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21 July 2013, Catania - Italy
Summer school «From Production to final Use»
Climatic conditions, soil properties and physiology of fiber crops
Salvatore Luciano Cosentino
Department of Agronomic Science
University of Catania, Italy
A brief history
Natural (animal and vegetal) fibre utilisation has begun in prehistoric eras and evidence of this utilisation can be found in cave paint reported in Europe (35.000-10.000 b.C. on Palaeolithic era). In Lascaux mineralised rope has been find in a cave, but it was not possible to define the origin of the raw material.
The most oldest handmade is a hemp textile (8000 b.C.)
Sisal was one of the first fibre plants specifically cultivated for fibre. Archaeological evidence suggest that sisal was used for cordage and matting as early as 10.000-7000 BC (Stewart et al., 1997).
Flax is one of the oldest vegetal fibres. In Egypt it has been used since 5,000 b.C.. Egyptians Phoenicians, Babylonians and also other near east populations diffused its use to Greeks and Romans.
In Egypt, the mummification
process, flax mats, flax balls and
flax or coir waste were employed to
fill all cavities.
Cotton fibres have been used since 2,000 b.C. in India and Peru. In Europe it was diffused since 1300 b.C.
Egyptian produced light and flexible writing support: papyri’s paper (3100-332 b.C.). Paper as cellulose-fibre mix has been produced for the first time by Chinese (105 b.C.).
Vegetal Fibres
Vegetal fibers are comprised within the complex of mechanical tissues and are located in xylem, phloem and in the periciclic and cortical regions of the axis.
Generical name of every fibrous products able to be transformed in nonwoven and textiles being characterised of appropriate traits of length, finess, strength and flexibility.
Until few decades ago only natural products were considered within this denomination.
Botanical
Industrial
On the basis of the composition of the cell wall, the fibres are classified in:
sclerenchymatous fibers, mainly with lignin, are often on the xylem
non sclerenchymatous fibers, mainly with cellulose are subdivided according to the position in:
cortical fibers
phloem fibers
pericicle fibers
• fibre in seeds
• fibre in phloem
• aggregate of phloem fibres
• fibre of vascular bundies
• entire stems and leaves
According to origin the fibre of Dicotyledon are subdivided:
Fibres develop quickly in axial direction:
• 35-40 mm to 100 mm in hemp
• 25-30 mm in flax
The cells have not cross-sectional septa
These are soft and flexible fibres extending through the inner bark of stems or main stalks of dicotyledonous plants including jute, ramie, kenaf, roselle, sunn hemp, industrial hemp, and flex.
hard of leaf fibres:
These are characteristically hard and stiff in texture and extend lengthwise through the pulpy tissues or long leaf or leaf stems of monocotyledonous plants including sisal, henequen, pineapple, and abaca.
miscellaneous fibres: These include minor fibres obtained from roots, stems, and
seeds, like coir.
Non-wood fibres are non-woody cellulosic plant materials. They are conventionally classified as follows (Nelson, 1958):
Short or one-celled fibres These include the seed hairs of hairs produced inside the seedpods, like cotton and kapok
Long or multi-celled fibres soft or bast fibres:
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
WorldAfrica
N.C. America
S. America
AsiaEuropa
Oceania
'89-'91
'00
'10
Cotton Production (FAO, 2000) (t x 1000)
0
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
World
Africa
N.C. A
merica
S. Americ
aAsia
Europa
Oceania
import
export
Cotton Import-Export (FAO, 2000) (t x 1000)
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
WorldAfrica
N.C. America
S.AmericaAsia
Europe
flax
jute
sisal
Fibers crops Production (FAO, 2010) (t x 1000)
0
100
200
300
400
WorldAfrica
N.C. America
S. America
AsiaEurope
Oceania
import
export
Jute Import-Export (FAO,2000) (t x 1000)
0
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200
300
400
WorldAfrica
N.C. America
S. AmericaAsia
EuropeOceania
import
exportFlax
Import-Export (FAO,2000) (M.T. x 1000)
0
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40
60
80
World
Africa
N.C. A
mer
ica
S. Am
erica Asia
Europe
Oce
ania
import
export
Sisal and other Agaves Import-Export
(FAO,2000) (t x 1000)
Building material
Polymer compounds
Geotextiles
Pulp and paper
Cellulose
Absorbent materials
Others
Most interesting application of the fibres
POLYMER COMPOUNDS
Materials composed by a matrix with fibres bundles as reinforcements. Matrix may be plastic, metallic, polymeric or ceramic.
