Chapter 2

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The History About Techniques of Mural in Iran During the Eras

Katayoun Moghadam

Sabzali Musa Kahn

Jaffri Hanafi

Nik Nairan Abdullah

Introduction

In this chapter different approaches to technique in various eras are briefly

discussed to show how artists are influenced by the aesthetics of their time and

the materials available to them to create murals. On the one hand artists had to

follow the commissioners’ tastes and on the other they had to satisfy their own

creativity and artistic tendencies as well and both of these factors influenced

technique. Both also changed with the change of times as briefly reviewed in

this chapter. Siqueiros’s theories about murals and the emphasis he puts on

technique and on outdoor mural as a public art are also reviewed in this chapter.

In the section on previous studies, the seminal researches done in this area are

introduced and gaps in previous studies which this dissertation aims to fill are

also pointed out.

Prehistoric Times

The oldest extant murals from prehistoric times in Iran were found in Lorestan.

Hamid Izadpanah writes in Ancient and Historical Artifacts of Lorestan:

“In mountains around Kouhdasht red and black motifs are seen

on the walls of some caves. [. . .] Most of the murals show

hunting or battle scenes” (p.342).

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Professor Mc Bourni, the lecturer of archaeology in Cambridge University,

describes these motifs as “similar to the ones discovered in the east of Spain”

(Quoted in Sharifzadeh p.15). According to Gardner, the Spanish motifs belong

to 3500 B.C. (Neolithic age) (p.15). We might be able to say that a resemblance

also exists from a technical point of view.

Abdolmajid Sharifzadeh (2011) mentions that from the Neolithic age the painted

building of Zagheh remains in Iran which was perhaps used as a temple or a

place of gathering for certain social functions. The interior walls of the living

room are covered with pieces of painted pottery. In some cases, the coated

surfaces of the walls are painted with a solution of ochre clay or other mineral

paints, using red, yellow, white and black colors.

Figure 2.1: Cave Painting, Dusheh in Lorestan,

The Neolithic Age.

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Before Islam

Sharifzadeh also writes that in the second millennium B.C. from the Ilami era,

Zigurat in Haft Tappeh remains which a huge monument is built of mud-brick.

Halls and rooms have a roughcast coating with motifs of red, blue, gray, yellow

and black. According to Sharifzadeh in Iranian Murals, during the Achamenid

reign, people chose scenes of the sonnets about Zeria and Uda to create murals

on the walls of houses and palaces. Even though at this time most of art works

were created as engravings and reliefs, murals done as fresco were also frequent

and artists travelled to different countries to learn this technique.

In Parthian time we see integrated arts influenced by Helenic style, because in

Seleucid times Greek language and art were extended to the western Asia and

had a deep influence on art. Grishman writes in L’ Art de L’ Iran that mural in

Parthian times has followed western arts and has developed a lot. This type of

painting combined with stucco.

Figure 2.2: The Head of Man, Mural Painting Combined

With Stucco, 1 A.D

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The mural known as Kunun in Dura-Europos from the first century A.D. is one

of the most famous art works of this era, showing religious ceremonies carried

out by two clergymen.(See fig 11). The preliminary design was made by

watercolor combined with glue-containing materials. The shape was drawn in

simple lines. Dura art is fully dependent on Iranian styles, in spite of

Mesopotamian trends (Ghirishman, p. 47).

Maybe the Iranian style mentioned above is to point out that Iranian art is

subjective or to use Pakbaz’s word, it is “stylized” (p.54) and is not trying to be

realistic. Pakbaz mentions that with the beginning of Sassanid reign, stylization

and symbolism still overpowered realism. Although few murals remain, there is

no doubt that this art was extremely important at that age.

Figure 2.3: Kunun Ritual Sacrifice, Watercolor

Combined With Glue-Containing Materials.

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Examples include Karkheh Veranda, Hajiabad in Fars, Hessar in Damghan,

sketch-like pictures in Persepolis and the remnants of murals in Dura-Europos in

Susa. Pakbaz writes, “Many of the Sassanid reliefs are inspired by these murals,

for instance Taq Bostan reliefs in Kermanshah” (p. 28). Susa mural from fourth

century A.D. shows a hunting scene. The artist is not after a realistic depiction of

happenings, but creating an idealistic image. The scene is drawn in strong black

lines and colorful flat surfaces. The background is blue and the hunter’s clothes

are pink, while the horses and other animals are in Madder red and ochre.

Figure 2.4: Susa, Mural Water Color Painting on Mud-Brick.

Hunting Scene, the Fourth Century A.D

Ghirishman says that on this mud-brick wall which has a thick coat of mud-

straw mix there are water color paintings (p.182). As the prophet Mani who

advanced his ideas with painting became more influential, murals became

especially important. Idikut is one of the towns in Gobi desert and the walls of

this town are embellished with Manickaean murals. Gold and silver were vastly

used in order to create a polished and sparkling look. Manickaean artists are the

founders of Iranian painting after the advent of Islam. