body

1 The punishment for the death of an otter is more severe and is addressed in Vd 14

1320 dātarə etc yō spānəm tarōpiθβəm daste yim pasušhaurum cuuat aētaēšąm siiaoθnanąm āstāraiieiti āatmraot ahurōmazda yaθa aētahmiaŋhuuō yat astuuaiṇti fratəmōnmānahenmānōpaitīmpaiti tarōpiθβəmdaiθiiāt aθa āstriieiti

Creator etc he who leaves a shepherd dog without sufficient foodhow much does he sin (on account of) these actions Thus spoke AhuraMazdā as if in this life which is bony the lord of a foremost house wereleft without sufficient food he sins that much

1321 dātarə etc yō spānəm tarōpiθβəm daste yim višhaurum cuuat aētaēšąm siiaoθnanąm āstāraiieiti āatmraot ahurōmazda yaθa aētahmiaŋhuuō yat astuuaiṇti maẟəmōnmānahe nmānōpaitīm paiti tarōpiθ-βəm daiθiiāt aθa āstriieiti

Creator etc he who leaves a guard dog without sufficient food howmuch does he sin (on account of) these actions Thus spoke AhuraMazdā as if in this life which is bony the lord of a middling house wereleft without sufficient food he sins that much

1322 dātarə etc yō spānəm tarōpiθβəm daste yim vohunazgəm cuuat aētaēšąm siiaoθnanąm āstāraiieiti āat mraot ahurō mazda narəm bōit iẟa asauuanəm jasəṇtəm ahmiia nmāne mat auuabiiō daxštābiiō yaθaāθrauua paiti tarōpiθβəm daiθiiāt aθa āstriieiti

Creator etc he who leaves a hunting dog without sufficient foodhow much does he sin (on account of) these actions Thus spoke AhuraMazdā as if in this life which is bony no less than a truthful man whoenters into his house with his appearance like a priest were left withoutsufficient food he sins that much

1323 dātarə etc yō spānəm tarōpiθβəm daste yim taurunəm cuuat aētaēšąm siiaoθnanąm āstāraiieiti āatmraot ahurōmazda yaθa aētahmiaŋhuuō yat astuuaiṇti apərənāiiūkəm dahmōkərətəm siiaoθnāuuarə-zəm vərəziiāt siiaoθnəm paiti tarōpiθβəm daiθiiāt aθa āstriieiti

Creator etc he who leaves a young dog without sufficient food howmuch does he sin (on account of) these actions Thus spoke AhuraMazdā as if in this life which is bony a working child the offspring ofa dahma who does work were left without sufficient food he sins thatmuch

(Vd 1324ndash27 lays out the punishment for the offenses commited in Vd 1320ndash23as 200 90 70 and 50 lashes respectively)

1328 aētəm zī aētahmi aŋhuuō yat astuuaiṇti spitama zaraθuštra spəṇ-tahe mainiiəuš dāmanąm āsištəm zauruuānəm upāiti yat spānō yōihištəṇte axvarō upa xvarəṇtəm parō spasānō əuuiṇdānō parō xšuuiscaāzūitišca gəuš mat baratu xvarəθanąm sūnahe aēuua he dāitiiōpiθβəm

Because in this life which is bony o Spitama Zarathustra the fastestamong the creatures of the beneficient spirit to go into old age as regardsdogs are those which stand without eating alongside one who is eatinglying in wait without receiving anything Bring milk and fat along withmeat as the food of the dog That is its proper food

1329 dātarə etc yat ahmi nmāne yat māzdaiiasnōiš spā auuaca vā bauuat aẟāitiiōxratuš kuθa tē vərəziiąn aēte yōi mazdaiiasna

Creator etc if in a house which is of a Mazdayasnian there is a mutedog [scil a dog that bites] lacking proper judgement how shall thoseMazdayasnians act here

1330 āat mraot ahurō mazda auua hē baraiiən tāštəm dāuru upa tąmmanaoθrīm stamanəm hē aẟāt niiāzaiiən aštimasō xraožduuahe bišaētauuatō varəduuahe

Thus spoke Ahura Mazdā they shall place a cut piece of wood aboutits neck they shall close shut its mouth with this an ašti in length in caseof a hard piece twice of that in length in case of a soft piece

1331 aētahmātcit nidarəzaiiən fra hīmcit nidarəzaiiən yezi nōit spāauuaca vā aẟāitiiōxratuš pasūm vā narəm vā raēšaiiāt

They shall tie it [scil thewood] on it [scil themouth] they shall securehimwith it so that themute dog lacking proper judgment does not harmthe livestock or a man

sect412 The YasnaHaptaŋhāitiIn themiddle of the Yasna (chapters 35 to 41) is found the onlyOAv text in prosethat we possess Its liturgical style is marked by parallelism and repetition

Y 371ndash3 iθā āt yazamaidē ahurəmmazdąm yə gąmcā asəmcā dāt apascādāt uruuarascā vaŋvhīš raocascā dāt būmīmca vīspācā vohū | ahiiāxšaθrācāmazənācā hauuapaŋhāišca təm at yasnanąmpauruuatātā yaza-maidē yōi gəuš hacā siieiṇtī | təm at āhūiriiā nāmənī mazdāvarā+spəṇtōtəmā yazamaidē təm ahmākāiš +azdəbīšcā uštānāišcā yaza-maidē təm asāunąm frauuasīš narąmcā nāirinąmcā yazamaidē

So now we worship Ahura Mazda who created the cow and the truth(who) created the waters and the good plants (who) created the lightsand the earth and all good things | through his control and greatnessand skillfulness We worship him with the excellence of the sacrificesthat dwell alongside the cow | We worship him with the Ahurian nameswhich Mazdā chooses the most beneficient ones We worship him withour bodies and lives We worship him in the Fravašis of the truthful onesof the men and of the women

sect413 The Gathas (Gāθās)Chapters 28ndash34 43ndash51 and 53 contain theGathas which are poetic texts in var-iousmetersmaking a total of 855 verses As regards their content and languagethe Gathas represent the oldest form of Avestan Given that Zarathustra speaksin the first person in some poems and on account of the special religious con-tent of the texts it is thought that the Gathas may have been composed by theprophet Zarathustra himself Although such a claim is unverifiable the valueof the Gathas for Iranian religious history and for comparative linguistics is onall points inestimable It should be kept in mind that the form of the versesand the compact and metaphorical style employed therein makes the Gathasalmost always difficult to interpret

In Yasna 43 Zarathustra tells his god Ahura Mazdā how he received hisprophetic calling from the Beneficient Spirit Each strophe contains five versesof 4+7 syllables

435 spəṇtəm at θβā mazdā məŋhī ahurā |hiiat θβā aŋhəuš ząθōi darəsəmpaouruuīm | hiiat da siiaoθanāmīždauuąn yācā uxẟā | akəm akāivaŋvhīm asīm vaŋhauuē | θβā hunarādāmōiš uruuaēsē apəmē

I realized that you are beneficient oAhura Mazdā because I see you asthe first one in the generation ofexistence because you establishdeeds and words as having prizesbad for the bad a good reward for thegood through your skill at the finalturn of creation

436 yahmī spəṇtā θβā mainiiū uruuaēsējasō | mazdā xšaθrā ahmī vohūmanaŋhā | yehiiā siiaoθanāiš gaēθaasā frādəṇtē | aēibiiō ratūš səṇghaitīārmaitiš | θβahiiā xratəuš yəm naēcišdābaiieitī

At the turn to which you comethrough your beneficient spirit oMazdā by your power I am withgood thought through whose deedsthe creatures prosper along withtruth Right-mindedness explains tothem the judgments of your thinkingwhich no one can deceive

437 spəṇtəm at θβā mazdā məŋhī ahurā |hiiat mā vohū pairījasat manaŋhā |pərəsatca mā ciš ahī kahiiā ahī | kaθāaiiarə daxšārā fərasaiiāi dīšā | aibīθβāhū gaēθāhū tanušucā

I realized that you are beneficient oAM when he surrounds me withgood thought and asks ldquoWho areyou Whose are you Why o daxšārāwould you submit some day toquestioning regarding your creaturesand yourselfrdquo

438 at hōi aojī zaraθuštrō paouruuīm |haiθiiō duuaēša hiiat isōiiādrəguuāitē | at asāunē rafənōxiiəm aojōŋhuuat | hiiat +ā +būštīšvasasəxšaθrahiiā diiā | yauuat ā θβāmazdā staomī ufiiācā

I respond to him then first (I am)Zarathustra And that I beingtruthful would seek hostilitiesagainst the liar Thus I would be amighty support to the truthful if Imight gain the adornments of theone who rules according to his ownwill inasmuch as I praise and extolyou o M

439 spəṇtəm at θβā mazdā məŋhī ahurā |hiiat mā vohū pairījasat manaŋhā |ahiiā fərasəm kahmāi vīuuīduiiē vašī| at ā θβahmāi āθrē rātąm nəmaŋhō |asahiiā mā yauuat isāi mainiiāi

I realized that you are beneficient oAM when he surrounds me withgood thought (and asks me) ldquoForwhom do you wish to examine theconsultation of thisrdquomdashldquoFor your firea gift of reverence for the truth I willunderstand as much as I canrdquo

4310 at tū mōi dāiš asəm hiiat māzaozaomī | ārmaitī hacimnō īt ārəm | pərəsācā na yā tōi əhmāparštā | parštəm zī θβā +yaθənā tat əmauuatąm | hiiat θβā xšaiiąs aēšəmdiiāt əmauuaṇtəm

Showme then the truth that Icontinue to call to myselfmdashin thecompany of right-mindedness I havecome for itmdashand ask us what hasbeen asked to us by you for what isasked by your strength is like that ofthe strong if the ruling one maymake you vigorous and strong

4311 spəṇtəm at θβā mazdā məŋhīahurā | hiiat mā vohū pairījasat manaŋhā | hiiat xšmā uxẟāiš dīdaŋhēpaouruuīm | sādrā mōi sąs masiiaēšūzarazdāitiš | tat vərəziieidiiāi hiiat mōi mraotā vahištəm

I realized that you are beneficient oAM when he surrounds me withgood thought When I learn of thefirst thing through your [pl] wordsfaith in mortals seems disappointingin order to carry out that which youtell me is best

4312 hiiatcā mōi mraoš asəm jasōfrāxšnənē | at tū mōi nōit asruštāpairiiaoɣžā | +uzərəidiiāi parā hiiat mōi ājimat | səraošō asī mązāraiiāhacimnō | yā vī asīš rānōibiiō sauuōi[vī]dāiiāt

And when you tell me ldquoyou reachtruth in your foresightrdquo then youdo not impose on me things thatcan be disobeyed so that I arisebefore obedience will come to meaccompanied by reward having greatwealth who will distribute rewardson both sides in abundance

4313 spəṇtəm at θβā mazdā məŋhī ahurā |hiiat mā vohū pairījasat manaŋhā |arəθā vōizdiiāi kāmahiiā təm mōidātā | darəgahiiā yaoš yəm va naēcišdārəšt itē | vairiia stōiš yā θβahmīxšaθrōi vācī

I realized that you are beneficient oAM when he surrounds me withgood thought to achieve theaspirations of (my) desire you giveme that of a long life which no oneholds you [pl] to go (through with)that of a desirable existence which issaid to be within your control

4314 hiiat nā friiāi +vaēdəmnō isuuā daidīt | maibiiō mazdā tauuā rafənōfrāxšnənəm | hiiat θβā xšaθrāasāt hacā frąštā | +uzərəidiiāi azəsarədana səṇghahiiā | mat tāiš vīspāišyōi tōi mąθra marəṇtī

Because a man who receives it andhas it available would give it to afriend (give) me your forethoughtfulsupport o Wisdom Because (this)is attained with your rule in thecompany of truth in order that Irise up together with all those whomemorize your mantras to expelthose who challenge your teaching

4315 spəṇtəm at θβā mazdā məŋhī ahurā |hiiat mā vohū pairījasat manaŋhā |daxšat usiiāi tušnāmaitis vahištā| nōit nā pourūš drəguuatō xiiāt cixšnušō | at tōi vīspəṇg aṇgrəṇgasaonō ādarə

I realized that you are beneficient oAM when he surrounds me withgood thought A peaceful mindteaches one to say what is best aman should not wish to satisfy themany liars These ones say that all thewicked ones are truthful

4316 at ahurā huuō mainiiūm zaraθuštrō |vərəṇtē mazdā yastē cišcā spəništō |astuuat asəm xiiāt uštānā aojōŋhuuat | xvəṇg darəsōi xšaθrōi xiiāt ārmaitiš |asīm siiaoθanāiš vohū daidīt manaŋhā

O Ahura this Zarathustra choosesthe spirit o Mazdā whichever ofyours is the most beneficial May thebony truth be strong through itsvitality May right-mindedness in itsreign be in the sight of the sun Grantreward through actions by means ofgood thought

Bibliography

Electronic Editions

httptitusuni-frankfurtdetexteetcsiranairanavestaavesthtmAvestan Digital Archive httpwwwavesta-archivecom

Chrestomathy

Reichelt Hans Avesta Reader Texts Notes Glossary and Index Strasbourg 1911

Translations

Darmesteter J amp Mills L The Zend-Avesta Oxford 1880ndash1887 (repr 1972)Darmesteter J Le Zend-Avesta Paris 1892ndash1893 (repr Paris 1960)Wolff Fritz Avesta die heiligen Buumlcher der Parsen uumlbersetzt auf der Grundlage von

Chr Bartholomaersquos altiranischemWoumlrterbuch Strasbourg 1910

Secondary Literature and Annotated Bibliographies

Duchesne-Guillemin Jacques ldquoLrsquoeacutetude de lrsquo iranien ancien au vingtiegraveme siegraveclerdquoKratylos 7 (1962) 1ndash44

Kellens Jean ldquoLrsquoavestique de 1962 agrave 1972rdquo Kratylos 16 (1971ndash1973) 1ndash30 ldquoaddenda etcorrigendardquo Kratylos 18 (1973) 1ndash5

ldquoLrsquoavestique de 1976 agrave 1990rdquo Kratylos 36 (1991) 1ndash31Schlerath BernfriedAwesta-Woumlrterbuch Vorarbeiten I index locorumzur Sekundaumlr-

literatur des Awesta Wiesbaden 1968Tremblay Xavier ldquoIranian Historical Linguistics in the Twentieth Centuryrdquo Indo-

European Studies Bulletin 11 (2005) 1ndash23ldquoIranian Historical Linguistics in the Twentieth CenturymdashPart Twordquo Indo-

European Studies Bulletin 13 (2008) 1ndash51

Edition

Geldner Karl Avesta The Sacred Books of the Parsis Stuttgart 1886ndash1896 (repr 1991)

120 bibliography

Partial Editions with Commentary

Gershevitch Ilya The Avestan Hymn to Mithra Cambridge 1959Hintze Almut Der Zamyād-Yašt Wiesbaden 1994

AZoroastrian Liturgy TheWorship in Seven Chapters (Yasna 35ndash41) Wiesbaden2007

Humbach Helmut Die Gathas des Zarathustra IndashII Heidelberg 1959The Gāthās of Zarathushtra and the Other Old Avestan Texts In collaboration

with J Elfenbein amp PO Skjaeligrvoslash Heidelberg 1991Humbach Helmut amp Faiss Klaus Zarathuštra and his Antagonists A Sociolinguistic

Study with English and German Translation of his Gathas Wiesbaden 2010Humbach Helmut amp Ichaporia Pallan R Zamyād Yasht Yasht 19 of the Younger

Avesta Wiesbaden 1998Insler Stanley The Gathas of Zarathustra (= AcIr 8) Tehran Liegravege 1975Kellens Jean amp Pirart Eacuteric Les textes vieil-avestiques Wiesbaden 1988ndash1991Monna Maria C The Gathas of Zarathustra Amsterdam 1978Narten Johanna Der Yasna Haptaŋhāiti Wiesbaden 1986Panaino Antonio Tištriya Part I The Avestan Hymn to Sirius Rome 1990West Martin Old Avestan Syntax and Stylistics With an edition of the texts Berlin

Boston 2011

Grammars and Lexicon of Avestan

Bartholomae Christian 1 Vorgeschichte 2 Awestasprache und Altpersisch Grun-driszlig der Iranischen Philologie I 1 ed W Geiger E Kuhn Strasbourg 1894ndash1895

Altiranisches Woumlrterbuch Strasbourg 1904 (various repr)Beekes Robert SP A Grammar of Gatha-Avestan Leiden 1988Benveniste Eacutemile Les infinitifs avestiques Paris 1935Boyce Mary Zoroastrians New York 1979Cantera Alberto (ed) The Transmission of the Avesta Wiesbaden 2012Duchesne-Guillemin Jacques Les composeacutes de lrsquoAvesta Liegravege Paris 1936Hoffmann Karl ldquoZum Zeicheninventar der Avesta-Schriftrdquo in Festgabe deutscher

Iranisten zur 2500 Jahrfeier Irans 1971 64ndash73ldquoAvestan Languagerdquo Encyclopedia Iranica III 1 (1987) 47ndash62

HoffmannKarlampForssman BernhardAvestischeLaut- undFlexionslehre 2 durch-gesehene und erweiterte Auflage Innsbruck 2004

Hoffmann Karl amp Narten Johanna Der sasanidische Archetypus Untersuchungenzur Schreibung und Lautgestalt des Avestischen Wiesbaden 1989

Kellens Jean Les noms-racines de lrsquoAvesta Wiesbaden 1974

bibliography 121

Le verbe avestique Wiesbaden 1984ldquoAvestardquo in Encyclopedia Iranica III 1 (1987) 34ndash44ldquoAvestiquerdquo in Compendium Linguarum Iranicum (ed R Schmitt) Wiesbaden

1989 32ndash56Liste du verbe avestique Avec un appendice sur lrsquoorthographe des racines aves-

tiques par Eric Pirart Wiesbaden 1995Mayrhofer Manfred Iranisches Personennamenbuch Band I die altiranischen Na-

men Vienna 1977Etymologisches Woumlrterbuch des Altindoarischen Heidelberg 1986ndash1996

Rastorgueva VS amp Egravedelrsquoman D Etimologičeskij slovarrsquo iranskix jazykov (lsquoEtymo-logical Dictionary of the Iranian Languagesrsquo) Moscow 2000ndash

Reichelt Hans Awestisches Elementarbuch Heidelberg 1909Schmitt Ruumldiger ldquoDie altiranischen Sprachen im Uumlberblickrdquo in Compendium Lin-

guarum Iranicarum (ed R Schmitt) 1989 25ndash31Skjaeligrvoslash Prods Oktor ldquoOld Iranian and Old Persian Morphologyrdquo inMorphologies of

Asia and Africa (ed AS Kaye) Winona Lake 2007 853ndash940ldquoOld Iranianrdquo in The Iranian Languages (ed GWindfuhr) London New York

2009 43ndash195de Vaan Michiel The Avestan Vowels Amsterdam 2003

On the Iranian Languages in General

Cheung Johnny Etymological Dictionary of the Iranian Verb Leiden 2007Schmitt Ruumldiger (ed) Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum Wiesbaden 1989Sims-Williams Nicolas ldquoEastern Iranian Languagesrdquo in Encyclopedia Iranica VII6

1996 649ndash652Skjaeligrvoslash ProdsOktor ldquoIran iv Iranian Languages and Scriptsrdquo in Encyclopedia Iranica

XIII3 2006 344ndash377Windfuhr Gernot (ed) The Iranian Languages London 2009Yarshater Ehsan (ed) Encyclopedia Iranica London 1982ndash

The Reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European

Beekes Robert SP amp de Vaan Michiel Comparative Indo-European Linguistics AnIntroduction Second edition revised and corrected by Michiel de Vaan Amsterdam Philadelphia 2001

Cowgill Warren amp Mayrhofer Manfred Indogermanische Grammatik I Einlei-tung Lautlehre Heidelberg 1986

122 bibliography

Fortson Bejamin Indo-European Language and Culture An Introduction 2nd edOxford 2010

Meier-Bruumlgger Michael Indogermanische Sprachwissenschaft 9th ed Berlin 2010[8th ed translated as Indo-European Linguistics Berlin 2003]

Reviews of Introduccioacuten al aveacutestico (2001)

Hintze Almut in Kratylos 50 (2005) 200ndash203Huyse Philip in Abstracta Iranica 25 (2002) See abstractairanicarevuesorg

document4116htmlTremblay Xavier in Bulletin de la Socieacuteteacute de Linguistique de Paris 100 (2005) fasc 2

144ndash145Yakubovich Ilya in Journal of Indo-European Studies 29 (2001) 476ndash481

Glossary

In the following pages we offer a glossary of the words contained in the textsof sect41 The numbers refer to the corresponding nominal or verbal class YoungAvestan forms are unmarked In verbs active voice is unmarked

The alphabetical order followed is a ā aring a ą ą ə ə e ē o ō i ī u ū ndash k x x xv g (ġ)ɣ ndash c j ndash t θ d ẟ t ndash p f b β ndash n ŋ ŋv n ń ṇ m m ndash (ẏ) y v ndash r ndash s z š s s ž ndash h

a-i- dempron lsquothisrsquo 2221 gensgm ahiiā(OAv) datplmn aēibiiō locsgmn ahmiahmiia

aēuua- lsquoonersquo 211 lsquothisrsquo 202aēta- lsquothat therersquo 2222 nomsgn aētəm

ablsgmn aētahmāt locsgmn aētahminomdun aēte genplmn aētaēšąm

aētauuaṇt- lsquoas so so muchrsquo 183 gensgnaētauuatō

aēša- lsquovigorousrsquo 1912 accsgm aēšəmaoxtōnāman(a)- lsquoinvocatoryrsquo (lit

lsquospeaking the namersquo) 184191 instsgmaoxtōnāmana

aoj- lsquospeakrsquo 321 1sgpresmidinj aojī (OAv)aojah- n lsquomightrsquo 187 accsg aojōaojōŋhuuaṇt- (OAv) lsquomighty strongrsquo 183

nomsgn aojōŋhuuat aiiaoš- rarr āiiu-aiiar- n lsquodayrsquo 186 accsg aiiarə (OAv)aibī prep lsquoabout regardingrsquo + loc 233aiβiaojah- lsquooverwhelming in mightrsquo 187

nomsgm aiβiaojaaiβiẟātōtaršti- lsquofrighteningly harnessedrsquo 195

gensgm aiβiẟātōtarštōišaiβivaniiah- lsquovictoriousrsquo 187 nomsgm

aiβivaniiaauua adv lsquotowardsrsquoauua- dempron lsquothat therersquo 2225 nomsgm

huuō (OAv) nomsgf hāu instplfauuabiiō

auuacah- lsquomutersquo 187 nomsgm auuacaauuāi- lsquodescendrsquo 3sgpresind auuāitiauui prep + acc lsquotowardsrsquo 233auuiama- lsquovery strongrsquo 191 gensgm

auuiamahe

auuibar- lsquobringrsquo 1sgpresind auuibarāmi324 1sgperfopt auuibaβriiąm 326

auruša- lsquowhitersquo 1912 gensgm aurušaheaka- lsquobad wickedrsquo 1912 accsgn akəm

datsgn akāiaxvar(a)- lsquowithout eatingrsquo nomplm axvarōaθa lsquoso thusrsquo 372adaste rarr dā-adāt lsquofrom therersquoaẟāitiiōxratu- lsquowithout proper judgmentrsquo

195 nomsgm aẟāitiiōxratušaẟu- f lsquocanalrsquo 195 nompl aẟauuōaẟβan-m lsquodistancersquo 184 accsg aẟβanəmat (OAv) lsquoso thenrsquoapa adv lsquoaway dis-rsquoapaoša- m lsquoApaošarsquo 191 nomsg apaošō

accsg apaošəmapaitiərəta- lsquounimpededrsquo 1912 nomplf

apaitiərətaapascā rarr āp-apąm rarr āp-apərənāiiūka- lsquochild youthrsquo 1912 accsgm

apərənāiiukəmapəma- lsquofinalrsquo 1912 locsgm apəmē (OAv)aŋhuuō rarr ahu-aŋhəuš rarr ahu-aŋvhe rarr ahu-aniia- lsquootherrsquo 1912 202 nomplm aniia

nomplm aniieaṇgra- (OAv) lsquoevil wickedrsquo 1912 accplm

aṇgrəṇgama- m lsquostrengthrsquo 191 nomsg amōamauuaṇt- lsquovigorousrsquo 183 gensgm

amauuatōar- lsquocomersquo 321 1sgaorinj ārəm (OAv)

124 glossary

arəθa- n lsquointent aspirationrsquo 191 accpl arəθā(OAv)

ast- n lsquobonersquo 181 instpl azdəbīš (OAv)asti rarr ah-astuuaṇt- lsquobonyrsquo 183 nomsgn astuuat

datsgm astuuaite locsgm astuuaiṇtigenplf astuuaitinąm

aspa- lsquohorsersquo 191 gensg aspahe genplaspanąm

aspiia- lsquoof a horse pertaining to a horsersquo 1912accsgf aspiiąm

asrušta- lsquodisobeyedrsquo 1912 accpln asruštā(OAv)

aza- lsquodrive impelrsquo 324 azə 321azəm perspron of the 1st perssg 221 accsg

mąm accsgenclmā gendatsgenclmēmōi (OAv) datsgmaibiiō (OAv)

azdəbīš rarr ast-ašta lsquoeightrsquo 211aštimasah- lsquoof an ašti in lengthrsquo 187 accsgn

aštimasōaštrā- f lsquowhiprsquo 192 instsg aštraiiaašdānu- lsquohaving plump grainrsquo 195 genplm

ašdānunąmasa- n lsquotruthrsquo 191 accsg asəm gensg asahiiā

(OAv) ablsg asāt instsg asāasauuan- lsquotruthfulrsquo 184 vocsg ašāum

accsgm asauuanəm datsgm asāunē(OAv) accplm asaonō genplmasāunąm (OAv)

asi- lsquorewardrsquo 195 accsg asīm instsg asīaccpl asīš

ah- lsquobersquo 321 1sgpresind ahmi ahmī (OAv)2sg ahī (OAv) 3sg asti 1sgpresoptxiiəm (OAv) 3sg xiiāt (OAv)

ahiiā rarr a-i-ahu- lsquolife existencersquo 195 gensg aŋhəuš

(OAv) datsg aŋvhe locsg aŋhuuōahura- m lsquoAhurarsquo 191 nomsg ahurō vocsg

ahura ahurā (OAv) accsg ahurəmahmāka- lsquoourrsquo 191 instplm ahmākāišahmi rarr ah- a-i-ahmiia rarr a-i-ahmī rarr ah-ā adv lsquoagainst until towards forrsquo + acc 239

āat lsquoso then butrsquoāiiu- n lsquoage lifersquo 195 gensg yaoš (OAv)

aiiaošātar- n lsquofirersquo 185 datsg āθrē (OAv)āθrauuan- m lsquopriestrsquo 184 nomsg āθrauuaād- lsquosayrsquo 326 3plperfind ādarə (OAv)āt (OAv) lsquothen so forrsquo 372āp- f lsquowaterrsquo 181 vocpl āpō accpl apas-cā

genpl apąmārəm rarr ar-ārmaiti- f lsquoright-mindednessrsquo 195 nomsg

ārmaitiš instsg ārmaitī (OAv)āsišta- lsquoswiftestrsquo 1912 nomsgn āsištəmā-stāraiia- lsquomake oneself sinfulrsquo 324

3sgpresind āstāraiiaeitiāstriia- lsquosinrsquo 324 3sgpresind āstriieitiāzūiti f lsquofatrsquo 195 nomsg āzūitiš-caāhūiriia- lsquoahurian pertaining to Ahurarsquo 1912

accpln āhūiriiā (OAv)əuuiṇdan- lsquowithout receiving anythingrsquo 184

nomplm əuuiṇdānōərəzušā- f lsquopubertyrsquo 192 accsg ərəzušąməmauuaṇt- (OAv) lsquostrongrsquo 183 accsgm

əmauuaṇtəm genplm əmauuatąməhmā rarr vaēmi-aii- lsquogorsquo 321 3sgpresind aēiti inf itē (OAv)itē rarr i-aii-iθā (OAv) lsquothus sorsquoiθra lsquohere nowrsquoiẟa lsquoherersquoisa- lsquoseekrsquo 324 3sgpresind isaiti

3sgpresmidind isaite 1sgpresmidoptisōiiā (OAv)

is(a)- lsquobe ablersquo 3214 1sgpresmidsubj isāi(OAv)

isuuan- lsquo(behave) availablersquo 184 nomsgmisuuā

īt rarr i-h-īšti- f lsquowealthrsquo 195 accsg īštīmi-h- enclperspron of the 3rd pers 2216

accsgmf dim accsgf hīm accsgn ītgendatsg hē hōi (OAv)

uxẟa- n lsquowordrsquo 191 accpl uxẟā (OAv) instpluxẟāiš

udra- m lsquootterrsquo 191 nompl udra

glossary 125

upa prep lsquoaround (up) torsquo + acc 2310upāi- = upa + i-aii- lsquoapproach draw near torsquo

(+ acc) 3sgpresind upāitiupāpa- lsquoaquaticrsquo 191 nompl upāpaupāza- (= upa + aza-) lsquoimposersquo 324

3sgpresopt upāzōit upāzana- n lsquolashrsquo 191 genpl upāzananąmufiia- lsquoextolrsquo 324 1sgpresind ufiiā-cā

(OAv)uruuaēsa- m lsquoturnrsquo 191 locsg uruuaēsē

(OAv)uruuan- m lsquosoul spiritrsquo 184 gensg urunōuruuarā- f lsquoplantrsquo 192 vocpl uruuaras-ca

accpl uruuaras-cā (OAv)uruuištra- n lsquoretreatrsquo 191 accsg uruuištrəmurupi- m lsquoweaselrsquo 195 gensg urupōišurunō rarr uruuan-us adv lsquooutside aboversquouz-ar- lsquoraise risersquo midinf 321 uzərəidiiāi

(OAv)ušta- lsquowishrsquo 191 nompl uštauštatāt- f lsquogood fortunersquo 182 accsg uštatātəmuštāna- mn lsquolife vitalityrsquo 191 instsg uštānā

(OAv) instpl uštānāišuštra- m lsquocamelrsquo 191 genpl uštranąmusiiāi rarr vac-ka- lsquowhorsquo 225 nomsgm kō nomsgf kā

gensg kahiiā (OAv) datsgm kahmāikauruua- lsquobald hairlessrsquo 1912 gensgm

kauruuahekauruuōgaoša- lsquohaving hairless earsrsquo 1912

gensgm kauruuōgaošahekauruuōdūma- lsquohaving a hairless tailrsquo 1912

gensgm kauruuōdūmahekauruuōbarəša- lsquohaving a hairless backrsquo

1912 gensgm kauruuōbarəšahekaθā (OAv) lsquohow whyrsquokasudānu- lsquohaving fine grainsrsquo 195 genpln

kasudānunąmkāma- m lsquodesirersquo 191 gensg kāmahiiā (OAv)kəhrp- f lsquobody formrsquo 181 instsg kəhrpa

accsg kəhrpəmkuua lsquowherersquokuθa lsquohowrsquoxraožduua- lsquohardrsquo 191 gensgn xraožduuahe

xratu- m lsquothoughtrsquo 195 gensg xratəuš (OAv)xšaθra- n lsquorule reign controlrsquo 191 instsg

xšaθrā (OAv) locsg xšaθrōi (OAv)xšapan- f lsquonightrsquo 184 accpl xšapanōxšaiia- lsquorulersquo 324 nomsgm of prespart

xšaiiąsxšuuaš lsquosixrsquoxšuuid- m lsquomilkrsquo 181 nomsg xšuuis-caxšmā rarr yūžəmxiiāt rarr ah-xiiəm rarr ah-xvara- lsquoeatrsquo 324 accsgm of prespart

xvarəṇtəmxvarəθa- n lsquofoodrsquo 191 genpl xvarəθanąmxvəṇg- rarr huuar-gairi- m lsquomountainrsquo 195 genpl gairinąmgaēθā- f lsquocreaturersquo 192 nompl gaēθa genpl

gaēθanąm ablpl gaēθābiiō locplgaēθāhū (OAv)

gaoiia- lsquoof a cow pertaining to a cowrsquo 1912accsgf gaoiiąm

gaomauuaṇt- lsquowith milkrsquo 183 datablplfgaomauuaitibiiō

gauu- lsquocow bull meatrsquo accsg gąm genablsggəuš genpl gauuąm

gam lsquogo comersquo 321 3sgaorsubj jimat -ca -cā (OAv) encl lsquoandrsquocixšnuša- lsquowish to satisfyrsquo 2517 324

nomsgm of prespart cixšnušōciθā- f lsquopunishment penancersquo 192 nomsg

ciθa-cit -cīt (OAv) affirmative or emphatic

pariticleci-ca- lsquowhorsquo lsquosomeonersquo 2251 nomsgm ciš

ciš-cā (OAv)cuuat lsquohow muchrsquojan-ɣn- lsquobeat strikersquo 321 3sgpresind jaiṇtijasa- lsquogo comersquo 2516 324 2sgpresinj

jasō 3plpressubj jasaṇti accsgm ofprespart jasəṇtəm

jažu- m lsquohedgehogrsquo 195 gensg jažaošjimatrarr gam-tauuā rarr tūmtauruna- lsquoyoungrsquo 1912 accsgm taurunəmtaẟa lsquoso thenrsquo

126 glossary

tat rarr ha-ta-tanū- mf lsquobodyrsquo 194 datsg tanuiie locpl

tanušu-cā (OAv)tarōpiθβa- lsquolacking in foodrsquo 1912 accsgm

tarōpiθβəmtācit rarr ha-ta-tāiiu- m lsquothief rsquo 195 accpl tāiiūštāiš rarr ha-ta-tāšta- lsquoshaped formedrsquo 1912 accsgn tāštəmta rarr ha-ta-tąm rarr ha-ta-təm rarr ha-ta-tē rarr tūm ha-ta-tōi rarr tūm ha-ta-tištriia- m lsquoTištriarsquo 191 nomsg tištriias-ca

tištriiō accsg tištrīmtižidāta- lsquohaving sharp teethrsquo 1912 gensgm

tižidātahetušna- lsquopeacefulrsquo 1912 nomsgf tušnā (OAv)tū rarr tūmtūm perspron of the 2nd perssg lsquoyoursquo 221

nomencl tū accencl θβā gen tauuā(OAv) gendatencl tē tōi (OAv)

θβa- possessive pron lsquoyourrsquo 224 gensgmθβahiiā (OAv) instsgmn θβā (OAv)locsgm θβahmī (OAv) locplf θβāhū(OAv)

θβā rarr tūmθrāθra- n lsquoprotectionrsquo 191 accsg θrāθrəmθriaiiara- lsquolasting three daysrsquo 1912 accsgn

θriaiiarəmθrixšapara- lsquolasting three nightsrsquo 1912

accsgn θrixšaparəmθritiia- lsquothirdrsquo 1912 212 nomplf θritiiadaēuua- m lsquodemonrsquo 191 nomsg daēuuas-ca

daēuuō accsg daēūmdaēnā- f lsquoreligionrsquo 192 vocsg daēnedaiθiiāt rarr dā-daidīt rarr dā-daxša- lsquoshowrsquo 324 3sgpresinj daxsat daxšāra- m lsquodaxšārarsquo (meaning unknown)

191 vocsg daxšārā (OAv)daxšta- n lsquocharacteristicrsquo 191 datablpl

daxštābiiō (192)daɣa- lsquoreddishrsquo 191 gensgm daɣahe

daẟąm rarr dā-daŋhu- f lsquocountryrsquo 195 vocpl daŋhauuōdar- lsquohold supportrsquo 325 3sgaorinj dārəšt

(OAv)darəga- (OAv) lsquolongrsquo 1912 gensgn

darəgahiiādarəsa- m lsquoappearance sightrsquo 191 locsg

darəsōi (OAv)dars- lsquosee lookrsquo 321 1sgaorinj darəsəmdasa(-) lsquotenrsquo 211 indecl dasa genplmf

dasanąmdaste rarr dā-dahmōkərəta- lsquomade by a dahmarsquo 1912

accsgm dahmōkərətəmdā lsquogive put makersquo 3212 1sgpresinj

daẟąm 3sgpresmidinj daste adaste3sgpresopt daiθiiāt daidīt (OAv)2sgaorinj da 3sgaorinj dāt (OAv)2plaorinj dātā (OAv) 3sgaoropt dāiiātdiiāt (OAv) 1sgaormidopt diiā (OAv)2sgaormidopt dīšā

dāitiiōgātu- lsquoin the proper placersquo 195nomsgm dāitiiōgātuš

dāitiiōpiθβa- n lsquoproper foodrsquo nomsgdāitiiōpiθβəm

dāiš rarr dis-dāuru- n lsquowoodrsquo 195 accsg dāurudātar- m lsquocreatorrsquo 185 vocsg dātarədābaiia- lsquodeceiversquo 324 3sgindpres dābaiieitī

(OAv)dāman- n lsquocreaturersquo 184 genpl dāmanąmdāmi- f lsquocreationrsquo 195 gensg dāmōišdārəšt rarr dar-dąh- lsquoteachrsquo 322 1sgpresmidind dīdaŋhē

(OAv)diiā rarr dā-diiāt rarr dā-dim rarr i-h-dis lsquopoint showrsquo 325 2sgaorinj dāiš (OAv)dīdaŋhē rarr dąh-dīšā rarr dā-duuaēšah- n (OAv) lsquohostilityrsquo 187 accpl

duuaēšadrəguuaṇt- m (OAv) lsquoliarrsquo 183 datsg

drəguuāitē accpl drəguuatō

glossary 127

paoiriia- lsquofirstrsquo 1912 212 accsgn paoirīmaccplf paoiriia

paouruiia- (OAv) lsquofirstrsquo 1912 accsgmpaouruuīm

paiti adv lsquoto(wards)rsquo 2314paitiiaṇc- lsquoagainst opposed torsquo 182 nomsgm

paitiyąšpairiiaoj- (pairi + aoj-) lsquoimposersquo 321

2sgpresmidinj pairiiaoɣžā (OAv)pairījasa- lsquosurroundrsquo 324 3sgpresinj

pairījasat pauruuatāt- lsquoexcellencersquo 182 instsg

pauruuatātā (OAv)paṇca lsquofiversquo 211paṇcadasah- lsquofifteenrsquo 187 gensgm

paṇcadasaŋhōparā adv lsquobeforersquo 2316parāi = para + i-aii- lsquogo fowardrsquo 321

3sgpresind parāitiparō adv lsquobesidersquo lsquofurtherrsquo 2317paršta- lsquoaskedrsquo 191 nomsgn parštəm (OAv)

nompln parštā (OAv)pasu- m lsquocattle livestockrsquo 195 accsg

pasūmpasušhauruua- lsquoshepherdingrsquo 1912

nomsgm pasušhauruuō accsgmpasušhaurum

pərəsa- lsquoaskrsquo 324 3sgpresinj pərəsat2sgpresimpv pərəsā-cā

pərəsaniia- lsquoaskrsquo 324 3sgpresindpərəsaniieiti

fərasa- mn (OAv) lsquoconsultationrsquo 191 accsgfərasəm

fərasā- (OAv) f lsquoquestionrsquo 192 datsgfərasaiiāi

frauuasi- f lsquoFravaširsquo 195 accpl frauuasīšfratəmnōnmāna- n lsquoforemost housersquo 191

gensg fratəmnōnmānahefrazābaoẟah- lsquotaking away the consciousnessrsquo

187 accsgm frazābaoẟaŋhəmfrā adv lsquoforth forwardrsquo 2319frāiiaza- ( frā + yaza-) lsquohonorrsquo 324

3sgpresmidsubj frāiiazāitefrāxšnəna- (OAv) mn lsquoforesightrsquo 191 locsg

fraxšnaənē

frāxšnəna- (OAv) lsquoforesightful onersquo 191accsgn frāxšnənəm

frāda- lsquoprosperrsquo 324 3plpresmidindfrādəṇtē (OAv)

frąs- lsquoattainrsquo ( fra- + ąs rarr nas-) 3213sgaormidinj

friia- lsquofriendrsquo 1912 datsgm friiāibauua- lsquobe(come)rsquo 324 3sgpresind bauuaiti

3sgpresinj bauuat 3sgpressubj bauuāt baxta- n lsquodestiny disgracersquo 191 accsg baxtəmbara lsquobear carryrsquo 324 3sgpresimpv baratu

3dupresind baratō 3plpresoptbaraiiən

bāzu- m lsquoarm legrsquo 195 accpl bāzušbərəzaṇt- lsquohighrsquo 183 gensgm bərəzatōbōit lsquonothing less thanrsquobitiia- lsquosecondrsquo 1912 211 accplf bitiiabiš lsquotwicersquobūmi- f lsquoearthrsquo 195 accsg būmīmbūšti- f lsquoadornmentrsquo 195 accpl būštīšnaēci-naēca- lsquono onersquo 2251 nomsgm

naēciš accsgm naēcimnar- m lsquomanrsquo 185 nomsg nā accsg narəm

gensg narš genpl narąmnas- lsquoreachrsquonāirī- f lsquowomanrsquo 193 genpl nāirinąmnāuuaiia- lsquorich in watersrsquo 1912 genpl

nāuuaiianąmnāman- n lsquonamersquo 184 accpl nāmənī (OAv)na rarr vaēmnəmah- n lsquoreverance homagersquo 187 gensg

nəmaŋhōnōit lsquonotrsquoniiāza- (ni + aza-) lsquoclose tightenrsquo 324

3plpresopt niiāzaiiənni-darəza- lsquotie bind hold downrsquo 324

3plpresopt nidarəzaiiənni-mrū- lsquoutterrsquo 321 3sgpresmidind

nimrūiteni-mrauua- lsquoutterrsquo 324 3sgpresmidind

nimrauuaiteniž-duuara- lsquorunchase (out)rsquo 3sgpresind

nižduuaraitinūrąm lsquonowrsquonmāna- n lsquohousersquo 191 locsg nmāne

128 glossary

nmānōpaiti- m lsquomaster of the housersquo 195accsg nmānōpaitīm

maiti- f lsquomindrsquo 195 nomsgmaitišmaibiiō rarr azəmmaẟəmōnmāna- n lsquohouse of

middling importancersquo 191 gensgmaẟəmōnmānahe

matprepposp + gen lsquowithrsquoman- lsquothink realizersquo 1sgaormidinjməṇghīmanaoθrī- f lsquoneckrsquo 193 accsgmanaoθrīmmanah- n lsquothoughtrsquo 187 instsgmanaŋhā

(OAv)mańiia- lsquobe aware think aboutrsquo 324

1sgpresmidsubjmainiiāimańiiu- lsquospiritrsquo 195 accsgmainiiūm gensg

mainiiəuš instsgmainiiū (OAv)mara- lsquomemorizersquo 324 3plpresindmarəṇtī

(OAv)mazan- n lsquogreatnessrsquo 184 instsgmazənā-cā

(OAv)mazdā- m lsquoMazdārsquo 181 nomsgmazda

vocsgmazdamazdā (OAv) accsgmazdąm

mazdaiiasna- lsquoMazdayasnianrsquo 1912 nomplmazdaiiasna

mazdāvara- lsquowhich Mazdā choosesrsquo 1912accplnmazdāvarā (OAv)

masiia- m lsquomortal manrsquo 191 locplmasiiaēsūmasiiāka- m lsquomanrsquo 191 nomplmasiiākamā rarr azəmmāzdaiiesni- lsquoMazdayasnianrsquo 195 vocsgf

māzdaiiesnemąθra- m lsquomantrarsquo 191 accpl (sic)mąθramąm rarr azəmməṇghī rarrman-mīždauuaṇt- lsquohaving prizesrsquo 183 accpln

mīždauuąn (OAv)mrauu-mrū- lsquospeakrsquo 321 2sgpresinjmraoš

3sgpresinjmraot 2plpresinjmraotā(OAv)

ya- relative pron lsquowhich whorsquo 223 nomsgmyə (OAv) yas-tē yō accsgm yəm (OAv)yim gensgn yehiiā instsgm yā locsgmyahmī (OAv) nomplm yōi nomaccplnyā(-cā) (OAv) nomsgf yā

yaonōxvapta- lsquosleeping in its denrsquo 1912gensgm yaonōxvaptahe

yaoš rarr āiiu-yaoždāθra- n lsquopurificationrsquo 191 accsg

yaoždāθrəmyauua- lsquowheatrsquo 191 genpl yauuanąmyauuat lsquoas much asrsquoyaθa lsquoas whenrsquo 373yaθəna- m lsquostrength forcersquo 191 instsg

yaθənāyasna- m lsquosacrifice act of worshiprsquo 191 instsg

yasna genpl yasnanąmyaza- lsquoworship honorrsquo 324 1sgpresmidind

yaze 1plpresmidind yazamaidē(OAv) 3plpresindmid yazəṇte3plpresmidopt yazaiiaṇta

yaziia- lsquobe worshipedrsquo 324 3plpresindyaziṇti

yāh- n lsquogirdlersquo 181 nomsg yayeiẟi lsquoif rsquo 373yesniia- lsquodeserving of worshiprsquo 1912

nomsgm yesniias-cayezi lsquoif rsquo 373yūiẟiia- lsquofightrsquo 324 3dupresind yūiẟiiaθōyūjiiasti- f lsquoyūjiiasti-rsquo (a measure of distance)

accsg yūjiiastīmyūžəm perspron of the 2nd perspl lsquoyou you

allrsquo 221 accencl va accgendatencl vōinst xšmā (OAv)

vaēda- lsquofindrsquo 324 nomsgm of presmidpartvaēdəmnō (OAv)

vaēm perspron of the 1st perspl lsquowersquo 221 accəhmā (OAv) accencl na (OAv)

vairiia- lsquoto be chosen desirablersquo 1912gensgf vairiia

vac lsquospeak sayrsquo 321 3sgaorpassinj vācī(OAv) inf usiiāi (OAv)

vaŋhu- lsquogoodrsquo 1935 accsgf vaŋvīm datsgnvaŋhauuē (OAv) instsgn vohū (OAv)accplf vaŋvhīš accpln vohū (OAv)

var lsquochoose wantrsquo 323 3sgpresmidindvərəṇtē (OAv)

varəduua- lsquosoftrsquo 191 gensgn varəduuahevas-us- lsquowish wantrsquo 321 2sgpresind vašī

(OAv)

glossary 129

vasasəxšaθra- m (OAv) lsquowho rulesaccording to his own willrsquo 191 gensgvasasəxšaθrahiiā

vaza- lsquolead driversquo 324 nomsgm ofpresmidpart vazəmnō

vahišta- lsquobestrsquo 1912 accsgn vahištəmvahmiia- lsquodeserving of praisersquo 1912

nomsgm vahmiias-cavā lsquoorrsquo 372vācī rarr vac-vāstra- n lsquopasture meadowrsquo 191 genpl

vāstranąmva rarr yūžəmvąθβā- f lsquoherdrsquo accsg vąθβąmvərəṇtē rarr var-vərəziia- lsquocarry out execute dorsquo 324

3sgpressubj vərəziiāt 3plpressubjvərəziiąn midinf vərəziieidiiāi (OAv)

vəhrka- m lsquowolf rsquo 191 accsg vəhrkəmvourukasa- lsquoVourukasarsquo (lit lsquohaving a wide

bayrsquo) 1912 accsgn vourukasəm ablsgvourukasāt

vohū rarr vaŋhu-vohunazga- lsquofor hunting (of dogs)rsquo 1912

nomsgm vohunazgō accsgmvohunazgəm

vō rarr yūžəmvōizdiiāi rarr vid-viia- lsquopursue chasersquo 324 3sgpresind

viieitiviiāxmańiia- lsquoproclaim speak aloudrsquo 324

3sgpresmidind viiāxmaniietevid- lsquofind knowrsquo 326 actinf vī-uuīduiiē

midinf vōizdiiāivišhauruua- lsquoguardianrsquo (lit lsquoprotecting the

villagersquo) 1912 nomsgm višhauruuōaccsgm višhaurum

vī adv lsquoapartrsquovīuuīduiiē rarr vid-vīkərətuštāna- lsquowhich cuts away lifersquo 1912

accsgm vīkərətuštanəmvīra- m lsquomanrsquo 191 accsg vīrəmvīriia- lsquopertaining to men manlyrsquo 1912

accsgf vīriiąmvīs- f lsquotribe villagersquo 181 ablpl vīžibiiō

vīspa- lsquoallrsquo 1912 accplm vīspəṇg (OAv)accpln vīspā-cā (OAv) genplmvīspanąm instplm vīspāiš

vīzu- m lsquovīzursquo (an animal) 195 gensg vīzaošvīžibiiō rarr vīs-raēuuaṇt- lsquobrilliant splendidrsquo 183 nomsgm

raēuua accsgm raēuuaṇtəmraēθβaiia- lsquomixrsquo 324 3sgpresind raēθβaiieitiraēšaiia- lsquodamagersquo 324 3sgpressubj raēšaiiāt raoxšnu- n lsquolightrsquo locpl raoxšnušuuaraocah- n lsquolightrsquo 187 accpl raocas-cā (OAv)raopi- m lsquofoxrsquo 195 gensg raopōišratu- m lsquojudgmentrsquo 185 accpl ratūšrapiθβina- lsquopertaining to middayrsquo 1912

accsgm rapiθβinəmrafənah- n lsquosupportrsquo 187 nomaccsg rafənōrātā- f lsquogiftrsquo 192 accsg rātąmrāna- m lsquoside partrsquo 191 datpl rānōibiiō

(OAv)sauua- n lsquoabundancersquo locsg sauuōi (OAv)sata- lsquoone hundredrsquo 211 accpln satasaṇd- lsquoseemrsquo 325 3sgaorinj sąs (OAv)sarədanā- f lsquochallenge challengerrsquo 192 accpl

sarədanasādra- n lsquodefeatrsquo 191 accsg sādrəmsādra- lsquodeceptiversquo 1912 nomsgf sādrā (OAv)sāma- lsquoblackrsquo 1912 gensgm sāmahesąs rarr saṇd-səraoša- m (OAv) lsquoobediencersquo nomsg

səraošōsəṇgha- (OAv) lsquoexplainrsquo 3sgpresind

səṇghaitīsəṇgha- (OAv) m lsquoexplanationrsquo gensg

səṇghahiiāsukuruna- m lsquoporcupinersquo 191 gensg

sukurunahesūnahe rarr spansūn-stauu-stu- lsquopraisersquo 321 1sgpresind staomī

(OAv)staman- m lsquomouthrsquo 184 staməmsti- f lsquoexistencersquo 195 gensg stōišspaciθra- lsquocaninersquo 1912 genplm

spaciθranąmspan-sūn- m lsquodogrsquo 1814 nomsg spā accsg

spānəm gensg sūnahe nompl spānō

130 glossary

spasan- lsquospyingrsquo 184 nomplm spasānōspəṇta- lsquobeneficientrsquo 1912 accsgm spəṇtəm

gensgm spəṇtahe instsgm spəṇtā (OAv)spəṇtōtəma- lsquomost beneficientrsquo 1912

accpln spəṇtōtəmā (OAv)spəṇtōmainiiauua- lsquopertaining to the

beneficient spiritrsquo 1912 genplmspəṇtōmainiiauuanąm

spəništa- (OAv) lsquomost beneficientrsquo 1912nomsgm spəništō

spitama- m lsquoSpitamarsquo 191 vocsg spitamaspitidōiθra- lsquohaving white eyesrsquo 1912

gensgm spitidōiθrahesnaθa- m lsquoblow hitrsquo 191 accsg snaθəmsraoša- lsquopay attentionrsquo nomsgm of prespart

sraošəmnōsraošōcaranā- lsquoscourgersquo 192 instsg

sraošōcaranaiiasrīra- lsquobeautifulrsquo 1912 gensgm srīrahezaoθrā- f lsquolibationrsquo 192 datablpl zaoθrābiiōzaozao-zaozū- lsquocallrsquo 321 (present intensive

252b) 1sgpresind zaozaomī (OAv)zairigaoša- lsquohaving yellow earsrsquo 1912

gensgm zirigaošahezauruuan- m lsquoold agersquo 184 accsg

zauruuānəmzaraθuštra- m lsquoZarathustrarsquo 191 nomsg

zaraθuštrō vocsg zaraθuštrazaraniiōaiβiẟāna- lsquohaving a golden bridlersquo

1912 gensgm zaraniiōaiβiẟānahezaraniiōsruua- lsquohaving golden hornsrsquo 1912

gensgm zaraniiōsruuahezarazdāiti- f lsquofaithrsquo 195 nomsg zarazdāitišząθa- n lsquocreation generationrsquo 191 locsg ząθōi

(OAv)zī lsquobecausersquozraiiah- n lsquolakersquo 187 accsg zraiiō ablsg

zraiiaŋhat zruuan- m lsquotimersquo 184 accsg zruuānəm

siiaē-sii- lsquodwellrsquo 321 3plpresind siieiṇtī(OAv)

siiaoθana- n lsquodeed actrsquo 191 accpl siiaoθanāinstpl siiaoθanāiš

siiaoθna- n lsquodeed actrsquo 191 accsg siiaoθnəmgenpl siiaoθnanąm

siiaoθnāuuarəz- lsquodoing deedsrsquo 181 accsgmsiiaoθnāuuarəzəm

ha-ta- dempron lsquothisrsquo 222 nomsgm hōnomsgn tat accsgm təm (OAv) accsgftąm nomdum tā-cit (ta) nomplm tē tōi(OAv) instplm tāiš

haomauuaṇt- lsquowith haomarsquo 183 datablplfhaomauuaitibiiō

haiθiia- lsquotruthfulrsquo 1912 nomsgm haiθiiōhauua- lsquoownrsquo 224 gensgm hauuahe-cahauuapaŋha- (OAv) lsquoskillfulnessrsquo 191 instpl

hauuapaŋhāišhaca (OAv) posp + genabl lsquo(outside) of

from according to together withrsquo 2324haca- lsquofollowrsquo 324 nomsgm of prespart

hacimnōhapta lsquosevenrsquo 211hāu rarr auua-hāθrōmasah- lsquoa hāθra in lengthrsquo 187

accsgm hāθrōmasaŋhəmhąm adv lsquotogetherrsquo 2327hē rarr i-h-hō rarr ha-ta-hōi rarr i-h-hiiat (OAv) lsquothat because since whenrsquo 373hišta- lsquostandrsquo 3plpresmidind hištəṇtehīm rarr i-h-huuar- n lsquosunrsquo 186 gensg xvəṇg (OAv)huuō rarr auua-hunairiiaṇk- lsquodextrousrsquo 182 gensgm

hunairiiaṇcōhunara- m lsquoskillrsquo 191 genpl hunaranąm

instsg hunarā

Word Index

Avestan (131) Old Church Slavic (149) Old English (149) Gothic (149) Greek (149) Hittite (150)Old Irish (150) Latin (150) Lithuanian (151) Oscan (151) Pāli (151) Old Persian (151) Prākrit (151)Proto-Indo-European (151) Proto-Indo-Iranian (153) Sanskrit (153) Umbrian (158) Words areindicated by section numbers footnotes are preceded by the number of the chapter in whichthey occur For instance fn 21 = footnote 1 in chapter 2 etc

Avestanaanana- 393a-i- 2216a-i-ima- 2221 2252aēibiiō 81 2211 2221 363aēibiš 2221aēuua- 202 21 211 2221aēuuaŋha 202aēuuaṇdasa- 212aēuuahmi 202aēta- 752 2221 2223 223aēta 2223aētaēibiiō 2223aētaēca 2223aētaēšąm 2223aētaēšu 2223aētaēšuua 2223aētaiia 2223aētaiia 2223aētaiiascit 2223aētat 2223aētaŋhąm 2223aētaŋha 752 2223aētahmāi 2223aētahmāt 2223aētahmi 2223aētahmiia 2223aētācit 2223aētābiiō 2223aēta 2223aētasətē 2223aētą 2223aētąm 2223aētə 2223aēte 7113 2223 373aēθrapaiti 1959

aēm 1012 2221aēsma- 1011aēsmą 793aēša- 1011aēša 2223aēšā 2223aēšąm 2221aēšəma- 1011aēšō 2223aēšiiąn 325aēšu 2221aēšuua 2221aoi 1032 1114 23aoui 1114aoxta 11111 321aogədā 11111 321aogəžā 11111 11205aogō 11122 363aoj 11111 261 321aojaite 321aojah- 1031 11122aojaŋhā 11122aojāi 321aojōi 321aojiiah- 2011aojišta- 2011aojī 321aojīta 321aom 2225aošah- 1031aii-i-y- 321aiia 2221aiiarə 186aiiārə 186aiia 2211aiią 186

aiiąn 186aiiəm 1012 2221aiienī 361aiti 23aidiiu- 7176 195aidiiūš 7176aipi 23aibī 1032 1114 23aiβi 1032 1114 23aiβiiasca 2221aiβiiō 181 18118aiβišaiiama 321aini m 714 fn 26ainīm 714 fn 26airiiaman- 81auua- 2225auua 221 fn 37 2225auuaēšąm 2225auuauuat 1114auuaxvabda- 393auuaθa 383auuat 2225 383auuabiiō 2225auuaŋhāi 2225auuaŋha 2225auuaŋhīš 19537auuaŋhāt 2225auuaŋha 2225auuaŋhe 2225auuah- 187auuaheca 2225auuā 2225auuāitəm 321auuāin 321auuāiš 2225auuācī 321

132 word index

auua 2225auuąm 2225auue 2225auruuanta 35auruuantəm 783aka- 191axtōiiōi 195 1956axti 7152 195axtīm 7152axiiāi 1129 2221axiiāca 2221aɣruuō 1948aɣrū- 194aθa 382 383ad 326adąs 1815adrujiiaṇt- 11256aẟaoiiamna- 324aẟairi 23at 382atca he 2216atcīt 382apa 181 1818 23apaēcit 1817apaēmā 101 fn 27apatacin 321apāca 182apāṇc- 182apąm 181 18117apąš 182apərəsaiiatəm 324ape 181 1817apō 181 1815 18115apuθra- 20apuθrā- 20afnaŋvhaṇt- 1118afratatkuuah- 393afšmānī 184abaom 1033 324abauuat 1114aŋra- 11263aŋha 1127aŋhaiti 321aŋhauua 19526aŋhat 1127 321

aŋhən 321 373 381aŋhəuš 1129 fn 214 19522aŋhō 321aŋhat 252aŋhāi 1129 2221aŋhāt 2221aŋha 2221aŋhasca 2221aŋhe 2221aŋhimnaiia 252aŋhu- 195aŋhuuō 195 19531aŋhuš 1129 fn 214aŋvhe 19524ańiia- 1113ańiiaēšąm 202ańiiahmāi 202ańiias-cit 19116ańiie 202ana- 2221 2224 2252ana 2221 2224 23anaocah- 187anauuaŋvhabdəmna- 393anafšmąm 184anasa- 393anahe 2224anahmāt 2224anā 2221 2224anāiš 2224aniia- 791 714 fn 26 1913aniiəm 714 fn 26 1913aniiōtkaēša- 11102anu 237aṇgušta- 1112aṇtarə 1132 238amərətatāt- 182aməsa- 793 1123 191 393aməsaēibiiō 191 19119aməsə 793aməsəṇg 793aməsəs-ca 19116aməhmaidī 325ar 321 323arəduuī- 1113arəduš- 188

arəẟa- 1113 214aršti- 11205as 11101asaiia- 732as-ca 181 1814ascīt 221 2211ast- 925 181astaca 181 18111astąm 18117astəm 1814astō 1815astī 2511asti 11201 181 18116 321astuuaṇt- 11174astuua 183astū 321aspa- 11103 11203aspaēibiia 19114aspaēca 1919aspəm 781asna- 1113 11242asman- 11203asmanəm 184 394asruuātəm 321asrūdūm 321azəm 792 1012 221 371

373 383azəm 221azdā 11243azdəbīš 924azdibīš 924 18119azī 193ašaojastara- 2012asaojah- 2012ašibiiā 35ašta 1121 21aštaŋhuua- 214aštāiti 21 211aštəma- 21 211asa- 191asaonō 184asaoniiāi 193asaoniia 193asaonibiiō 193asaoninąm 193

word index 133

asaonī- 193asaonīm 193asaonīš 193asaoni 193asaiiō 195asauuaoiiō 1113asauuaobiiō 1113asauuan- 1062 1113 184 193asauuanō 184asxiiā-cā 1915asa-cinah- 54 fn 21asahiiā 1915asā 1912 361asāatcā 1916asāunō 184asāum 1062 1132 184asāt 191 1916asātcīt 1916asāyecā 710 fn 25asəm 191aši- 195aši 195 19510asiuua 195ašibiia 195 19512asiš 11205 195asī 195asīm 195asōiš 195aži- 11256ah 78 11101 11201 11242

11261 11262 1127 1128261 321 326 372

2ah 1128ahe 2221ahi 11261 321ahiiā 1128 2221ahu- 1114 11261 19531ahuiiē 1114 19524ahuua 19529ahubiia 195ahubiiā 19530ahura- 781 716 191ahura 191ahuraēibiia 191ahurahe 191

ahurahiiā 191ahurā 1912ahurāi 191ahurāiā 1917ahuraŋhō 191 19115ahurəm 781 191 372ahurō 191 373ahū 19525ahūm 1129 fn 214 19520ahma 792 11262 221ahmaibiiā 221 2213ahmat 73 792 221ahmāi 2221ahmāka- 224ahmākāiš 224ahmākəm 221 224ahmākəṇg 224ahmāt 2221ahmātcit 1916ahmi 2221 321 363 391ahmiia 2221ahmī 2221ā 239ā+hac 11201āat 373 382 383āat yat 383āiiapta- 11103āiiāt 1113āiiese 324āiiu- 195 19538 19539āiẟi 321āiš 2221āuuaocāmā 324āuuiš 7151āuuīšiia- 7151ākərəiti- 81 91āxtūirīm 212ātar- 112 185ātarš 185ātarš ahurahe mazda 362ātrəm 1121 185ād- 326ā-dadat 322ādā- 181ā-dā- 2512

āẟ- 321āpa 181 18110āpat 1816āpəm 181āpō 181 18114 18115 371

392āfš 1811ābərət- 181ābərəta 18110ābərətəm 11143 1812ābərəte 1817ābərəš 1811ābiia 2221ābiiascā 2221ābiiō 2221ābīš 2221ārmaiti- 742ās 321āsištō 362āskəiti- 11201āh- 181 321 326āhuua 2221āhū 2221aŋha 1818 326aŋharə 1127 326aŋhāire 321aŋhāmā 321aŋhąm 221aŋhō 1815aŋhāt 326aŋhāttəm 326ascā 2221ąxnah- 761ąsa- 19112ąsaiia 19112ązah- 761əuuisti- 7151əuuīduua 782 392ərəduua- 1113ərəẟβa- 1113ərənauu-ərənu- 323ərənāuui 321ərənu- 321ərəzaoš 19522ərəzu- 91 1121

134 word index

ərəzu 195ərəzuuō 19519 19522ərəš 54ərəšvaca 54ərəžə-jiiōi 1817ərəžə-jīš 1811əəāuuā 221əəānū 237əəaŋhā 1818əhmā 792 11262 221ōiiā 2221ōiiūm 211ōim 211 374ōīm 211i 261 326 372iiei- 326iieiiən 326iθiiejah- 7101 81idī 321it 2216ima- 102 2216 2221imat 2221imā 2221ima 2221 371imą 793 2221imąm 2221iməm 2221 373ime 2221irixta- 81iric 325iriθ 325irīriθ 326irīrθarə 326irīriθāna 326irīriθuš- 326is- 321is 362isāmaidē 321isē 321isōiiā 324iziia- 2612iš 1051iša- 267ište 321ī 2216

īt 2216īm 2216 2221īš- 181īš 2216īšəm 1812īšō 18114 18115īštīm səuuišta 361uiie 1023 1114 19111 211uua- 211uua 211uuaēibiia 211uuaiia 211uuaiiō 19113 211uxẟa- 11172 191uxẟā 191uxẟōibiiō 19119uxšiia- 251ugra- 1112uɣra- 1112 2011upa 2310 362upairi 2311upaθβaršti 362upaskaṇbəm 1132 1114upəmaca 1918uba- 1023 211ubē 1023 1114 192 211ubōiiō 19113 211ubōibiiā 19114 212ubdadeg 11111ubdaēna- 11111uruua 184uruuaire 192 1923uruuaxš- 325uruuaj 325uruuata- 82uruuan- 763uruuaraiiāt 1925uruuaraiia 192uruuaranąm 362uruuarā- 192uruuarābiiasca 19213uruuarasca 19211uruuā 184uruuāxšat 325uruuādah- 82

uruuānō 763uruuāz 326uruuąnō 763uruuīnaitī- 323urud 273 326urūdōiia- 2614urūpaiia- 2614urūraod- 326urūraost 11174 326us 2312usuuahī 321ustāna- 11202ustāna-zasta- 54 fn 21us-dā- 2512uz- 2312uzaiiaṇtō 362uz-uuažat 11255uzuxšiiąnca 1132uzuxšiieiti 383ušah- 187uša 187ušaŋhəm 187ušibiia 19512uštra- 11174uštraŋhō 362ka- 7131 11201 11261 2221

225kaoiiąm 19516kaine 184kainiiō 783kainibiiō 783kainīn- 783 184kainīn 81k(a)uua 381kauuaēm 1952kauuā 782kaθa 381kadā 381kat 119 381kaŋhe 2252kana 2252kamnānar- 54 fn 21kar 7133 1121 1132 119

11102 265 323 332 333degkar- 181

word index 135

karš 186karšuuarə 186karšuuąn 186kasiiah- 2011kasišta- 2011kasu- 2011kas-ci t 1911kas-nā 1120kahe 2252kahiiā 11261 2252kā 2252kāuuaiias-ca 742kāma- 119kāraiiən 324 392kąm 361kəuuīna- 782kərəta- 1121 333kərəti- 332kərənaoiti 265 323kərənaot 323kərənaon 323kərənaomi 323kərənauu-kərənu- 264 323kərənauuāne 323 383kərənauuāni 323kərənuiiāt 323kərənuuaiṇti 323kərənuuaṇt- 323kərənūiẟi 323kərəṇta- 269kərəfš 1811kərəšuuā 321kəhrp- 1122 181kəhrpa 1818kəhrpas-ca 18115kəhrpąm 18117kəhrpəm 1812kəhrpəm 1812kəhrpiia 1819kə 7131 11201kō 7131kuua 1113kuxšnu- 322kuxšnuuąna- 322kuθa 381

kuθra 381kudat 381kudā 381kū 381xā- 181xa 1811 1814xąm 18117xraosa- 324xraosəṇtąm 324xrataot 195 19523xratauuō 195xratāu 1061 19526xrata 19526xratu- 7176 1061 1116 195xratuma 183xratū 195 19525xratūm 195xratūš 7176 195 19533xraθβā 19525xraθβe 19524xraθβō 19522xšaiia- 324xšaiiaθā 324xšaiiamnō 783xšaiiā 324xšaiieite 710xšaiiehe 324xšaiiehī 7101xšaθra- 191xšaθra 191xšaθrāt 11102xšaθrōi 1919xšaθrōiā 1919xšaθrišu 193xšā 783 7101 362xšī- 181xšuuaš 1116 21 211 213xšuuašti- 21xšudra- 1113xštuua- 11174 21 212xšnaoš- 325xšnaošāi 325xšnaošən 325xšnaošta 325xšnā 1116

xšnāuš 1061xšnu 322 325xšma- 2214xšmaibiiā 221 2214xšmat 221 362xšmā 221xšmāuuōiiaxšmāka- 224xšmākahiiā 224xšmākā 224xšmākāi 224xšmākąm 224xšmākəm 221 224xiiātā 321xiiāt 1128xiiāmā 321xiiəm 1128 321xiia 1128xva- 1128 1130 224xvaēna- 1113xvafəna- 91 1130xvafna- 1130xvaŋha 185xvaŋhar- 185xvan- 7177 91 1130xvanuuaṇt- 74xvar 332xvarəti- 332xvahe 2217xvahmi 225xvāi 2217xvāθra- 1130xvāθrē 1919xvāθrōiiā 1919xvāpaiθiia- 81xvāstra- 1130xvənuuaṇt- 791xvənuuātā 743xvəṇg 1130 186xvīta- 1130gaēθanąm 192gaēθā- 192gaēθāuuiiō 192 19213gaēθābiiō 192gaēθābīš 192

136 word index

gaēθāhuua 192 19215gaēθāhū 192 19215gaēθa 192 375gaēm 1012 1913gaošaēibiia 19114gaošaēβe 19114gaiia- 1012 1913gaiias-cā 1911gairē 1817gairi- 7153 195gairibiiō 195gairinąm 195 19516gairīš 7153 195gauu- 1112 195 19518gauuāstriia- 1113 11174gata- 333gam 1132 11122 11204 2616

271 28 301 326 333gar 326gar- 924 181gara 195garəma- 1112garō 1815 18115garōit 195garōibīš 18119garōbīš 924garz 11253deggāiia- 1052deggāim 1052gāuš 1061 112 19518gātu- 7175 195gātuuō 7134 19526gātūm 7175gəuruuaiia- 1114-gət 11102gənā 382gəmən 321gərəfša- 2617gərəβnā- 265 323gərəβnāiti 1114 323gərəβnąn 323gərəždā 11253gəuš 104 373guzaiia- 2614guš 1131

gūša- 324gūšahuuā 11131 324gūšōdūm 324graom 1913grauua- 1913grab 1114 326grəhma- 11262grīuuaiia 192grīuuā-ɣənąnąm(ca) 19212degɣnat 1816degɣnąm 18117degɣne 1817degɣnō 1815ɣžar- 11255 fn 213degca 1131 119 1916caiiascā 2251caiiō 2251caii-sii- 321caxra- 191cataŋr- 21 211cataŋrō 211catura 211caturąm 211caturə 211caθβar- 21caθβar-catur- 211caθβarasca 731 211caθβarəsat- 21caθβārō 73 11171 211 383caθrudasa- 212caθruš 213caθrušuua- 214car-kərə- 321cara- 324carəkərə- 262bcašman- 762 1133 184cašmanat 184cašmąm 762 1133cašməṇg 184cahiiā 2251cahmāi 2251cəuuīšī 321cōiθ-ciθ- 321cōiθaitē 321

cōiθat 101 fn 27cōiš 321cōiš-ciš- 321cōišəm 101 fn 27cōišt 11174cōrət 7133 11102ci 322ci-ca- 225 2251cikaii- 322cikaiiatō 322cikōit-cicit- 326cikōitərəš 301d 326ci-ca 2251ciciθušī- 193ciciθβah- 193cit 326 101 fn 27ciθ 323ciθra- 794ciθrə 794ciθrəs-ca 19116cit 2251degcit 72degci t 1916cinaθ- 323cinaθāmaide 323cinas 323cinasti 323cinah-cīš- 323cinahmī 323cinmāni 184ciš- 323ciš 7153 101 fn 27 11174

2251 321ciš-ca 2251cī-cā 2251cīm 2251cīšiiāt 323cīšiią 323cīšmaide 7153 323cīšmahī 7153 323cīždī 323ci m 2251cuuat 183 361cuuat drājō 361cuuąs 183

word index 137

degja 1811jaiẟiia- 11256 2610 324jaiẟiiaṇt- 183jaiẟiieiṇti 324jaiẟiiemi 324jaiẟiiehi 324jaini 321jaiṇti 11122 321 363jaɣauruu- 326jaɣār- 326jaɣāra 326jaɣna- 268jaɣm- 28 326jaɣmiiąm 326jaɣmūšī- 301e 326jan 11122 321degjan 181jan-ja-ɣn- 321degjanəm 1812degjanō 18114 18115janiiōiš 1954jaṇtū 1132jam 11122jam-gəm-ga- 271 321jamaētē 321jamiiāt 321jamiiāmā 321jamiiārəš 321jamiiąn 321jamiia 321jasa- 11122 2616 324jasa 324jasaētəm 324jasaēma 324jasaiti 11204 383jasatəm 324jasaṇt- 183 324jasāi 324jasāiti 324jasātō 324jasāt 324jasən 324jasō 301 324jasōit 324jāmaspa- 921

degja 1811jən 321jəṇghati-cā 81 1132jiia 1113 11122jigaē- 326jiɣaēša 326jimən 321jī 326degjī- 181juua- 324juuāuua 324juuāmahī 324ta- 7111 81 1128 2216 2212

2216 2221 2222 2253223 2252

taēcīt 2223taibiiā 221taibiiō 221tauua 221tauuā 221tauruuaiia- 324tauruuaiiata 324taxše 321tac- 261 321taca- 324taciṇti 324tat 2223 361tafsa- 2616tan- 323tanauu-tanu- 323tanauua 323tanuiia 323tanuiiē 1023 1945tanuua 1946tanuuat 1944tanuuəm 7175 1942tanuuō 1943degtanuuō 1948tanuui 1947tanubiiō 19410tanuš 11205 1941tanušu 19412tanušū-cā 19412tanū- 7175 1023 194tanūm 7175 1942

tarasca 2313tarə 2313tarədeg 794tarō 794 2313taš 11174 333taša- 272tašan- 11214 184tašānəm 184tašta- 333tašnō 184tā 2223 374 381tāiš 2223tāca 2223tāpaiia- 2615tāš-taš- 321tāšt 11174 321ta 2223tascā 2223tascit 2223tą 2223tąm 2223 372 392təuuiš- 188təuuiš-cā 7151təuuīšī- 782təm 2223tə 2223təṇg 79 2223tē 7113 221 2215 2223tōi 221 2215 2223tuuəm 7131 7175 221tū 221 2212tūiriia- 82 21 212tūm 7175 221tišr- 21 211tišrąm 211tišrō 211θanuuarə 186θβa- 1022 224θβaxiia 224θβat 221θβarōždūm 924 325θβars 924 325θβarš- 325θβahiiā 1128 224θβahmāi 224

138 word index

θβahmāt 224θβahmī 224θβā 221 2215 224θβāhū 224θβąm 762 11171 221θβərəsa- 267θβə 224θβōi 224θβōrəštar- 7133 91 11144θraotōdeg 11263θraiias-ca 11171 211θraiiąm 211θrā 924 11242 273 325θrāiia- 324 331θrāiieṇte 324θrāiiō 211 383dθrāiiōidiiāi 331θrāzdūm 924 11242 325θraŋh- 273 325θri- 21 211θriiąm 211θrigām haca 361θrita- 212θritiia- 21 212θridasa- 212θribiiō 211θrisat- 21 211θrisatanąm 211θrisatəm 211θrisaθβaṇt- 211 213θrisąs 21 211 40θriš 213θrišuua- 7175 214θrišum 7175 1913θrižaṇt- 214θrižuuat 213θrī 195 211θrīš 211daēuuī- 193daēdōiš 262bdaēna 192 1927daēnaiia 192 1927daēnaiiāi 192daēnaiiāt 192daēnaiia 192

daēnā- 752 192daēna 752daēnąm 192daēne 192daoiia- 324daiθe 322daiθiiārəš 322daiθiia 322daiθiiąn 322daiθīta 322daiθīša 322daidītā 322daiẟe 322 326daiẟiiāt 322daiẟītəm 322daiẟīt 322daiẟīn 322daiẟīš 324daibitā 81 92daibitiia- 11141 21 212daibiš 11141daibišaiiaṇt- 81daibišəṇtī 11141da(i)ŋhaot 19523daiŋhauua 19526da(i)ŋhauue 19524daiŋhō 19526daiŋhu 19527daiŋhuuō 19526daiṇtī 321daxma- 191daxmaēšuua 191 19121daxiiəuš 104 1129 19522daxiiu- 7175 195daxiiunąm 1129 fn 214

19535daxiiūm 7175 1129 fn 214

19520daθaite 322daθat 322daθat- 322daθāna- 322daθāni 322daθāma 322daθən 322

dadaitī 322dadā-dad- 262a 322dadā-dāẟ-daẟ- 28 326dadātū 322dadāθa 1113 326dada 322dadąmi 763dadən 11101dadəmaidē 322dadəmahī 322dadē 322daduiiē 321daẟat- 322daẟāiti 322daẟāt 322daẟāhi 322daẟąm 322daẟąmi 322daẟuuāh-daduš- 301dab 11252 323daŋra- 11263daŋhaom 1129 fn 214 19520daŋhāuuō 19532 19533daŋhəuš 104 1129daŋhu- 1034 1129 fn 214

195daŋhuuō 1034daŋhubiiō 195 19536daṇt- 321dam- 181dar 7133 1012 1113 11174

11205 323 325dar-dr- 321darəga- 1124 1112darəgəmcā 1132darəɣa- 1112darəθra- 91darəs-dərəs- 321darəsāma 321darəsəm 91 321darəš 325dars 742 91 11211darz 11255dasa 1113 11203 21dasanąm 211

word index 139

dasəma- 21 212dasuuā 322dasta 322daste 11112 322dazdā 322dazde 11112dazdi 322dazdiiāi 11243daža- 11256dahākəm 383dā 751 763 11101 11112

1113 11243 1131 251 27128 301 322 325 333

dā-d- 271 321dāiiata 321dāidī 321dāiš 1051 325dāiš-dōiš- 273 325dāuuōi 331dāuru- 82 104 1063 195

19538dāta- 333dātar- 731 193dātaras-ca 731dātā 321 363 402dātārəm 744 185dātārō 731dātōibiias-cā 19119dātū 321dāθa- 1913dāθaēibiiō 19119dāθəm-ca 1913dāθəm 1913dāθrī- 193dādarəsa 371dāt 321dāman- 1131dāmahuua 1131dāmā 321dāmąn 184dāmąm 184dāraiia- 1113 2615 324dāraiiaẟβəm 324dāraiiat 1113dārəšt 7133 325

dāhī 321dāhuuā 1131 321dąn 321dąm 762 1819dąmi- 7152dąmi 1819dąmīm 7152dąh 761 11101dąhišta- 761da 321daŋh- 325daŋhā 321daŋhē 751 321daṇtē 751 321dəbənaotā 323dəbənauu- 323dəmāna- 91 1113dərən- 323dərənaṇt- 323dərəz- 181dərəzā 1818dərəš-cā 1811dərəšta- 11211dəjāmāspa- 92dəṇg 1815dōiθraiia 19112dōiθrābiia 19114dōišā 101 fn 27dōišī 325dōrəšt 7133 11174 11205diiaoš 104diiā 321diiąm 321didaii-dīdi- 322didąs 761 11101 322diẟaii-diẟī- 28dit 2216diβža- 11252 2617diβžaidiiāi 11252dim 2216 383 392dis 101 fn 27 1051 2511

273 325dī 2216 28 322dīdərəžō 11255dīdraɣža- 324

dīdraɣžōduiiē 324dīẟaēm 322dīš 2216dīšā 321duiie 211duua- 21 211 35duua 211duuaēibiia 211duuaēca 211duuaēšah- 11141duuaiia 211duuaidī 321duuadasa- 21 212duuadasa 21 211duuar 743dušdeg 11251 fn 212dužuuacah- 11251duždāh- 11251duš-manah- 11251 fn 212dužmanah- 11251 fn 212dūrāt 1916dbitiia- 212draoš 104 19540drafša- 11214drəguuadeg 54drəguuataē-cā 81drəguuaṇt- 54 1112 183drəguuāite 81 1053drəguuōdəbiiō 54drəguuōdəbīš 54 7132driɣaoš 1112driɣu- 1112driɣū 1112drītā 321druua- 1113druuatbiiō 401druuaṇt- 1112 183druuō 183druxta- 333druxš 181 1811druj- 7143 181druj 54 11256 333drujat 181drujəm 1812drujəm 7143 1812

140 word index

drujiia- 2611adrujim 7143 1812druža- 2611adružaiti 11256drūjō 181 1815drūm 1913degẟβōža- 11256tkaēša- 11102tbiš 11141tbišaiiaṇt- 81paoiriia- 82 1032 21 212paoiriiāi 212paoirīm 1913 212pa(o)uruiia- 82paouruuīm 1913pauruua- 212degpaite 195paiti- 7153 195paiti 195 2221 2314paiti āiia zəmā 2221paitiiāmraot 31paiti-dā 2512paitīm 7153paiθe 1956paiθī 1819 363pairi šē 2216pairii-aoɣžā 321pairiuruuaēšta- 102 fn 27pairi 2315pac 119pacata 119paθ- 181 1811 18119 401paθa 1818paθana- 20paθanā- 20paθa 401paθō 11173 1811 1815 18115

401pad- 181padəbīš 18119paẟō 18115pafrāite 326pafre 326paŋtaŋhuua- 214paŋtaŋvhum

paṇca 1132 21 212paṇcadasa 211paṇcanąm 211paṇcā-ca 211paṇcāca vīsaiti- 211paṇcāsat- 21paṇcāsatbīš-ca 211paṇt-paθ- 401paṇtā- 1811paṇtānəm 1812paṇtānō 18114paṇta 11173 1811paṇtąm 1812 401par 710 323 326para 2316 383para ahmāt tat 383paraoš 19522parakauuistəma 54para-dā- 2512parəna- 184parənin- 184parəṇdi- 1132parə 794parō 794 2317parōkauuīẟəm 54 713parštəm 1913parštəm 1913pasu- 7121 11214pasu vīra 35pasu-fšu-2613pasuua 19529pasuuąm 19535pasuuō 19522 19533pasušhuua 19538pasca 2318 383pasca yat 383pā- 321pāẟa 18110pāẟəm 1812pāfr-pafr- 326pāšna- 11204pāšnaēibiia 19114pāšnābiia 1914paŋhē 321pąsnu- 761

pərətu- 195pərətuš 19518pərətūš 19533pərəθu- 1121 11173 20pərəθβe 19524pərəθβō 19533pərəθβī- 20pərənā 323pərənā-pərən- 323pərənāite 323apərənāne 323apərəne 323apərəsa- 2616 324pərəsaite 11204pərəsat 11102 372pərəsaŋuha 1131pərəsaŋvha 1131pərəsā 324apərəsaŋhe 324apəsauuō 19533pəsanā- 1123pouru- 7121 82pouru-ca 19528pourūš 82pita 7144pitar- 185pitarəm 74 185piθre 1022pištra- 11174 11205puxẟa- 21 212puθrə 793ptar- 91 1022 1110 11103

11172fəẟrōi 7144 91 1022 11103

11172fəra- 2319fərašaoštra- 11174fərašuuā 325cfra 1118 212 2319fra+nas 11211fra+žānu- 11211fraorəciṇta 324fraiiaire 710fra-uuarətā 92 1124frauuasəe 1956

word index 141

fra-uuōizdūm 11243fra-caraθβe 324fra-carōiθe 324fra-tatk- 393fratəma- 21 212fra-dā- 2512frapinaoiti 252frapinuuata 252fra-mīmaθā 322fra-mrauua 321dfra-mrauuāni 321dfras 11102 11204 11211 1913

325afrasā- 11212frasciṇbana- 1132 1114frasnātaēibiia zastaēibiia 35fra-zahīt 325cfraš- 325frašī 325afrašna- 11212frašnu- 11212frā-θβərəsaēta 324dfrāšnaoiti 11212fraṇc- 182frąš 76 182friia- 714 fn 26 1112friiąnmahī 323afrī- 323degfrī- 181frīnā-frīn- 265 323frīnāi 323bfrīnāt 323frīnāni 323bfrīnāmi 323afrīnəṇti 323afrīnəṇtu 323efri m 714 fn 26fšudeg 11214fšuiia- 2613fšumaṇt- 183fšūšə carəkəmahī 362baēuuani 186baēuuarə 211baon 324cbaire 324a

bauu-bū- 321bauuaiti 1113 324abauuaiṇtī- 193bauuaṇt- 193bauuaṇtəm-ca 783bauuar-baβr- 28baxta- 11102 fn 211 1116 333baxš- 273 325baxšaitī 325bbaga- 1112baɣa- 1112baj 11102 fn 211 1116 11256

273 325 333 362baβriiąn 2511 326ban 783baṇd 1132 333baṇdaiieiti 1132bar 781 11101 1114 251 28bara- 2511 266 324baraiiən 324dbaraiti 324abaraiti 81baraite 324abarata 324ebaratō 324abaratu 324ebaraŋvha 324ebarahi 324abarāni 324bbarāma 324bbarāmaide 324abarāmahi 324abarāmi 324adegbarāmi 301abarāhi 324bbaraṇti 324bbarąn 324bbarəθriiāt 193barəθrišuua 193barən 78 11101 1114barəṇti 324abarəṇtu 324ebarəm 324cbarəmna- 324fbarəsmən 184

barəzan- 11254barj 101barš 181basta- 333bažat 11256bābuuarə 11143bāraiia- 2511bāzauua 19527degbāzāuš 19518bāzubiiō 19537bāzuβe 19530bāzuš 19518bąnaiiən 783bərəjaēm 101bərəjaiiən 1011 fn 28bərədubiiō 92bərəz- 181bərəzaṇt- 183bərəzəm 1812bərəzō 1815biiah- 187bitiia- 11141 21 212bitiiāi 212bitīm 212biš 212bišaziia- 2613bižuuat 213buiiama 321ebuiiārəš 301bbuiiąn 301bbuuat 11102bud 1011 fn 27buẟra- 1113buna- 1113buṇjaiiāt 362bū 1033 1114 11102 321būiẟiiaēta 1011 fn 27būiẟiiōimaiẟe 1011 fn 27

324d fn 310būiri- 195 1953brātar- 185brātuiriia- 82bruuatbiiąm 153na- 2215naē-cit 2251

142 word index

naē-ciš 2251 362 391naē-ci m 2251naēdā 391naēẟa 391naēniža- 11256naēma- 214degnaēstar- 102 fn 29naēš- 325naēšat 325bnaoma- 103 21 212naire 102 1817nauua 21nauuaiti- 21nauuaca nauuaiti- 211nauuanąm 211nauuāza- 733napāt- 11103 11214 182napātəm 182napa 182naptar-[napāt-] 11103naptō 182naptiia- 11103nafəẟrō 11103nafšu 182nafšu-cā 11214nabā-nazdišta- 1118nar- 91 102 1114 11205 181

185 193nara 181 18112narąm 18117narə 181 1813narəm 1812 3713 3714narō 18114narōi 102 1817narš 11205 1815nas 1121 272b 325 362nasāuuō 19532nasāum 1062 1913 19520nase 324nasiia- 324nasiieiti 324anasu- 1062 1913nasūš 19533nazdiiō 1113nazdišta- 1118 11242

naš- 325našta- 1121nā 1120 1811 221 382nāirī- 193nāist 1051 11174nāismī 1051nāfa- 1118nāman- 762 1131 1133 184nāmanąm 76 1131nāmąm 762 1132nāməni 184nās- 181nāšāmā 325bnāšīma 325cnāšū 181na 221 2215nąma 762 77 184nąsa- 272bnəmaxiiāmahī 1128nəmaxvaitīš 1130nəmaŋhā 1127nəmah- 783 113 1127 251nəmō 187nəmə 187nərət 185nərəbiia 181 18113nərəbiias-cā 18118nərəbiiō 1114 18118nərəš 11205 1815 18115nərąš 91nərąš 185nəruiiō 1114 18118nə 221 2215nō 221 2215nōit 383c 391 392ni 2320 252nii- 2320niiaṇc- 182niiaṇcō 182niiaṇcim 182ni-ɣne 321anid 102 fn 29 1051 11174ni-dā- 2512nipātaiiaēca 1956ni-sirinaoiti 92

ni-srinauuāhi 323nišhida- 268niž- 2321nī 325ni š 2321nmāna- 1113nmānaēšu 19121nmānaiia-ca 1919nmānat haca 1916ma- 792 2211maēɣaēibiia 19114maēsma- 102 fn 29maēza- 102 fn 29maiiā 224maiti- 332maiẟiiōi 102maibiiā 221 2213maibiiō 221 2211mainiia-mańiia- 2610mainiiauue 710mainiiaṇta 324cmainimaidī 321emaxiia 224mada- 1128madahiiā 1128maẟu- 712mat 11262 221 2322maŋhāna- 325eman 793 131 273 321 325

326 332mana 221manaŋha 79manaŋhā 79 1127manah- 783 793 1125 fn

212 11261 1127 187manahi-cā 11261manəvista- 54 fn 21maniiaēta 324dmańiia- 131 2610mańiiəuš 104mańiiō 195degmańiiō 19519mańiiu- 710 195mańiiuš 783mańiiū 195

word index 143

mańiuua 195maṇtā 321bmamn- 326mamnāitē 326amarəka- 1122marəkaē-cā 1122marətaēibiiō 19119marətānō 184marc- 323masiia- 117maz- 92 181mazaṇt- 75 2011mazaṇtəm 75mazə 1815mazōi 1817maziiah- 2011mazibīš 92 181 18119mazišta- 2011mazištą amą 79mazištə amą 79mazga- 1112 11242mazdaiiasna- 732mazdā- 11242 181mazdā 1813 361mazda 1811 1815 362mazdaŋhōdūm 325mazdąm 1812mąz-dazdūm 322masiia- 1123 191masiia 19115masiiaēšū 19121masiiāiš-ca 19120masiiānąm 19118masiiaŋhō 19115masiiąs-ca 19116masiiəṇg 191masīm 191 1913mahiiā 224mahi 11262 321mahmāi 79 2225mahmī 224mahrka- 1122mā 221 2215 224 322 392māuuōiia 221 2211 2217māca 392

mātar- 185māh- 75 1128 181māhiia- 1128ma 1811maŋhəm 75 1812maŋhō 1815 18114 18115mąθra- 76 191mąθrāiš 19120mąθrān- 184mąθrānō 184mąθrąs-ca 19116mąm 76 221 2211mąsta 325amərəiθiiaoš 104 19522mərəiθiiu- 81 91 11171mərəɣəṇte 323amərəṇgəduiiē 323amərəṇc- 323mərəṇcaitē 323amərəṇciṇti 323amərəṇcīta 323dmə 794 224mənā 221mənāi 321dməṇgh-məh- 273 325məṇghā 321bməṇghāi 79 325bməṇghī 325amē 221 2215 362mourum 1112mošu 712mošu-cā 11214mōi 221 2215 363mōiθ-miθ- 321mōiθat 1011 fn 27 362mōist 321bdegmōist 11174miias- 323miθ 1011 fn 27 102 fn 29

11174 362miθra- 191miθra ahura 35miθrōibiiō 19119minas- 323minaš 323c

mim- 322miriia- 2611bmīžda- 715 11205mraoiti 113 321amraotā 321amraotu 1031 321fmraotū 103mraot 321amraom 103 321amraomi 2511mraoš 301 321amrauu-mrū- 321mrauuāne 321dmruiiāt 321emruiia 321emruiie 321amruiiē 711 102 2511 321amruuaṇt- 321gmruuāna- 321gmruuīšā 321emrū 102 103 1131 2511 261mrūite 321a 331mrūiẟi 321fmrūmaide 321aya- 75 710 714 1131 2221

223 2252yaēibiiō 2211yaētatarə 326ayaēθma 326ayaēšiia- 2612yaog-yuj- 11102 321yaogət 11102yaojaṇtē 321dyaojā 321yaoš 19540yaož-daθāiti 322yaož-daθāne 322yaož-daθəṇt- 322yaož-daθəṇte 322yaož-daθō 322yaož-dāitē 321dyaiiat-yaēt-yōit- 326yauuaējiiō 18115yauuaējibiiō 18118yauuaē-jim 1812

144 word index

yauuaētāt- 182yauuaē-sum 1812yauuata 383dyauuat 383dyauuā 19542yauuākəm 221 2213yauuē 19541yauuōi 19541yat 326yaθa 37 383yaθra 383dyadā 383dyat 223 383yatcit 383yaṇtu 321fyasa- 324yas-ca 1911yasna- 710 11212 191yasnanąm 19118yasnas-ca 1911yasnąs-ca 19116yasnōibiiō 191yaz 11212 333yaza- 266 324yazaēša 324d 373yazaiiaṇta 324d 374eyazatanąm 362yazamaide 1918 373yazāite 324byašta- 333yahmat 362yahmī 710yakarə 186yāta- 1917yātāiiā 1917yātuš 19537yāt 11102yārə 186yāsanuha 1131yāsaŋha 1131yāsaŋvha 1131yāsāmi 35yāhuua 1131yaŋhąm 75yąsdeg 223

yəṇg 223yəṇgs-tū 223yəm 714yəma- 714ye(i)di (zī) 374c 383cyeiṇti 321ayexiiācā 223yeŋhāẟ-a 223yeŋhāt 223yeŋha 223yeŋhe 223yesne 710 191yesniia- 710yesniiā-ca 19117yesnīm 1913yezi 383c dyehiiā 710 223daggeryē 223yō 362yōi 102 223 363yim 714yima- 714yuj 11102yūiẟiia- 324yūiẟiiaθō 324ayūjən 321byūš 221 2214yūšma- 2214yūšmaibiiā 2214yūšmat 11102 221yūšmāka- 224yūšmākahiiā 224yūšmākāi 224yūšmākəm 221 224yūžəm 221 2212 2214yūžəm 221 2214va- 2215va 211 fn 37vaēɣa- 102vaēθat 326bvaēθəṇti 326bvaēd-vōid-vīd- 28 326vaēda 711 101vaēdā 326avaēẟa 326a

vaēnaŋhē 35vaēnōimaidī 324dvaēm 101 221 2212 2213vaoca- 272b 324vaocōimā-ca 101 fn 27vaoniiāt 326cvaorāz- 326vaorāzaθā 326vaozirəm 326bvaiiu- 73 1034vainīt 321evauuaxda 11172 326avauuac-vaoc- 28 326vauuan-vaon- 326vauuanuuāh-vaonuš- 188vauuaz-vauz- 326vaxəẟra- 11172vaxš- 2511vaxš 11205vaxšaiia- 251 2615vaxšiia- 2618vaxšiiā 11205vaxšt 11204vaxiia 187vaɣžibiiā-ca 18113vaɣžibiš 181 18119vac- 131 181vac 11102 fn 211 11205 131

2618 272b 28 321c 326vaca 1818vacah- 54 794 713 187vacə 794 713 187vacəbīš 794vacō 713 1815 18114 18115

187vadarə 91vaẟre 1113vaf 11111vaβžaka- 11252vanuhīš 1131vaŋh-vəṇgh- 325vaŋhauue 195vaŋhauuē 1127vaŋhāu 1061 195 19526vaŋhəṇt- 325

word index 145

vaŋhəuš 1127 1129 fn 214vaŋhīš 1131vaŋhu- 2011vaŋhuuąm 19535vaŋhuš 1127 1129 fn 214vaŋhušu 195vaŋhūš 1127 19533vaŋhaŋhəm 187vaŋhah- 2011vaŋha 187vaŋhō 1129vaŋvhi 195 19528vaŋvhiia 193vaŋvhī- 193vaŋvhībiiō 19312vaŋvhīnąm 19311van- 321van 76 79 11101 11174 188

325 326 401var- 3231var- 3212var- 321var 92 1124varatā 92varānə 321dvarānī 321dvarəcāhīcā 187varəduua- 1113varəmaidī 321bvarəš- 325varəšaitē 325bvarəšaitī 325bvarəšā 325bvarəšānē 325bvarəšəṇtī 325bvarəš-cā 321bvarəz- 321vard 11112varz 73 28 325 35vas 11205 1121 11212 11214vas-us- 11212 321vasah- 11211vasəmī 1121vastē 1120vasna- 11212

vasnā 11212vaz 78 11255 325 326vazəṇti 78vašata 325bvašaṇte 325vaši 11205 11214 321avaštī 11211 11214važ-vaš- 325važdra- 11253vah 11201vahehīš 1111vahiiah- 1111 1128 187 2011vahiiō 1129vahišta- 2011vā- 321vā 211 fn 37 221 2213 382vāuuarəz-vāuuərəz- 28vāxš 11205 1811vāɣžibiiō 18118vācəm 1812vācim 1812vācī 252 321vāšahe 362vāsəm 74va 221 2215vaṇti 321avąθβa 401vąθβā- 192 401vąθβābiia 192vąs 76 11101 11174 325avərəca- 324vərəθra-jan- 2012vərəθrajā 1811vərəθrająstəma- 2012vərəd- 181vərədā 181vərən- 323vərənauu-vərənu- 323vərənauuaitē 323bvərənātā 323cvərənūite 323avərəṇta 323avərəṇtē 323avərəzəna- 79vərəziia- 2611a 324

vərəziiaṇt-vərəziṇt- 324fvərəziiātąm 74 324evərəzda- 11112 11243vəhrka- 1122vəhrkat 1916və 79a 713 221 2215vəṇghaitī 79vəṇghat 79 325bvəṇghən 325bvourudeg 1121vohu- 712 1061 1111 1128

1129 187 193 195vohu 1129 fn 214 195 19521vohu-ca 19528vohu-cā 19521 19525vohunąm 1129 fn 214 195

1935vohū 1127 195 19525 19534vohūm 1129 fn 214vō 713 221 2215vōiɣnā- 102vōiɣnāuiiō 19213vōistā 101 11202 326avi- 2323vii- 2323viiāxmainiia- 2613viiāxman- 2613vii-ādarəsəm 743vid 715 101 11202 11243

188 272 28 301e 323326 331

vinad-viṇd- 263 323viṇd 11101viṇdāna- 323eviṇdən 11101 323cvista- 11202vī 715 2323vī-caiiaθā 321dvīda- 272vīdaēuua- 1113vī-dā- 2512vī-dāraēm 1012vīduuanōi 331vīduuāh-vīduš- 188 301evīduua 188

146 word index

vī-ẟāraēm 324cvī-ẟāraiiən 1012 fn 28vī-ẟāraiiōiš 324dvīẟuuāh-vīduš- 326vīẟuua 188degvīẟuuaŋhəm 188vīra- 191vīraiia 191 19112vīs- 181vīsa- 324vīsa 1818vīsaēte 324avīsaiti 21 211vīsaitiuuaṇt- 213vīsat 1816vīsastəma- 212vīsąm 18117vīsąstəma- 21 212vīsəṇta 324cvīsəṇte 324avīsəm 1812vīse 1817vīsō 181 1815 18115vīsi 1819vīsiia 1819vīspa- 793 191vīspaēibiias-ca 19119vīspaēca 1919vīspaēšąm 202vīspaēšu 191 19121vīspanąm 202vīspāvohū 54vīspāi 202vīspaŋhō 19115 202vīspəm ā ahmāt yat 383vīspəmāi 202vīspəmca 1132vīspə 79vīspəṇg 79vīspəmāi 202vīspəs-ca 19116vīspe 202vīspōibiiō 19119vīš 1811vīša- 11205

vī-siiātā 321bvīžibiiō 181 18118raēxš- 325raēxšīša 325craēθβa- 102 fn 29raērizaite 1121raēm 1012 1952raocaiia- 2615raocah- 79 103 1121raoca 187raocəbiiō 794raocəbīš 794raom 1112raos- 273raii- 102raire 326ratu-friiō 18114ratu-frišu 18120ratu-fri š 1811ratuš 11205raθa- 1121 11173raθaēštar- 402raθaēštā- 102 fn 29 402raθaēštārahe 402raθaēštārəm 402raθaēštārəsca 402raθaēštārō 402raθōištā- 102 fn 29raθβō 19522rap 11103 11172rafəẟra- 11103 11172rar- 326rašnaoš 104 19522rah 78 11101 362rā 325 326 333rāiiō 1052rāta- 333rād- 321rādəṇtī 321drāna- 19112rānōibiiā 19114rāmōiẟβəm 324drārəšiiąn 11101rāh-raŋh- 325raŋhaiiən 783

raŋhaŋhōi 325brąnaiia 19112rəuuī- 78 1132rəṇjišta- 1132rəma- 11263ric 81riz 1121rud 11174sa- 213 2216saēte 252saēre 321asaii- 321saiianəm 78 fn 23saite 191 19111sairī 181sauuaiia- 2615saxvārə 186 35sata- 21 211satəm 117 11203 10205satōtəma- 212saẟaiia- 2614saŋha- 79saṇd 11174 11243 325sar- 794 181sarə 794 1815sarəm 1812sarō 1815sarōi 181 1817sazdiiāi 11243sāuuaiia- 2615sāxvənī 186sāstar- 11203sāsnā- 75 fn 22 1120 192sāh- 321sāh 1120 11203 272sāhīt 321esąs 11174 325asąstā 325dsąh 11243səuuišta- 78 715səṇgha- 793 1132səṇghaitī 81sīša- 272sunąm 18117surunaoiti 92

word index 147

surunauu-surunu- 264 323surunuiia 323dsurunuuaṇt-surunuuat- 183susru- 28 326susruiie 326adegsū- 181sū 2615sūne 1817sūnō 1815sūnī- 193sūra- 78sūsrūma 326askəṇda- 1120scaṇtū 1120 321fstaota 321fstauu-stu- 321star- 92 181 185starəm-ca 92stā 1120 321a 325degstā- 181stāuuišta- 715degstānaēšuua 19121staŋh- 325staŋhaiti 325bstərənā-stərən- 323degstərəniia 323dstō 321astōi 331stūt- 181strəmca 92 18117strəš 185spainiiaŋhəm 783spainiiah- 78spadā 19110span- 181 193spaniia 783sparz 1120spas- 181 323spasəm 1812spasō 181 18114spaš 1811spašnauu-spašnu- 323spašnuθā 323aspā 1811spāna 18110

spānəm 1812spānō 18114spəṇta- 783 1132spəṇtaēibiiō 19119spəṇtaxiiā-cā 1915spəṇtat 1916spəṇtahiiā 1915spəṇtōtəma- 54snaēža- 11256snaēžā 11256snaēžāt 11256snaēžiṇt- 11256sraēšta- 102 fn 29 11203

2011sraotū 1031sraiiaŋvha 362sraiiah- 1113 11203 2011srauu-sru- 271 321sr(a)uuana- 321gsrāuuaiia- 324srāuuaiieni 324bsrāuuahiia- 710srāuuahiieitī 710srāuuī 252 321csrāraiia 324bsrəuuīmā 321esri 92 323srinaota 323esrinauu-srinu- 323srīra- 1113 11203 2011sru 92 103 11 203 271 28

321c 323 326 331srūidiiāi 331zaotar- 11241 185zaoθraiiāt 1925zaoθrā- 192zaoθrābiiasca 19213zaozao- 262bzaoša- 11241zaiia- 2511 2611b 324zaiiata 324czaiiaŋha 324czaiianəmca 361zaiiaṇte 324b 363zairimiia- 81

zauuīštiiaŋhō 19115zan 11241 251 2618zanauua 19527zaṇga- 1112zam- 181zasta- 1034 191zasta 19110zastaiia 1919zastaiiō 1034 191 19113zastāiš 19120zastə 191zastōibiiā 191 19114zaz- 322zazəṇti 322zazā-zaz- 322zazāite 322zazāmi 11241zazāhi 322zazuua 188zā 11241 322 325zāta- 74 11241zānu- 11253 195degzānu 19538 19539zāh- 325ząm 1812 361 392ząhiia- 251 2618zəmat 1816 362 37zəmas-ca 18115zəmā 1818 222 37zəmāẟa 1816zəmąm-ca 18117zəmē 1819zəmō 1815 18114zəmi 1819zərəd- 181zərədā-cā 1818ziia 11241ziiąm 1812zim- 181zimō 1815 18114zī 35 374c 381 383czīzana- 715 251zušta- 11204zū 11142zdī 11242 321f

148 word index

zbaiia- 2614zbaiieiti 11142zbar 11142zbarəmna- 11142zraiiah- 11241 187zruuan- 717 184zrū 717 184šaētī 11216šaii-ši- 321šē 2216šōiθra- 11216ši 11216šiiąs 301e 321gšiieitī- 301e 321gdegštāi 1817degšta 1811 1815 18114degštąm 1812degšte 1817sāto 1123siiaoθana- 92 1123 191siiaoθ(a)nanąm 191siiaoθanā 19117siiaoθane 1919siiaoθanōi 191 1919 19111siiaoθna- 92 1123 191siiaoθna 19117siiaoθnāiš 191siiā 1123siiāto 1123žnātar- 11253žnubiias-cit 11212 11253

19543žnūm 19539ha- 2327haētō 7134 1034haētu- 1034haēnā- 401haoma- 191haomą 79 191haomąs-ca 19116haitī- 301e 321ghaiθiia- 714 fn 26 715haiθiiəm 714 fn 26haiθīm 714 fn 26 715hau 1034 2225

hauua- 224hauuanąm 224hauue 224hauruua- 717 1113 11261 191hauruuatāt- 82 182haurūm 716 1913hakərət 213haxa 1116 1951haxai- 1956haxaiia 1959haxəmā 91haxtiia 19511haxmainē 81haxman- 81 91 1116hac 75 79 81 1120 11261

322deghac- 181hac-sc- 321haca- 266 324haca 73 1916 2324 361hacaite 81hacaiti 252hacaiṇte 252hacaṇtē 75hacəna- 79hacəmnā 79haciṇte 714 324ahacimna- 324fhaθra 2326had 11174 28hadā 2325hadiš- 188haẟa 2325hapta 11103 11261 21haptaθa- 21 212haptaŋhuua- 214haptāiti- 21 211han 101 fn 27hana- 272hanaēmācā 101 fn 27ham- 181 2327ham+kar 1132hama 1818hamaēstar- 102 fn 29hascit 2222

hastra- 11174hazaŋra- 211hazaŋre 19111hazaŋrōtəma- 212hazah- 794hazə 79hazd- 28hasa 1957hasąm 19516hase 1116 1956hah- 261hā 1124 2222hāu 2225hąm(-) 2327hąminəmca 361hąs 11202hə(n) 2327həṇt- 301həṇt-hat- 183həṇti 321həṇtī 78 251həṇ-duuārəṇtā 74həm 2327hərəzaiiən 392hə 2222həṇkərəiti- 1132həṇ-grabəm 1114həṇtū 321həmiiāsaitē 74hō 2222hō 2216hēhiiat 223 383hiiārə 321hinūiβiiō 19536hiṇca- 269hizuuā- 194hizuua 1946hizuuō 1943hizubīš 19411hizū- 194hišcamaidē 322hišta- 268 324hištahe 324hišhak-hišc- 262a 322

word index 149

hī 2216hīm 2216hīš 2216hu 323huuarə 91 186 383huuarə 1130huuāuuōiia 2217huuō 103 2225huxratu- 103 1116huxratuuō 103hupuθrī- 20hunauu-hunu- 323hunauuat 323hunā-hun- 323hunāmi 76hunāhi 323hunuiiārəš 323hunuuana- 323hunutō 323hunūta 323humanah- 187humāiia- 1052 1913humāīm 1052 1913hušhaxāim 1952hū 717 186hūxta- 11102 fn 211hūrō 186-h yat 223

Old Church Slavicženy 19211imena 184mene 2211ni- 391oba 211onъ 2224ovъ 2225těxъ 2221cьto kъto 225

Old Englishhweol 119

Gothicgibos 19211jūs 2212mawi mauja 1932 fn

36sa thornata so 2223un- 393undar 234waurkjan 2611aweis 2212

Greekα-αν- 393ἀνκύλη 761ἀέξω 11205ἄκμων 11203ἄμμε 11262ἄνα 237ἄμφω 211ἅπαξ 213ἄπο 235βάσκε 11122βατός 333βιός 11122βοῦς 1112βοῦν 19211 fn 35βῶν 19211 fn 35γέρων 184γεύομαι 11241γνωστήρ 11253γόνυ 11254 19539δέδαε 761δείδω 81δεινός 11141δίδωμι 1113δοϝεναι 331δολιχός 1112δόρυ 1063 19539δουρός 19540δίκα 1923δυσdeg 11251δυσμενής 11251 fn 212δύο 211δώτορα 744εἶ 11261

εἴδεναι 331εἰδώς 188εἰμί 11262εἶς 213ἐλαχύς 781ἔ-λυον 31ἐμός 224-ϝεναι 331ἐνδελεχής 1124ἐπί 232ἕπομαι 11261ἑπτά 11261ϝεργο- 743ἐστί 11201ἔτι 231εὐρύς 1121εὕω 1031Ζῆν 11211 fn 35ἡδύς 2011ἡδ-ίων 2011ἥδ-ιστος 2011θείνω 1122θερμός 1112-θι 301cθρῖον 214-ια 1931ἴν 2216ἴσθι 11242ἵστημι 11201καινός 783κεῖται 252κινέω 11241κλύω 11203κρατύς 1116κτίζω 11216κύκλος 119λείχω 1121λευκός 1031λύκω 19110λύω 31μέθυ 7121μή 392μισθός 11205νέμος 1131νύμφα 1923

150 word index

ὁ τό ἡ 2222οἶϝος 211οἴκοι 1919οἶκοι 1919οἶμα 1011οἶσθα 11202ὀκτώ 211ὀμείχω 1022 fn 29ὅς 223οὖλος 11261πατέρα 744πέντε 1132περί 2315πέσσω 119πλατύς 1121 11173πολίων 19516πότερος 2012ποτί πρότι πρός 2314πρό 2319πρέσβυς 2012πρότερον 2012πτέρνη 11205σκιας σκιανς 19211σός 224-τατος 2012-τε 119 382-τερος 2012τέτορες 11171τίς τί 225τίθημι 1113τιμᾶς 1924τοί 7113τριακοντα 211τρίτος 212-τω 301cὕδωρ 186ὔμμε 3314ὕπερ 2311ὕπο 2310ὑφαίνω 11111φέρω 1114χαμαί 1819χείλιοι χέλλιοι 211χέω 11241χιών 11241

χώραι 1926-ω 301a

Hittitekitta 252uttār 1861

Old Irishcetheacuteoir teacuteoir 211tricho 211

Latinab 235amb- 233ambō 211angustus 761augēre 1031cā-rus 119centum 11203cluēre 11203coquō 119cūrāre 7153decem 11203diem 19211 fn 35dis- 2323dō 1113fēcī 1113familiās 1924formus 1112genus 11122gnātus 74gustō 11205 11241hiems 11241iecur 186im 2221in- 393inter 238intimus 2012īra 1011is ea id im eōrum eārum

2221lingōlocus 19115loca 19115lūx 1031 1121

marium 19517mīlle 211mox 11214ne 381nemus 1131nī 391nōmen 762 1131nōmina 184nōs nostrum 2215-ō 301apater 1110pecus 11215perna 11205pīnsō 11174pistus 11205pēs 1812poscō 11204precor 11204pro 1118-que 119 382quiētus 1123quisque 225quid 119rota 11173saluus 11261sequor 11261socius 1117stō 11201sub 2310sunt 781super 2311-tō(d) 301ctrēs 11171tuus 224uehō 11253uentus 333uiāuiās 1924 19211uiae 1926uitulās 19211ullīus ullī 202uōs uostrum 2215ūrō 1031uōcem 1812

word index 151

Lithuaniananagraves 2224dešimtigraves 11203mergagraves 19211šimtas 11203

Oscandeiacutevaiacute 1926

Pāli-mina 302

Old Persianadam 2211a-dāraiya 1113anā 2224aniya- 1113-ānaiy 302cantara 1132ạrtāvā 184ava avam avahạyā avaiy

avaišā avām 2225aštauva- 214azdā 11243-ānām 731-āyā 1924-āha 1611 19115iyam ima anā 2221ubā 211-ūnām 19535aiva- 211kas-ciy 225krta- 1121čaccedilušuva- 214ccedilišuva- 214xšnā 1116-tam 301btuva-tuvam 2212-taiy 2215dahạyāva 19532-dim dīš 2216naiy 391pančauva- 214paruv 7121

paruviya- 1032barbarāmiy 31abaram 31abaran 781 1114bauvatiy 1113ma-mām 762 2211manā 2211-maiy 2215Margum 1112-mna- 302erautah- 11263-šim šīš šaiy 2216vašnā 11212hauv 1034 2225haruva- 1113

Prākritjharaiuml 11255 fn 213

Proto-Indo-Europeanb 1114bh 1114 1118bher 781 1114 2511d 1113-dd- 11112deh3 751 1113deḱm 1113 11203dēiḱ-š-s 1051deru-os 19540dḱmtoacutem 11203 211dlh1ghoacute-dreu-s 19540dueis 81du- 1114dui- 1114dui-dḱmti 211dh 1113dheh1 751 1113dh1-toacute- 333d(h)ǵh 11255 fn 213dhguher 11255 fn 213-dhi 301cDhT DhS 11111

dhreugh 54e 7 73 117 119 131eacute- 31-eh2 19115 19117 1921-eh2-ei 1926-eh2-es 1612 1924 19211-eh2-ih1 1928-eh2 19211 19211 fn 35-ei 146 1817-enh2 1863-es 161 145 18114-eu-es 19532-eum rarr -ēm 19211 fn 35ē 7 74 117-ēi 1958-ēu-s 19518ǵ 117 11241ǵenh1 2511ǵeus 11241ǵn 1116ǵneh3 11254ǵnh1-toacute- 74ǵrh2-uen- 184ǵh 117 11241ǵhesliio- 211ǵheu 11241ǵheuH 11142ǵ(h)u 11142ǵhuer 11142g 117 1112gh 117 1112gu 117 1112guem 11122gum-sḱe- 11122guiHeh2- 11122gueh3us 1112guh 117 1112guhen 11122guhor-moacute- 1112h1ndash3 7144-h1 147 151 1918h1eacute- 31h1eḱuo- 11103h1ei-h1i- h1e- 2221h1ono- 2224

152 word index

h1es-heacute1es-ti h1s-eacutenti 2511h1i-ieacuteh1-t 1113h1lenguh 782 1132h1mo- 224-h2 1612 1633 194h2eacutemǵhes- 761h2enk 761h2ep-nes- 1118h2ueg-s 11205h2ueḱs 2511h2euo- 2225-h3ku- 182 fn 33h3meiǵh 1022 fn 29i 7 117i 10111-ieh1ih1- 29-ieh2-ei 1936-ieh20es 19310-ieh2-h1 1937-ieh2m 1932 fn 36-ieh2s 1934ieuK-t 11102-ih1 151 152-ih2 192 1931 19515 20-ih2-ieh2 193-ih2-m 1932im 2221-in-s 19514-i-om 19516ī 7ḱ 117 11203ḱleu 264ḱou-eacuteie- 2615ḱmtoacute- 211ḱu 11103k 1117 119 1116keh2 119kieu 1123ku 117 119 1116-kue 119kue kuid 225kueis 7153kueacutekulo- 119kuetesr- 211

kueacutetores 11171kuid kuo-s 225kuturdegkuod 119l 1121 119leuk- 1031-ln- 186 fn 34m 1131 119m 73mnieo- 131mleuH 2511mleacuteuH-ti 1131mns-dheh1 11242-moacute- 212mosgh- 1112n 1131 119n 73 744n- 393nei 391n-guh2-uacuteh2- 194nH 74ni 7143ns 1127nsdno- 1113-ns 172 18115nsme- 2215-nt 302b-ntos 186o 7 73 744 119 301o+ei 1917o+es 1612 19115-o-h1 19110-oh2 301a-oi 1919-o-ih1 19111-oi-m 1952ō 7 74-ōi 1958ōs 19115h3eḱteh3 11211 211-ons 19116-osio 7102 1915-ou-es 19532p 1110 1118peku-ieo- 119

peacutekuō 119penkuto- 115penkue-dḱmt- 211penth1- 1811 fn 32ponth1- 1811 fn 32ph2teacuter- 1110pḱu- 11215plth2uacute- 1121 11173prh2oacutes 212prḱ-sḱeo- 11204reh1i- 1013r 1121rH 1124-ro 302a 302broteh2- 11173roacuteth2o- 11173s 1119 1120 11205 11261seh2-ul-sh2-uen- 186 fn

34seku 1116sekuh2-oi- 1116sem- 213sḱ 11204-sḱeo- 2616sm-ǵheslo- 211smih2-ǵheslih2 211soacute toacuted seh2 2223-soi 302a-som 2221sr- 11263-tero- 2012t 1110 1117tetḱon- 11216tH 11173-tiacute- 332tisres 211tḱ 11216-toacute- 333-toi 302atri(h2)-dḱomt- 211trins tri-h2 211-tt- 11112 11202u 6u 10112ueǵh 781 11253

word index 153

ueacuteḱ-si 11205 11214ueid 782-uent-unt- 183-uer-uen 186-uh1 19525ulh1-toacute 1124uobhso- 11252-uōs-uos-us 188ū 7z 11251

Proto-Indo-Iranian-a- 7 73aćtaH-ti- 211-ai- 7112 10 1011 102-ai 1919 19111 1923aiam 2221ai-au 19113-aibhias 202-aiš 1954 1955-aišu 202aiuam 211-ans 183-as 794 7131-asia 1915-ats 183-au- 7122 103 104-au 7134 1034 154 19113

19519 19526augdha 11111-aui- 1114-auš 104 19522-ā- 7 74 744-āi- 1051-āia- 732 1052-āiam 1952-ām 19118-ān- 76-ās 852 154 161 19115

19211āst 11101-āu- 1061-āua 1062-bh- 1118-bhias 19119

čaacutetasras 211degC-mHna- 302e-ć- 11203 11211 11212ćraiH-ias- 1113-ćs- 11214-ću- 11103-DDh- 11111dui- 11141duitiia- 212-DZh- 11111-dhi 291-H 1918-(H)sa- 2517-i- 7 7141-ias- 2011iHa- 1128-iHs 19310-išta- 2011-ī- 7 7142 715-ī 1959j- 11212 11241 11253-j+s- 11255-jn- 1116-jh- 11241 11253-jh+s- 11255ktur(ī)ia 212-l- 1121-maacute- 212mas-dhaH- 11242matsia- 11112-m-m 1811-n 11101-ns- 792 1127-nt 11101paacutentaHs 1811 fn 32pntHaacutes 1811 fn 32prHuaacute- 212-r- 1121rtauan- 184-s- 301sānts 11112-sć- 11204-st 11101suHar 186-tama- 2012

-tara- 2012tuarć 7133-u- 7 7172-uaH 195251uaid 7822uaid 782-uas 19522uasu-H 19534uānst 76 11101 11174-uH 19527-uHas 1948ušma- 2214-ū- 7 7172-z- 11251-źhasra- 211

Sanskritaacutemsayoḥ 19112aacutemhas- 761agru- 194aṅguṣṭhaacute- 1112-atur 301daacutedyu- 7166addha 11243aacuteti 231aacutentama- 2012antaacuter 1132 238ana anayā 2224aacutenu 237anyaacute- 791 1113anyaacutem 7143 fn 26anyaacutesmau anyeacute anyeacuteṣām

202aacutep-apaacutes 1815 18115apa 1818apa 18110apas 18114apam 18117adbhyaacutes 18118aacutepa 235apatildeca 182aacutepi 232aacutepnas- 1118aacutepnasvant- 1118

154 word index

abhiacute 1032 1114 1114 233-ābhiḥ 19214-ābhyām 19210-ābhyas 19213amrta- 1123 393ayiyat 1113eacutetu 1031ayaacutemayoacuteh asyās asyaacutei ena asyam

aya 2221asmaacutet 792ebhyaacutes 81-ayā 1927-aye 1111-aacuteyoḥ 1929araacutemati 742ardhaacute- 214aryamaacuten- 81aacutervant- 783aacutevidvāms- 782aacutevitti- 7151avoacuteḥ 2225aśītiacute- 211aacuteśman- 11203aacuteśva- 11103 11203aśve 1923aṣṭa 11211aṣṭamaacute- 2121asdegmi 11262degsi 11261degti 11201 2511saacutenti 781 2511aacutesat 1127asīt 11101āsuacuter 1127edhi 11242syāt 11282asaacutesya 1128-as 794aacutesu- 1114 11261aacutesura- 781 11261 2511asaacuteu 2225

asthanvaacutent- 11174asmaacute-asman 11262asmakam asmaacutebhyam 2213

224asra- 11263ahaacutem 2211aacutehi- 11256a 239akrti 81-āna- 302e-ānām 731-āni 184-ām 302c-āyai 1926-āyās 1924-āyoḥ 19112aviṣṭiya- 17151ās-āsaacutes 1815āsa 1817-ās 752 1612 19211-āsas 1611 19115āskra- 11201-i 302biacutet 2216idhmaacute- 1011iṣṭaacute- 333iacuteṣyati 1011-ī 1931-īnām 19516ī 2216ukthaacute- 11172ukthebhyas 19119ukṣaacuten- 7161ugraacute- 1112uacutettara- 2012uttānaacute- 11202uacuted 2312-ūnām 19535uacutepa 2310upaacuteri 2311ubdhaacute- 11111ubhaacute- 211ubheacute 19111 1928 211

ubha 211ubhaacuteyoḥ 19113 211ubhabhyām 19114 211-ur 185 301b 301duruacute- 1121urvi 19528uacuteṣṭra- 11174-e 1923 1928eacuteka- 211eacutekasmin eacutekasyās 202-ethām 302bethe 302aevaacute(m) 211eṣeṣa- 1011aiṣīt 1051eṣaacute eṣa etasā etaacutesyas 2223-ai 302coacutejas- 1031oṣati 1031-oḥ 753 154-au 19110rjuacute- 91 1121rtavan- 733 1062 184kaacutet 119 381katamaacute- 2012kataraacute- 2012kanya 783 81 184kamnānar- 54 fn 21kar 119krnoacuteti 265aacute-kar 7133krtaacute- 1121kaacuterman-kaacutermā 184kaacutermāṇ 184kaacutermāṇī 184kaviacute- 782kavaacuteyas 742kaacutes 11201kaacutesya 11261kama- 119kiacute- kaacute- 225kaacuteś-cit 225kiacuteḥ kiacutem 2251

word index 155

kaacutesya keacutena 2252krntaacuteti 269kraacutetu- 7176 1116kraacutetuḥ 19518kraacutetoḥ 19522kraacutetvas 19522kraacutetve 19524kraacutetvā 19525kraacutetau 1061 19526kvagrave 1113kṣam-kṣam 1812jmaacutes 1815jmay-a 1819kṣaacutemi 1819kṣamas 181141kṣaydegati 7832kṣaykṣeacuteti 11216kṣar 11255 fn 213kṣeacutetra- 11216gam 11122gaacute-cha- 11122 11204gātuacute- 7175jagmuacuteṣi- 301egataacute- 333gaacuteya- 1012 1913gaacutev-gam 19211 fn 35gaacuteuḥ 1061 1112 19518garh 11253grbhnati 265grbhāyaacute- 1114-gāyaacute- 1052gharjiacuteghrkṣati 2617gharmaacute- 1112cakraacute- 119cakṣ 184catuacuteras caacutetasras 211catvaras 731 11171 211-ca 119 382cit 2251citraacute- 794

cyautnaacute-chāyā 732jagmuacuteṣī- 301ejaacuteṅghā- 1112janijayate 2611bjaniṣyaacuteti 2618jātaacute- 74 11241jāna- 11254 19539janunī 19528jihva- 194jihva jihvaacuteyā 1927juṣṭaacute- 11205juhu- 194juhubhiḥ 19411joacuteṣa- 11241jntildeā 1116jntildeātaacuter- 11254jya- 1113 11122jraacuteyas- 11241takṣtaacutekṣa- 272ataacutekṣan- 11216 184tanu- 194tanuḥ 1941tanvagravem 7175 1942tanvatanunām 1949tanubhyas 19410-tam 301b-tara 2012taacuteviṣī- 782 7151-tas 301-tām 301b302c-tāt 301ctan 793tāpaacuteya- 2615-ti 211tiraacutes 794 2313tudaacuteti 267turi ya- 212trti ya- 212tyaacutejas- 7101 81tri- tisr 211

traacuteyas 11171 211tri n tri tisraacutes tribhiacuteḥ

tribhyaacutes trīṇam 211tvaacute- 224tvaacutem 7175tvam 762 11171teacute 7113 2215tvā 2215tvaacuteṣṭar- 7133 91 11144-thas 301damsiṣṭha- 761dabhdiacutepsati 11252 2617darśaacutedegam 743degam 91drṣṭaacute- 11211darh 11255daacuteśa 1113 11203daśamaacute- 212dasmaacute- 11262daacutesyu- 7171daacutesyum 19520dasraacute- 11263dahdegati 11256dā 1113daacutedāmi 763 262adaacutedan 11101dātaras 731dātaram 746daru- 82 19539droacuteḥ 19540durvacas- 11251duṣdeg 11251dīrghaacute- 1124 1112di vyati 2611adeva 19110devi - 192 1931deacutevi 1933devyas 1934devyas 1934devya 1937devyaacutei 1936devyam 1938

156 word index

devyoacutes 1939devi 1931 1939devi ḥ 19310devi nām 19311devi bhyas 19312devi bhiḥ 19313devi bhyām 1939devi m 1932devīṣu 19314dūrat 1916dyaacutev-dyam 19211 fn 35drapsaacute- 11215dryacutehvan- 54droḥ 19540drohdruacutehyati 11256 2611adva dvabhyām 211dvita 81dviti ya- 11141 212dveacuteṣas- 11141dvis 11141dveacuteṣṭi 81 11141dhaacutenvan- 186dhardhāraacuteyati 1113dhartraacute- 91dhā 1113daacutedhāmi 763 262adhatteacute 11112-dhihi 301c-dhyai 331dhruvaacute- 1113-dhvam 302cnaacutepāt- 11103naacuteptar- 11103naacutemas- 783 1131 1128 187nar-naacuteram 1812naacutere 1022naraacutes 1815nareacute 1817naacuterā 18112naacuteras 18114nrn 18115

naram 18117nrbhyas 1114 18118navamaacute- 1033 212nvānam 2111naś 112112naśaśnoacuteti 11212nas 2215nahyaacutete 2611bnabha-neacutediṣṭha- 1118naman- 762 1131nāvājaacute- 733niacute 2320niṣdeg nirdeg 231nejnenikteacute 11256neacutediṣṭha- 11242neacutedīyas- 1113neacutema- 214-ntām 302cnyagraventildecam 182pakthaacute- 212pacdegata 119paacutentildeca 1132pantildecānam pantildecā-śaacutet 211paacutenthā-paacutenthām 1812paacutenthās pathaacutes 1811 fn 32paraacutes 794paacuteri 2315paśuacute- 7121 11215paśca 2318paśvaacuteḥ 19533pāmsuacute- 761padam 1812paṣṇi 11205pitaacuter- 1110degaacuteram 744degtreacute 91 1022pituacute-7141pitrvya- 82piacutebati 268pi vas- 7142puacuterandhi- 1132

puruacute- 7121 82puraacutes 2317pura 2316pūyati 7162purva 212peṣ 11174 11205prtanā- 1123prtanās 19211prthuacute- 1121 11173praacute 1118 2319praacuteti 2314prathamaacute- 212praṅ 761praṅk-ṣ 761pracprchaacutete 11204 2616praśnaacute- 11212priyaacute- 1113priyaacutem 7143 fn 26priyas priyasas 19211bandh 1132bāhu-bāhu 19527bāhaacutevā 19527budhnaacute- 1113bravidegīti 1131aacutedegam 1033bhaktaacute- 1116 333bhaacutega- 1112bhaj 11256bhardegāmai 301adegati 81aacutedegan 31degan 11101 114bhavi 783aacutedegam 1033degati 266bhaacutevemahi 1011 fn 27bhaacutevema degta 1011 fn 27bhūyuacuter 301bbhiṣaj- 2613-bhiḥ 167-bhyām 153

word index 157

-bhyaacutes 166bhūri 1953bhratrvya- 82maacute-mam maacuted 2211maacutehyam 2211 2213mā memakṣu 712 11242 7121

11214majjaacuten- 1112 11242maacutetsya- 117 11202maacutedhu- 7121maacutedhvā 19525maacutedhunā 19525maacutedhū 19527manmaacutenya- 131 2610-māna- 302emaacutenas- 783 793degi 11261maacutentra- 761manyuacute- 783 1034maacuterka- 1122markaacute- 1122maacutertya- 1123maacutertyeṣu 19121mahantam 751ma 392mana- 91 1113māsya- 1128mās-mas 1811masam 751 1812māsya- 1128mitravaacuteuṇā 353mīḍhaacute- 11205medha- 11242mrtyuacute- 81 11171mriyaacutete 2612yaacute- yaacutet yaacutesya yaacutesyās yeacute yan

yaṃs ca 223yac cid 383byajntildeaacute- 7101 11211yajntildeiacuteya- 7101yatildet 383a

yaacutetra 383dyaacutethā 383ayaacuted 11102yada 383dyaacutedi 383cyamaacute- 7143yavat 383dyuktaacute- 7173yuga 1611yuvaacutem yuvam yuvaku yuvoacuteḥ

2213yūyaacutem yuṣmaacutebhyam 2214yuṣmaacuted 11102rlaacuteghīyas- 1132raghuacute-782 1112raacutetha- 1121 11173ratheṣṭha- 1022 fn 29 402rayiacute- 732 1012rayiacutem 1952-re 302areh 1121reacutehmi 1121reacuterihat 1121degrocas- 1031roacutecate 1121riktaacute- 81leacutehmi 1121vaacutedhar- 91vaacutemsat 793vaktraacute- 11172vakṣvakṣaacuteya- 2615vakṣyaacuteti 2618aukṣat 11205vac 11205avāci 252 321cuvaacutektha 11172voacuteca- 272bsūktaacute- 11102 fn 211vaacutecas- 794 187vayaacutem 1012vaśdegmi 11211vakṣi 11205vaṣṭi 11211

-vas 301avas 2215vasdegte 11201vaacutesu- 7121vaacutesu 19521vaacutesavevaacutesau 19526vaacutesūnām 1129 fn 214vaacutesyas- 1111 1128vaacutesyān 187vahvaacutehanti 781 2511vaacutekṣat 11255vak- 131 1811vacam 1812vācaacutes 1815 187vāca 1818vāgbhiacuteḥ 18119vāgbhyas 18118vam 2213vāyuacute- 732 1034viacute 2323vidvan 188vidvaṃsam 188vimśatiacute- 211viacuteś-viacuteṭ 1811viacuteśam 1812viśaacutes 1815viśeacute 1817viśa 1818viśiacute 1819viacuteśas 18115viśam 18117viḍbhyaacutes 18118viacuteśva- 793viacuteśvebhyas 19119viacuteśvasmai viacuteśve viacuteśveṣām

202viśvāvasu- 54 fn 21veacutega- 1021vedveacutettha 11202vittaacute- 11202

158 word index

viacuteda- 272voḍhar- 11253voḥ 19529vrka- 1122vrjaacutena- 791vrataacute- 82vrādh 82vrddhaacute- 11112 11243vrnīteacute 1124śamsa- 793 1132śataacutem 11203 19111 211śayśeacutete 781 2511śaacuteyāna- 783 fn 23śaacuteviṣṭha- 782 7151śās 11201 11203śiṣa- 272aśāstar- 11203śiacutepre 1928śuacutepti- 7161śrav 11203śravi 252 321cśvan-śva 1811śvanam 1812śuacutenas 1815śuacutene 1817śvanā18110śvanas 18114śuacutenām 18117śreacuteyas- 1113śreacuteṣṭha- 1022 fn 29ṣaacuteṭ 1116saacute taacutet sa 2223sakrt 213sakman- 1116saacutekhāy-saacutekhā 1116 1951saacutekhāyam 1952saacutekhāyā 1959

sac 11261degate 791 81degante 7143siacuteṣak- 7141 262asacanaacute- 791saacutecā 2324sattraacute- 11174satyaacutem 7143 fn 26 7152satra 2326saacutena- 272asaptaacute 11261saptatiacute- 211saptaacutetha- 212saacutem 2327saacuterva- 7175 1113 11261sarvaacutetāti- 82sahaacute 2325saacutehas- 794sahaacutesra- 19111 211sintildecaacuteti 269sīm 2216sukraacutetu- 1116sumāyaacute- 1052suvitaacute- 1130sūktaacute- 11102 fn 211sūryayai 1926skaacutendha- 11201skambhaacute- 114star- 92sthā 11201snehsnihyati 11256spaacuteṭ 1811sprh 11201smaacuted 11262 2322smaacutesi 11262-sva 1131 302csvaacute- 1130 224svaacutesmin sveacute svanām 224svaptyaacute- 81

svaacutepna- 91 1130svagraver- 791 91 1130svaacutesā 185svinnaacute- 1113srāmaacute- 11263sroacutetas- 11263handegti 11122deghan-degha 1811deghaacutenam 1812degghnaacutes 1815degghneacute 1817deghaacutenas 18114degghnaacutes 18115harmiyaacute- 81havhvaacuteyati 11142haacutesta-haacutestā 19110haacutetayoḥ 19113haacutestābhyā 19114haacutestaiḥ 19119hastiacuten- 184hājahāmi 11241hiacute 382hitaacute- 333himaacute- 11241hotaacuter- 11241 185hvardegate 11142

Umbrianbum 19211 fn 35tursa 1923tutas 1924vitlaf 19211

Topical Index

ablaut 119 132 144 1451 17 181 1815 181918114 182 183 184 184 185

accent 7144 1122 1122 132 17 224ndash displacement 1122 132 1916ndash hysterodynamic 17 194 1943 1951

1952 1957 19518 19522 1952419533

ndash proterodynamic 17 1815 1954 1951719522 19533 2511

agent 2324 363agreement 20 35Aktionsart 253allomorph 132 134 1411 302eanalogy fn 22 11111 11112 11212 fn 214 165

182 183 188 1916 19117 1935 fn 2332ndash intraparadigmatic 744 1112 1127 186

186 fn 32anaptyxis 7 8 9 11141archetype 24 425 427 52 523 524 71

77 1113 114 11231aspect 253assimilation 1114 1913 19116Bartholomae 11 11111 11202 11243Brugmann 746 132 184 185 187 188 1952

19539 211 2615 28 321ccausative 2714 2615(relative) chronology 3 1114 1812 188 1911

213 2221 2512 353 401 402comparison 187 2011 2011 212 2311 362

374b 383bcompound(ing)composition 181 19518

19539ndash vowel 54 794 7132 fn 21

endingndash empty 1412 143 144 148 1632 1813 1814

1819 1918 1921 1923ndash blending 1542 19113

OAvYAv dialectal differences 1 72 11 111111451 183 1916 1917 2215 301a

degrees of adjectival comparison 187 2011ndash comparative 187 2011

ndash superlative 54 782 7151 11203 112422011 212

devoicing 1116dissimilation fn 214enclitic 72 81 1132 1128 1612 166 19 1911

1916 1918 1919 fn 23 38enlargement 1917epenthesis 8 91 921 1053 1063 1114fricativization 1113 118 1111 11143 1115

19530 19537ndash absence of 118 11103 1113 11143 11174

Gathas 1411 41 413gathicism 7111 1118 11231 146 19522

ndash hypergathicism 11263Geldner 2 fn 13heteroclisis 133 186 fn 34Hoffmann 2 41 51inchoative 2616indeclinable words 211infix 2511 2513 265 269 323 fn 31Iranian

ndash (Proto-)Iranian 1 6 7 7145 11 1122 117118 11112 1113 1115 11205 11261

ndash Eastern 422 732 733laryngeal(s) 74 7145 1124 1115 134 147

1633 17 184 1918 1923 1933ndash stems in 181

lengthening 743 147 1632 165 184 1951819520 211

lossndash of d 211 212ndash of ɣ 112ndash of i 1951 1956 1958ndash of k 212ndash of ə 1913ndash of N 184 19211ndash of r 185ndash of t 11101ndash of u 2214ndash of aspiration 117ndash of dental 11112ndash of laryngeal 1933

160 topical index

manuscripts 1 2 427 428 52 522 52654 77 1111 114 1122 11263 381ndash pure impure fn 12ndash rediscovered fn 13

Mazdayasnian fn 11motion-suffix 188 193 194 20 301enasalization 77 793 113 19116 19514

19533nom pro voc 1933nompl pro accpl 18114 19116participle 183 188 193 301e 302e 33 333

393passive 2324 252 2611b 321c 302b 302c

333Persian

ndash Old 1 424 6 1113 214 31 372ndash Middle 2 1123

postposition 1131 1451 168 1819 19171919 19121 19215 19314 19526

preverbs 7143 7155 1113 11143 1117 232512 31

prohibition 372 fn 41Prolegomena 2(liturgical) pronunciation 412 424 426 71

9 10 fn 213prothesis 211 2214

punctuation 54 381root 131 17 181 184 2011 251 2511 2512

2513 28 29 321c 331recharacterization 1611 19115 2221reduplication 1113 26 262a 262b 268

2612 2617b 27 272b 28 322Ruumlckverwandlung fn 24ruki 11205 11251 1411 2216shortening 72 731 1916 19118 19311 1952

19513 19516 211 22Stang fn 35stem 54 131 133 134 17 2513 253 30 31

331suppletion 22 221 2221 2223 2224 2225svarabhakti 9tmesis 2512transcription of Avestan 51 fn 211vocalization

ndash of laryngeal 7145voicing 11111 11242 11261 162Vulgate 426 fn 212YAv features in OAv 413 783 794 7131

1012 1022 1023 104 146 1817 1919 fn21 fn 26

Zarathustra 1 411 41 413

Contents
Preface
1 Introduction
- sect1 Avestan the Iranian Languages
- sect2 The Avestan Texts
- sect3 Writing System The Avestan Alphabet
- sect4 The Transmission
- - 2 Phonology
  - - sect5 Alphabet and Phoneme Inventory
    - sect6 Historical Phonology
    - sect7 Vowels
    - sect8 Epenthetic Vowels
    - sect9 Anaptyctic Vowels
    - sect10 Diphthongs
    - sect11 Consonants
    - - 3 Morphology
      - sect12 Introduction
        
        
        sect131 Components of the Word
        
        sect132 Accent and Ablaut
        
        sect133 Paradigmatic Nominal Categories
        
        sect134 Endings
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect181 Root Nouns
        
        sect182 Stems in -t -aṇc
        
        sect183 Stems in -nt
        
        sect184 Stems in -an -man -uuan -in
        
        sect185 r-stems
        
        sect186 rn-stems (Heteroclites)
        
        sect187 h-stems
        
        sect188 Stems in -uuāh-uš -iš -uš
        
        sect19 Vowel Stems
        
        sect191 a-stems
        
        sect192 ā-stems
        
        sect193 ī-stems
        
        sect194 ū-stems
        
        sect195 i- and u-stems
        
        
        sect201 Degrees of Comparison (Gradation)
        
        sect202 Pronominalized Adjectives
        
        sect21 Numerals
        
        sect211 Cardinal Numbers
        
        sect212 Ordinal Numbers
        
        sect213 Multiplicatives
        
        sect214 Fractions
        
        sect22 Pronouns
        
        sect221 Personal Pronouns
        
        sect222 Demonstrative Pronouns
        
        sect223 Relative Pronoun
        
        sect224 Possessive Pronouns
        
        sect225 Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns
        
        
        sect24 The Verb
        
        
        sect251 The Root The Stem
        
        sect252 Diathesis
        
        sect253 Tense
        
        
        sect27 Aorist Stems
        
        sect28 Perfect Stem
        
        sect29 Moods
        
        
        sect301 Active Endings
        
        sect302 Middle Endings
        
        sect31 The Augment
        
        sect32 Paradigms
        
        sect321 Athematic Root Present and Root Aorist
        
        sect322 Athematic Reduplicated Present
        
        sect323 Presents in -n -nu and -nā
        
        sect324 Thematic Presents and Aorists
        
        sect325 Sigmatic Aorist
        
        sect326 Perfect
        
        
        4 Syntax
        
        sect34 Syntax
        
        sect35 Number
        
        sect36 Case Syntax
        
        
        
        sect39 Negation
        
        
        5 Texts
        
        sect41 Introduction
        
        sect411 Young Avestan Texts
        
        sect412 The Yasna Haptaŋhāiti
        
        sect413 The Gathas (Gāθās)
        
        Bibliography
        
        Electronic Editions
        
        Chrestomathy
        
        Translations
        
        
        Edition
        
        
        
        
        
        
        Glossary
        
        Word Index
        
        Topical Index

Page 2: ia601502.us.archive.org · 2021. 2. 23. · LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Vaan,MichielArnoudCorde,1973-[Introducciónalavéstico.English] IntroductiontoAvestan/ByMichieldeVaan,JavierMartinez

Brill Introductions toIndo-European Languages

Series Editors

Michiel de VaanAlexander Lubotsky

volume 1

The titles published in this series are listed at brillcomiiel

Translated by

Ryan Sandell

LEIDEN | BOSTON

PK6103V3613 2014491525ndashdc23

2013040365

Contents

viii contents

Preface

xii preface

chapter 1

Introduction

chapter 2

Phonology

e e o ō i i u ū

k x x xv g ġ ɣ

c j

t θ d ẟ t

p f b β

ẏ y v r

s z s z s s

h

l r m n z

sect7 Vowels

sect10 Diphthongs

sect11 Consonants

ku gu guh

chapter 3

Morphology

sect12 Introduction

sect19 Vowel Stems

table 11 Numerals

sect21 Numerals

sect22 Pronouns

sect24 The Verb

sect27 Aorist Stems

sect28 Perfect Stem

sect29 Moods

sect31 The Augment

sect32 Paradigms

b Aor Injact Injmid

2 +hunuiiārəš

vəṇghən

e Partact Partmid

chapter 4

Syntax

sect34 Syntax

sect35 Number

sect36 Case Syntax

sect39 Negation

chapter 5

Texts

sect41 Introduction

Bibliography

Electronic Editions

Chrestomathy

Translations

Edition

120 bibliography

Boston 2011

bibliography 121

122 bibliography

Glossary

auuiamahe

124 glossary

glossary 125

126 glossary

glossary 127

fraxšnaənē

128 glossary

(OAv)

glossary 129

130 glossary

instsg hunarā

Word Index

132 word index

word index 133

11261 11262 1127 1128261 321 326 372

134 word index

11102 265 323 332 333degkar- 181

word index 135

136 word index

word index 137

2216 2221 2222 2253223 2252

138 word index

19535daxiiūm 7175 1129 fn 214

word index 139

1113 11243 1131 251 27128 301 322 325 333

140 word index

11172fəẟrōi 7144 91 1022 11103

word index 141

142 word index

word index 143

144 word index

word index 145

188 272 28 301e 323326 331

146 word index

word index 147

148 word index

word index 149

150 word index

word index 151

Pāli-mina 302

152 word index

word index 153

154 word index

word index 155

156 word index

word index 157

158 word index

Topical Index

ablaut 119 132 144 1451 17 181 1815 181918114 182 183 184 184 185

1952 1957 19518 19522 1952419533

213 2221 2512 353 401 402comparison 187 2011 2011 212 2311 362

19539ndash vowel 54 794 7132 fn 21

1819 1918 1921 1923ndash blending 1542 19113

19530 19537ndash absence of 118 11103 1113 11143 11174

1633 17 184 1918 1923 1933ndash stems in 181

lengthening 743 147 1632 165 184 1951819520 211

160 topical index

393passive 2324 252 2611b 321c 302b 302c

333Persian

postposition 1131 1451 168 1819 19171919 19121 19215 19314 19526

preverbs 7143 7155 1113 11143 1117 232512 31

9 10 fn 213prothesis 211 2214

19513 19516 211 22Stang fn 35stem 54 131 133 134 17 2513 253 30 31

1012 1022 1023 104 146 1817 1919 fn21 fn 26

Contents
Preface
1 Introduction
- - 2 Phonology
    - sect7 Vowels
    - sect10 Diphthongs
    - sect11 Consonants
    - - 3 Morphology
        