Thermoplastic composites
Thermoset composites
Rubber composites
Construction composites
Mats of coir and straw
GEOTEXTILES
The use of fabrics in association with the earth. Long bast or leaf fiber formed in flexible fiber mats
GEOTEXTILES
Weed control and Gardening
Fertilizers, Insecticides and Herbicides added to the fiber mats to ensure their availability for seed and seed protection
Ground protection during construction:
Low and medium density fiber mats can be used for soil stabilization around new or existing construction sites
Road construction
Medium high density fiber mats below ground in road and other type of construction as natural separator between different materials in the layering of the back fill
Geotextiles for erosion control
Moisture retention and seed incorporation promote slope stabilization
• Newsprint
• Printing and writing paper
• Sack paper
• Folding boxboard
• Recycled paper
• Liner and topliner
• Tissue and fluff pulp
• Fluting and middle of board
PULP AND PAPER
Cellulose Microcristalline
Cellulose:
is a purified and partially
depolymerized α–cellulose
mainly used as filling,
binding and blasting
material for tableting
(direct tableting), as well
as for dry and wet
granulation and as filling
material for hard gelatine
capsules.
Viscose textile:
Viscose is a cellulosic fibre
obtained by a process
using cellulosic pulp to
make a spinnable liquid
called viscose
O-Acetil-4-O-metil- D-glucuron-xylan in Softwood (Jeffries, 1994)
Arabino-4-O-metil-glucuron-xylani in Hardwood (Jeffries, 1994)
Gluco-mannan in Softwood (Jeffries, 1994)
O-Acetil-galatto-gluco-mannan in Hardwood (Jeffries, 1994)
Emicellulose
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin
% w
/w
Lignocellulose Fiber
Cell wall composition lignocellulosic vs fiber crops
• Diapers
• Sanitary towels
• Industrial wipes
• Napkins
ABSORBENT MATERIALS
• Friction lining
• Gaskets
• Nonwovens
• Filters
• Drain-pipes
Hemp coffee filter
OTHERS
• Reinforcement of concrete
• Particle board
• Fibre board
• Gypsum wallboard
BUILDING MATERIAL
Vinyl floor carpet
Acoustical damping materials
Light Natural Sandwich (LNS)
LNS consist of wood based top layers and a
core of evenly oriented hollow plant stems
embedded in a matrix of natural foam
Optimisation of Production Chain for
High Performance ‘Light Natural
Sandwich Materials’ LNS as a Basis
for Scaling-up
FAIR CT 98-3784
> 30°
20-30°
10-20°
0-10°
0 - -10° -10 ─ -20° -20 ─ -30° < -30°
Average temperature at the sea level (°C year-1)
Precipitation per
year between
275 - 900 mm
Temperature <0°C
do not exceed 262
hours year-1 (< 3%
total year-1)
The 65% of the
total precipitation
between Nov-Apr
Mediterranean environment in the world (Aschmann, 1973)
Enivormental
zone
Temperature Rainfall Months
Active
Temperatures
Length growing
season
Min Max Oct-Apr May-Sept < 0 °C > 10 °C Days
Nemoral 2.4 9.3 309.8 310.8 4.6 2717 196
Continental 4.2 13.1 380.9 393.4 4.1 3294 227
Atlantic North 4.5 11.2 760.7 437.9 1.9 3198 255
Atlantic Central 6.2 13.6 563.5 349.4 0.2 3849 296
Lusitanian 8.4 17.4 851.5 321.7 0.0 4749 353 Mediterranean
North 8.2 18.1 477.8 218.1 0.4 5104 335 Mediterranean
South 11.2 21.1 470.1 114.4 0.0 6021 363
Cotton (Gossypium spp.) Family: Malvaceae Genus Gossypium
Habitus: annual arbust
Habitat: cultivation in warm arid climates, also from 37° N lat to 32° S lat and in Ucraina (47° N lat) and in Africa and Australia 30° S lat. Seed germinate when soil temperature reaches 14°C at a depth of 10 cm at least 3 days. Relatively salt resistant.
Yield: 1- 4 t/ha with a 35% fibre and a 65% seeds.
Fibre: The long fibres are processed by spinning to produce yarn, knitted or woven into fabrics. The first linters with a longer fibre length (lint) are used in production of mattrenes, furniture upholshery and maps. The second cut linters (fuzz) with a shorter fibre length and major source of cellulose for chemical and food uses.
Cotton (Gossipium spp.), family Malvaceae
Origin Tropical and Subtropical regions
Diffusion Warm arid climates
Genetic base Many varieties and hybrids
Soil requirement Good water holding capacity and aeration
and good drainage
Photosynthetic pathway C3
Temperature requirement 20 - 35 °C
Water requirement 600-800 mm
Climatic constrains Waterlogging
Rotation time Annual
Establishment Sexual
Required machinery Special farm equipment
Nutrients demand (kg ha-1) 20 N, 20 P, 80 K
Type of biomass Lignocellulosic
Yield 1.0 – 4.0 t DM ha-1
Product used Fiber
COTTON Optimum Climate Needs * Derived from listed sources Growth Stage Average Daily Daily Crop Temperature Celsius Water Use (mm) Planting (Soil) 18° minimum >0 Planting (Air) >21° Vegetative Growth 21°-27° 1-2 1st Square 2-4 Reproductive Growth 27°-32° 3-8 Peak Bloom 8 1st Open Boll 8-4 Maturation 21°-32° 4
Corchorus capsularis L. (jute)
Family:Tiliaceae
World production: India, Pakistan. The area used for jute cultivation in India was 942 thousand hectares during 1994-1995, producing 1,542,000 t of fibre and around 3,8 million tons of jute stick as by- product.
Fiber characteristics: elementary fiber mm 2-12, i.d. 10-32mm.
Habitat: warm conditions; water requirement 70-100 mm month-1 during growing season
Jute (Corchorus spp.), family Tiliaceae
Origin India
Diffusion Tropics and subtropics
Genetic base Some genotypes available
Soil requirement Alluvial soil and standing water
Photosynthetic pathway C3
Temperature requirement 20-40 °C
Water requirement average monthly rainfall 75 to 100 mm
Photoperiod Short day
Climatic constrains Drought, low temperatures
Rotation time Annual
Establishment Sexual
Required machinery Normal farm equipments
Nutrients demand 70,40,0 NPK
Type of biomass Lignocellulosic
Yield 1.5 – 2.0 t DM ha-1
Product used Bast fiber
Agave sisalana Perr.
(sisal) Family Amarillidacee
sottogen. Eugave
Perennial plant, in the 6-9 years it “
poles” (flowers) and dies. The leaves inflorescence carries numerous bulbils after the flowers wither.
Origin: Yucatan (MEXICO).
Distribution: tropical and subtropical areas of Africa and Asia.
Environment:optimum temperature 22-25 °C; annual water requirements 600 mm; high light requirements; low day/night temperature excursion.
Fiber characteristics: higher fiber strength compared to canapa; strongest fibers inner part of the leaves; elementary fiber 0.8-7.5 mm, i.d. 7-47mm.
Ceiba pentandra G. (kapoc) Family: Bombonacee
Habitus: medium to large, deciduous tree with
Origin: India and Africa. Until recently, it was widely cultivated in the tropics.
Habitat: annual water requirements 1525 - 5700 mm; optimum
temperature 23.3 e 27.7 °C; dry season 0-6 months; altitude
around 460 m a.s.l. World Production: 30,000 t Products: mattress and pillow. Surgery utilization. Fiber Characteristics: low specific weight and low thermal
conductivity. Hollow Fiber length 8-30 mm, i.d. 30-36mm
Kapoc (Ceiba pentandra, (L.) Gaertn.), family Bombacacee
Origin western tropical part of Africa and the
tropical part of America
Diffusion Tropics
Genetic base Local
Soil requirement Warm
Photosynthetic pathway C3
Temperature requirement 20 - 30 °C
Altitude 500 up to 1200
Water requirement 1500 to 3000 mm
Climatic constrains Low temperature, drought
Rotation time Perennial (60 years)
Establishment seeds
Required machinery Normal farm equipment
Type of biomass Lignocellulosic
Yield 0.5 1.0 t DM ha-1
Product used Fiber
Bamboo spp.
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: bambusoideae
Originating in warm tropical and subtropical regions, where it is sometimes an extremely important component of the vegetation.
It is most abundant in the monsoon area of East Asia.
Requires high amount of water.
Generally cannot tolerate temperature below 15°C
Boehmeria nivea G. (ramiè)
Family: Urticaceae Genus: Boehmeria Species: nivea
'China grass‘, 'white ramie' Chinese cultivated plant; var tenacissima, 'green ramie' or 'rhea' with smaller leaves, better suited to tropical conditions
Habitus: woody herb hardy perennial (6 to 20 years) Habitat: tropical and subtropical regions. Suitable to in southern Europe conditions states; lowest temperature +10°C. Water requirements at least 300 mm.