        
        
        
        
        sect134 Endings
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect181 Root Nouns
        
        
        
        
        sect185 r-stems
        
        
        sect187 h-stems
        
        
        sect19 Vowel Stems
        
        sect191 a-stems
        
        sect192 ā-stems
        
        sect193 ī-stems
        
        sect194 ū-stems
        
        
        
        
        
        sect21 Numerals
        
        
        
        
        sect214 Fractions
        
        sect22 Pronouns
        
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect24 The Verb
        
        
        
        sect252 Diathesis
        
        sect253 Tense
        
        
        sect27 Aorist Stems
        
        sect28 Perfect Stem
        
        sect29 Moods
        
        
        
        
        sect31 The Augment
        
        sect32 Paradigms
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect326 Perfect
        
        
        4 Syntax
        
        sect34 Syntax
        
        sect35 Number
        
        sect36 Case Syntax
        
        
        
        sect39 Negation
        
        
        5 Texts
        
        sect41 Introduction
        
        
        
        
        Bibliography
        
        Electronic Editions
        
        Chrestomathy
        
        Translations
        
        
        Edition
        
        
        
        
        
        
        Glossary
        
        Word Index
        
        Topical Index

Page 3: ia601502.us.archive.org · 2021. 2. 23. · LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Vaan,MichielArnoudCorde,1973-[Introducciónalavéstico.English] IntroductiontoAvestan/ByMichieldeVaan,JavierMartinez

Translated by

Ryan Sandell

LEIDEN | BOSTON

PK6103V3613 2014491525ndashdc23

2013040365

Contents

viii contents

Preface

xii preface

chapter 1

Introduction

chapter 2

Phonology

e e o ō i i u ū

k x x xv g ġ ɣ

c j

t θ d ẟ t

p f b β

ẏ y v r

s z s z s s

h

l r m n z

sect7 Vowels

sect10 Diphthongs

sect11 Consonants

ku gu guh

chapter 3

Morphology

sect12 Introduction

sect19 Vowel Stems

table 11 Numerals

sect21 Numerals

sect22 Pronouns

sect24 The Verb

sect27 Aorist Stems

sect28 Perfect Stem

sect29 Moods

sect31 The Augment

sect32 Paradigms

b Aor Injact Injmid

2 +hunuiiārəš

vəṇghən

e Partact Partmid

chapter 4

Syntax

sect34 Syntax

sect35 Number

sect36 Case Syntax

sect39 Negation

chapter 5

Texts

sect41 Introduction

Bibliography

Electronic Editions

Chrestomathy

Translations

Edition

120 bibliography

Boston 2011

bibliography 121

122 bibliography

Glossary

auuiamahe

124 glossary

glossary 125

126 glossary

glossary 127

fraxšnaənē

128 glossary

(OAv)

glossary 129

130 glossary

instsg hunarā

Word Index

132 word index

word index 133

11261 11262 1127 1128261 321 326 372

134 word index

11102 265 323 332 333degkar- 181

word index 135

136 word index

word index 137

2216 2221 2222 2253223 2252

138 word index

19535daxiiūm 7175 1129 fn 214

word index 139

1113 11243 1131 251 27128 301 322 325 333

140 word index

11172fəẟrōi 7144 91 1022 11103

word index 141

142 word index

word index 143

144 word index

word index 145

188 272 28 301e 323326 331

146 word index

word index 147

148 word index

word index 149

150 word index

word index 151

Pāli-mina 302

152 word index

word index 153

154 word index

word index 155

156 word index

word index 157

158 word index

Topical Index

ablaut 119 132 144 1451 17 181 1815 181918114 182 183 184 184 185

1952 1957 19518 19522 1952419533

213 2221 2512 353 401 402comparison 187 2011 2011 212 2311 362

19539ndash vowel 54 794 7132 fn 21

1819 1918 1921 1923ndash blending 1542 19113

19530 19537ndash absence of 118 11103 1113 11143 11174

1633 17 184 1918 1923 1933ndash stems in 181

lengthening 743 147 1632 165 184 1951819520 211

160 topical index

393passive 2324 252 2611b 321c 302b 302c

333Persian

postposition 1131 1451 168 1819 19171919 19121 19215 19314 19526

preverbs 7143 7155 1113 11143 1117 232512 31

9 10 fn 213prothesis 211 2214

19513 19516 211 22Stang fn 35stem 54 131 133 134 17 2513 253 30 31

1012 1022 1023 104 146 1817 1919 fn21 fn 26

Contents
Preface
1 Introduction
- - 2 Phonology
    - sect7 Vowels
    - sect10 Diphthongs
    - sect11 Consonants
    - - 3 Morphology
        
        
        
        
        
        sect134 Endings
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect181 Root Nouns
        
        
        
        
        sect185 r-stems
        
        
        sect187 h-stems
        
        
        sect19 Vowel Stems
        
        sect191 a-stems
        
        sect192 ā-stems
        
        sect193 ī-stems
        
        sect194 ū-stems
        
        
        
        
        
        sect21 Numerals
        
        
        
        
        sect214 Fractions
        
        sect22 Pronouns
        
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect24 The Verb
        
        
        
        sect252 Diathesis
        
        sect253 Tense
        
        
        sect27 Aorist Stems
        
        sect28 Perfect Stem
        
        sect29 Moods
        
        
        
        
        sect31 The Augment
        
        sect32 Paradigms
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect326 Perfect
        
        
        4 Syntax
        
        sect34 Syntax
        
        sect35 Number
        
        sect36 Case Syntax
        
        
        
        sect39 Negation
        
        
        5 Texts
        
        sect41 Introduction
        
        
        
        
        Bibliography
        
        Electronic Editions
        
        Chrestomathy
        
        Translations
        
        
        Edition
        
        
        
        
        
        
        Glossary
        
        Word Index
        
        Topical Index

Page 4: ia601502.us.archive.org · 2021. 2. 23. · LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Vaan,MichielArnoudCorde,1973-[Introducciónalavéstico.English] IntroductiontoAvestan/ByMichieldeVaan,JavierMartinez

Translated by

Ryan Sandell

LEIDEN | BOSTON

PK6103V3613 2014491525ndashdc23

2013040365

Contents

viii contents

Preface

xii preface

chapter 1

Introduction

chapter 2

Phonology

e e o ō i i u ū

k x x xv g ġ ɣ

c j

t θ d ẟ t

p f b β

ẏ y v r

s z s z s s

h

l r m n z

sect7 Vowels

sect10 Diphthongs

sect11 Consonants

ku gu guh

chapter 3

Morphology

sect12 Introduction

sect19 Vowel Stems

table 11 Numerals

sect21 Numerals

sect22 Pronouns

sect24 The Verb

sect27 Aorist Stems

sect28 Perfect Stem

sect29 Moods

sect31 The Augment

sect32 Paradigms

b Aor Injact Injmid

2 +hunuiiārəš

vəṇghən

e Partact Partmid

chapter 4

Syntax

sect34 Syntax

sect35 Number

sect36 Case Syntax

sect39 Negation

chapter 5

Texts

sect41 Introduction

Bibliography

Electronic Editions

Chrestomathy

Translations

Edition

120 bibliography

Boston 2011

bibliography 121

122 bibliography

Glossary

auuiamahe

124 glossary

glossary 125

126 glossary

glossary 127

fraxšnaənē

128 glossary

(OAv)

glossary 129

130 glossary

instsg hunarā

Word Index

132 word index

word index 133

11261 11262 1127 1128261 321 326 372

134 word index

11102 265 323 332 333degkar- 181

word index 135

136 word index

word index 137

2216 2221 2222 2253223 2252

138 word index

19535daxiiūm 7175 1129 fn 214

word index 139

1113 11243 1131 251 27128 301 322 325 333

140 word index

11172fəẟrōi 7144 91 1022 11103

word index 141

142 word index

word index 143

144 word index

word index 145

188 272 28 301e 323326 331

146 word index

word index 147

148 word index

word index 149

150 word index

word index 151

Pāli-mina 302

152 word index

word index 153

154 word index

word index 155

156 word index

word index 157

158 word index

Topical Index

ablaut 119 132 144 1451 17 181 1815 181918114 182 183 184 184 185

1952 1957 19518 19522 1952419533

213 2221 2512 353 401 402comparison 187 2011 2011 212 2311 362

19539ndash vowel 54 794 7132 fn 21

1819 1918 1921 1923ndash blending 1542 19113

19530 19537ndash absence of 118 11103 1113 11143 11174

1633 17 184 1918 1923 1933ndash stems in 181

lengthening 743 147 1632 165 184 1951819520 211

160 topical index

393passive 2324 252 2611b 321c 302b 302c

333Persian

postposition 1131 1451 168 1819 19171919 19121 19215 19314 19526

preverbs 7143 7155 1113 11143 1117 232512 31

9 10 fn 213prothesis 211 2214

19513 19516 211 22Stang fn 35stem 54 131 133 134 17 2513 253 30 31

1012 1022 1023 104 146 1817 1919 fn21 fn 26

Contents
Preface
1 Introduction
- - 2 Phonology
    - sect7 Vowels
    - sect10 Diphthongs
    - sect11 Consonants
    - - 3 Morphology
        
        
        
        
        
        sect134 Endings
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect181 Root Nouns
        
        
        
        
        sect185 r-stems
        
        
        sect187 h-stems
        
        
        sect19 Vowel Stems
        
        sect191 a-stems
        
        sect192 ā-stems
        
        sect193 ī-stems
        
        sect194 ū-stems
        
        
        
        
        
        sect21 Numerals
        
        
        
        
        sect214 Fractions
        
        sect22 Pronouns
        
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect24 The Verb
        
        
        
        sect252 Diathesis
        
        sect253 Tense
        
        
        sect27 Aorist Stems
        
        sect28 Perfect Stem
        
        sect29 Moods
        
        
        
        
        sect31 The Augment
        
        sect32 Paradigms
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect326 Perfect
        
        
        4 Syntax
        
        sect34 Syntax
        
        sect35 Number
        
        sect36 Case Syntax
        
        
        
        sect39 Negation
        
        
        5 Texts
        
        sect41 Introduction
        
        
        
        
        Bibliography
        
        Electronic Editions
        
        Chrestomathy
        
        Translations
        
        
        Edition
        
        
        
        
        
        
        Glossary
        
        Word Index
        
        Topical Index

Page 5: ia601502.us.archive.org · 2021. 2. 23. · LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Vaan,MichielArnoudCorde,1973-[Introducciónalavéstico.English] IntroductiontoAvestan/ByMichieldeVaan,JavierMartinez

PK6103V3613 2014491525ndashdc23

2013040365

Contents

viii contents

Preface

xii preface

chapter 1

Introduction

chapter 2

Phonology

e e o ō i i u ū

k x x xv g ġ ɣ

c j

t θ d ẟ t

p f b β

ẏ y v r

s z s z s s

h

l r m n z

sect7 Vowels

sect10 Diphthongs

sect11 Consonants

ku gu guh

chapter 3

Morphology

sect12 Introduction

sect19 Vowel Stems

table 11 Numerals

sect21 Numerals

sect22 Pronouns

sect24 The Verb

sect27 Aorist Stems

sect28 Perfect Stem

sect29 Moods

sect31 The Augment

sect32 Paradigms

b Aor Injact Injmid

2 +hunuiiārəš

vəṇghən

e Partact Partmid

chapter 4

Syntax

sect34 Syntax

sect35 Number

sect36 Case Syntax

sect39 Negation

chapter 5

Texts

sect41 Introduction

Bibliography

Electronic Editions

Chrestomathy

Translations

Edition

120 bibliography

Boston 2011

bibliography 121

122 bibliography

Glossary

auuiamahe

124 glossary

glossary 125

126 glossary

glossary 127

fraxšnaənē

128 glossary

(OAv)

glossary 129

130 glossary

instsg hunarā

Word Index

132 word index

word index 133

11261 11262 1127 1128261 321 326 372

134 word index

11102 265 323 332 333degkar- 181

word index 135

136 word index

word index 137

2216 2221 2222 2253223 2252

138 word index

19535daxiiūm 7175 1129 fn 214

word index 139

1113 11243 1131 251 27128 301 322 325 333

140 word index

11172fəẟrōi 7144 91 1022 11103

word index 141

142 word index

word index 143

144 word index

word index 145

188 272 28 301e 323326 331

146 word index

word index 147

148 word index

word index 149

150 word index

word index 151

Pāli-mina 302

152 word index

word index 153

154 word index

word index 155

156 word index

word index 157

158 word index

Topical Index

ablaut 119 132 144 1451 17 181 1815 181918114 182 183 184 184 185

1952 1957 19518 19522 1952419533

213 2221 2512 353 401 402comparison 187 2011 2011 212 2311 362

19539ndash vowel 54 794 7132 fn 21

1819 1918 1921 1923ndash blending 1542 19113

19530 19537ndash absence of 118 11103 1113 11143 11174

1633 17 184 1918 1923 1933ndash stems in 181

lengthening 743 147 1632 165 184 1951819520 211

160 topical index

393passive 2324 252 2611b 321c 302b 302c

333Persian

postposition 1131 1451 168 1819 19171919 19121 19215 19314 19526

preverbs 7143 7155 1113 11143 1117 232512 31

9 10 fn 213prothesis 211 2214

19513 19516 211 22Stang fn 35stem 54 131 133 134 17 2513 253 30 31

1012 1022 1023 104 146 1817 1919 fn21 fn 26

Contents
Preface
1 Introduction
- - 2 Phonology
    - sect7 Vowels
    - sect10 Diphthongs
    - sect11 Consonants
    - - 3 Morphology
        
        
        
        
        
        sect134 Endings
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect181 Root Nouns
        
        
        
        
        sect185 r-stems
        
        
        sect187 h-stems
        
        
        sect19 Vowel Stems
        
        sect191 a-stems
        
        sect192 ā-stems
        
        sect193 ī-stems
        
        sect194 ū-stems
        
        
        
        
        
        sect21 Numerals
        
        
        
        
        sect214 Fractions
        
        sect22 Pronouns
        
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect24 The Verb
        
        
        
        sect252 Diathesis
        
        sect253 Tense
        
        
        sect27 Aorist Stems
        
        sect28 Perfect Stem
        
        sect29 Moods
        
        
        
        
        sect31 The Augment
        
        sect32 Paradigms
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect326 Perfect
        
        
        4 Syntax
        
        sect34 Syntax
        
        sect35 Number
        
        sect36 Case Syntax
        
        
        
        sect39 Negation
        
        
        5 Texts
        
        sect41 Introduction
        
        
        
        
        Bibliography
        
        Electronic Editions
        
        Chrestomathy
        
        Translations
        
        
        Edition
        
        
        
        
        
        
        Glossary
        
        Word Index
        
        Topical Index

Page 6: ia601502.us.archive.org · 2021. 2. 23. · LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Vaan,MichielArnoudCorde,1973-[Introducciónalavéstico.English] IntroductiontoAvestan/ByMichieldeVaan,JavierMartinez

Contents

viii contents

Preface

xii preface

chapter 1

Introduction

chapter 2

Phonology

e e o ō i i u ū

k x x xv g ġ ɣ

c j

t θ d ẟ t

p f b β

ẏ y v r

s z s z s s

h

l r m n z

sect7 Vowels

sect10 Diphthongs

sect11 Consonants

ku gu guh

chapter 3

Morphology

sect12 Introduction

sect19 Vowel Stems

table 11 Numerals

sect21 Numerals

sect22 Pronouns

sect24 The Verb

sect27 Aorist Stems

sect28 Perfect Stem

sect29 Moods

sect31 The Augment

sect32 Paradigms

b Aor Injact Injmid

2 +hunuiiārəš

vəṇghən

e Partact Partmid

chapter 4

Syntax

sect34 Syntax

sect35 Number

sect36 Case Syntax

sect39 Negation

chapter 5

Texts

sect41 Introduction

Bibliography

Electronic Editions

Chrestomathy

Translations

Edition

120 bibliography

Boston 2011

bibliography 121

122 bibliography

Glossary

auuiamahe

124 glossary

glossary 125

126 glossary

glossary 127

fraxšnaənē

128 glossary

(OAv)

glossary 129

130 glossary

instsg hunarā

Word Index

132 word index

word index 133

11261 11262 1127 1128261 321 326 372

134 word index

11102 265 323 332 333degkar- 181

word index 135

136 word index

word index 137

2216 2221 2222 2253223 2252

138 word index

19535daxiiūm 7175 1129 fn 214

word index 139

1113 11243 1131 251 27128 301 322 325 333

140 word index

11172fəẟrōi 7144 91 1022 11103

word index 141

142 word index

word index 143

144 word index

word index 145

188 272 28 301e 323326 331

146 word index

word index 147

148 word index

word index 149

150 word index

word index 151

Pāli-mina 302

152 word index

word index 153

154 word index

word index 155

156 word index

word index 157

158 word index

Topical Index

ablaut 119 132 144 1451 17 181 1815 181918114 182 183 184 184 185

1952 1957 19518 19522 1952419533

213 2221 2512 353 401 402comparison 187 2011 2011 212 2311 362

19539ndash vowel 54 794 7132 fn 21

1819 1918 1921 1923ndash blending 1542 19113

19530 19537ndash absence of 118 11103 1113 11143 11174

1633 17 184 1918 1923 1933ndash stems in 181

lengthening 743 147 1632 165 184 1951819520 211

160 topical index

393passive 2324 252 2611b 321c 302b 302c

333Persian

postposition 1131 1451 168 1819 19171919 19121 19215 19314 19526

preverbs 7143 7155 1113 11143 1117 232512 31

9 10 fn 213prothesis 211 2214

19513 19516 211 22Stang fn 35stem 54 131 133 134 17 2513 253 30 31

1012 1022 1023 104 146 1817 1919 fn21 fn 26

Contents
Preface
1 Introduction
- - 2 Phonology
    - sect7 Vowels
    - sect10 Diphthongs
    - sect11 Consonants
    - - 3 Morphology
        
        
        
        
        
        sect134 Endings
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect181 Root Nouns
        
        
        
        
        sect185 r-stems
        
        
        sect187 h-stems
        
        
        sect19 Vowel Stems
        
        sect191 a-stems
        
        sect192 ā-stems
        
        sect193 ī-stems
        
        sect194 ū-stems
        
        
        
        
        
        sect21 Numerals
        
        
        
        
        sect214 Fractions
        
        sect22 Pronouns
        
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect24 The Verb
        
        
        
        sect252 Diathesis
        
        sect253 Tense
        
        
        sect27 Aorist Stems
        
        sect28 Perfect Stem
        
        sect29 Moods
        
        
        
        
        sect31 The Augment
        
        sect32 Paradigms
        
        
        
        
        
        
        sect326 Perfect
        
        
        4 Syntax
        
        sect34 Syntax
        
        sect35 Number
        
        sect36 Case Syntax
        
        
        
        sect39 Negation
        
        
        5 Texts
        
        sect41 Introduction
        
        
        
        
        Bibliography
        
        Electronic Editions
        
        Chrestomathy
        
        Translations
        
        
        Edition
        
        
        
        
        
        
        Glossary
        
        Word Index
        
        Topical Index

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