Production: dry weight of harvested stem from both tropical and temperate crops from about 3.4 to 4.5 t ha-1 year-1 (up to six times a year). Crude Fiber yields up to 2 t ha-1.
Fiber characteristics: longest, toughest and most silky of all known vegetable fibres (eight times than of cotton and seven times greater than silk).
Ramie (Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich.), family Urticaceae
Origin Asian tropical and subtropical regions
Diffusion Tropic , Subtropic and Continental
Genetic base Many varieties available
Soil requirement Sandy-loam or loamy
Photosynthetic pathway C3
Temperature requirement 16 - 31°C
Altitude From sea level up to 300 m asl
Water requirement 500-3000 mm year
Photoperiod Shorth day
Climatic constrains Wind and frost
Rotation time Perennial
Establishment Vegetative
Required machinery Normal farm equipments
Nutrients demand 60-30-60 NPK
Type of biomass Lignocellulosic
Yield 3.0 – 4.5 t DM ha-1
Product used Bast fiber
Spartium junceum L.
Family: Papilionacee Tribù: Cytiseae
Genus: Spartium Species: junceum
Habitus: shrub, perennial Branches length 25 - 75 cm.
Habitat: phytoclimatic zone, xerophillic, thermophyllic, saline resistant
Yield: 2.5 – 5.0 t ha-1 as natural crop; 4.0 – 7.5 t ha-1 as cultivated crop;fiber yield 7- 12% d.m.
Products: from the branches of the year mats for cordages and fabric; good also for cellulose.
Fiber characteristics: water and light resistant, easy colourable. Low specific weight; less mechanical resistant than hemp (-5%) and more than than flax (+36%).
Linum usitatissimum L.
(flax)
Habitus:herbaceous annual crop
Habitat: optimum temperature 8-22°C. Cultivated in Central Europe. Also present in the past in South Europe as winter crop
Yield: 0.69 – 1.69 t ha-1 Fiber Characteristics: hollow fibers, able to absorb up to 12% of its own weight in water. The fibre are twice as strong as those of cotton and five times as strong as those of wool. Products: The longer fibres are used for spinning into yarn and weaving, knitting and geo-textiles.
Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), family Linaceae
Origin unknown
Diffusion Temperate environments
Genetic base Many cultivar available
Soil requirement Well-drained and sandy loam
Photosynthetic pathway C3
Temperature requirement 8-22 °C (min and max threshold)
Altitude From sea level up to 1200 m asl
Water requirement 600-1000 mm
Photoperiod Long day
Climatic constrains Water stress, high temperatures
Rotation time Annual
Establishment Sexual
Required machinery Normal farm equipments
Nutrients demand 20-90 N
Type of biomass Lignocellulosic
Yield 0.55 – 2.0 seeds, 4.0 - 10 straw t DM ha-1
Product used Fiber and seeds
Cannabis sativa (hemp) Family: Cannabaceae
Habitus: annual herb growing up to 4 m tall. Origin: native to the Caucasus region of far eastern Europe, northern India and Iran but it is now cultivated in warm - to- temperate regions all over the world
Habitat: germinate at 10°C. In Southern Italy 1500-3000 m3 ha-1 represent the standard water requirements. Yield: 12-15 t ha-1.
Fiber characteristics: technologic Fiber cm 100-150 I.d. 0.5-5mm;
elementary fiber 2-12 mm, I.d. 10-32mm. 4-20 % lignin
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), family Cannabaceae
Origin Central Asia
Diffusion From Equator to the Polar circle
Genetic base Many cultivar available
Soil requirement Good soil structure
Photosynthetic pathway C3
Temperature requirement 10 –35 °C (min and max threshold)
Altitude From sea level up to 400 m asl
Water requirement 250 early cv., 450 mm later cv.
Photoperiod Short day
Climatic constrains Prolonged drought, low temperature,
waterlogging, soil compaction
Rotation time Annual
Establishment Sexual
Required machinery Normal farm equipments
Nutrients demand 90 – 120 NP
Type of biomass Lignocellulosic
Yield 0.5 – 1.0 seeds, 12 – 22 straw t DM ha-1
Product used Fiber and seeds
Panicum virgatum (switchgrass) Family: Gramineae
Habitus: perennial sod-forming grass,
growing up to 2.5 m tall.
Habitat: It is noted for its heavy growth in late spring and early summer. It is also a valuable soil stabilization plant, and is used as a windbreak in crop fields.
Origin: North America and wet areas of America. In the East of America switch grass is found more often on dry soils, along sandy roadsides and along the upland edge of salt marshes, where it grows in bunches.
Hibiscus cannabinus (kenaf ) Family: Malvaceae
Habitus:woody to herbaceous annual fiber plant
Origin: native to east-central Africa or India. Wild plant of tropical and subtropical Africa and Asia. Habitat: 30° N - 30° S lat. Wide range of
adaptation to climates and soils. Sensitive to cool temperatures.
Optimum growth temperatures 15-27°C. Sensitive to photoperiod.
Although relatively drought tolerant (500-600 mm), production limited
by water shortage and waterlogging.
Production: stem's outer bark with the long soft bast fibers useful for cordage and textiles. Bast fibers up 20 to 25% of the stem on a dry weight basis. Stalk yields from 8 to 12 t ha-1.
Fiber Characteristics: fibre strands, about 0,9 m long are pale in colour and lustrous, with strength comparable to that of jute.
Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.), family: Malvaceae
Origin Western Africa
Diffusion Tropics, Subtropics and Warm Temperate
Genetic base Many cultivar available
Soil requirement Middleweight to sandy moist soil
Photosynthetic pathway C3
Temperature requirement 15 – 30 °C (min and max threshold)
Altitude From sea level up to 1000m asl
Water requirement > 500 mm well distributed
Photoperiod Short day
Climatic constrains Prolonged drought, low temperature,
waterlogging
Rotation time Annual
Establishment Sexual
Required machinery Normal farm equipments
Nutrients demand 150, 100, 120 NPK
Type of biomass Lignocellulosic
Yield 9 - 22 t DM ha-1
Product used Bast fiber
Miscanthus x giganteus Family: Poaceae
Habitat: wide ranging distribution, from south-eastern Asia, through China, Japan and into Polynesia, with a few species occurring in Africa. Today, can be naturalised throughout much of Europe, where it has been introduced for its ornamental value. Warm temperatures and heavy and well distributed rainfalls. Threshold for leaf expansion growth at between 5-10°C. Yield: dependent on water availability. Yields in northern Europe range from 15 to 25 t ha-1y-1 at the end of the growing season. Higher productivity has been recorded in central and south Europe 25-40 t ha-1 y-1 but here irrigation is required.
Total extractables 3.06, Total pentoses 26.60, Total hexoses 39.37,
Total lignin 25.19
Miscanthus (Miscanthus spp.), family Poaceae
Origin East-Asia
Diffusion From Tropics to cold temperate
Genetic base Many genotypes available
Soil requirement Wide range
Photosynthetic pathway C4
Temperature requirement 5 – 35 °C (min and max threshold)
Altitude From sea level up to 3000 m
Water requirement > 1000 mm year
Photoperiod Dependent on location of origin
Climatic constrains Soil compaction, flooding, drought
Rotation time 20-25 years
Establishment Vegetative
Required machinery Special farm equipments
Nutrients demand 70, 100 and 100 NPK
Type of biomass Lignocellulosic
Yield 15-40 t DM ha-1
Product used Whole biomass
Arundo donax L. (giant reed)
Family: Poaceae
Habitat: quite common in the Mediterranean where it occurs wild in marshy areas or by rivers. It is suitable to warm and temperate climate in plan like as in slope, up to 800 meter of altitude. Giant reed can tolerate severe drought conditions.
Yield: up to 25-34 t ha-1 of dry matter. The plant is composed mainly to cellulose fibres in cortical parenchima and in the xylems of internodes.
Fibre Characteristics: length in the rhizome 500-2600 microns, in the leaves 400-5400 in the stem 600-3300.
Products: In Italy, this crop was used to extract cellulose for pulp since 1930 already, when Snia-Viscosa established a trademark for the production process of cellulose pasta for the production of rayon viscose and paper (Facchini, 1941).
Giant reed (Arundo donax L.), family: Poaceae
Origin Asia and Mediterranean
Diffusion Tropics, Subtropics and Warm Temperate
Genetic base Local clones
Soil requirement Wide range
Photosynthetic pathway C3
Temperature requirement 10 – 40 °C (min and max threshold)
Altitude From sea level up to 800 m
Water requirement > 500 mm year
Photoperiod Shorth day
Climatic constrains Prolonged drought, severe frost
Rotation time 20-25 years
Establishment Vegetative
Required machinery Special farm equipments
Nutrients demand 70, 100 and 100 NPK
Type of biomass Lignocellulosic
Yield 15-40 t DM ha-1
Product used Whole biomass
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Dry
bio
mass y
ield
(t
ha
-1 s
.s.)
G F MAMN DA S OLG
1998 1999
G F MAMN DA S OLG G F MAMN DA S OLG A S OLG
2000
I100 N120ARUNDO DONAX L.
D G F M
2001
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
I100N120MISCANTHUS x GIGANTEUS Greef e Deu.
N
Field experiments carried out in Catania
Arundo Miscanthus average
1998 617 533 575,0
1999 1127 1010 1068,5
2000 933 880 906,5
average 892,3 807,7
Water consumption (mm/year) in Arundo donax (L.) and Miscanthus x giganteus in three subsequent years Field experiments in Catania
Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench
Family: Poaceae Subfamily: Panicoidee Tribù: Andropogonee
Habitus: herbaceous, annual
Habitat
The plant is native from Central Africa (Etiopia, Sudan, Ciad) and requires high temperature for its growth. Base temperature for seed germination seems to be around 9-10°C, and a temperature of 14-15°C assures a faster emergence.
Yield In no limiting water condition 25-30 tons of dry matter /hectare and in Mediterranean environement can be reached 37-40 t ha-1. In stress conditions 10-15 tons of dry matter/hectare.
Fibre The stem content of cellulose is 36-40%, hemicellulose 25-30% and lignine 8-9 %. The fibre sorghum is used for the production of particle board and for the production of pulp for paper.
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), family Poaceae
Origin Central/Eastern Africa
Diffusion Tropic , Subtropic and Warm temperate
Genetic base Many varieties and hybrids
Soil requirement Well structured soil
Photosynthetic pathway C4
Temperature requirement 10 – 38 °C
Altitude From sea level up to 500 m asl
Water requirement > 400 mm year
Photoperiod Shorth day
Climatic constrains Wind, drought, low temperatures, frost
Rotation time Annual
Establishment Sexual
Required machinery Normal farm equipments
Nutrients demand (kg ha-1) 100 - 200 N, 100-150 P, 50-80 K
Type of biomass Lignocellulosic
Yield 2.0 - 4.0 seeds, 15 - 40 straw t DM ha-1
Product used Fiber
Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L.)
Family: Compositae
Species: cardunculus
Habitus
herbaceous, perennial
Habitat The species of Cynara genus originate from Mediterranean environment. In natural conditions the plants restart to grow in autumn and pass winter in the vegetative phase. The crop may use the winter rainfall and does not requires, therefore irrigation during summertime.
Fibre The fibre in the stalk are on the average 0.3 mm long, 18.8 mm wide and have a 4.8 mm wall thickness. The whole stalks have 7.7% ash, 14.6% extractives, 17.0% lignin and 53.0% polysaccharides, mainly cellulose and xylans. The stalk of the plant can be used for the production of pulp for paper.
Yield At harvest the total biomass (20 t ha-1) is composed by 33% of leaves, 22% of stems and by 45% of heads.
Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L.), family Compositae
Origin Mediterranean area
Diffusion Warm temperate
Genetic base Some genotypes and hybrids available
Soil requirement Deep and loamy soil
Photosynthetic pathway C3
Temperature requirement 5 – 30 °C
Altitude From sea level up to 600 m asl
Water requirement 400 mm year
Photoperiod Long day
Climatic constrains Frost
Rotation time Perennial
Establishment Sexual
Required machinery Normal farm equipments
Nutrients demand (kg ha-1) 200 N, 60 P, 300 K
Type of biomass Lignocellulosic
Yield 0.5 - 1.5 seeds, 20 - 30 straw t DM ha-1
Product used Fiber
Among the non wood fibre crops in E.U. can be cultivated:
North, Central Europe: flax, Miscanthus, hemp
South Europe (north mediterranean countries):
Hemp, flax, Miscanthus, B.nivea, Arundo, Fiber sorghum, Cynara, Spartium junceum
South Europe (south mediterranean countries):
winter growing: flax, Cynara
summer growing
with limited irrigation: Arundo, sorghum, cotton,
Agave, Spartium junceum
with irrigation: Miscanthus, kenaf, hemp,
B.nivea, switchgrass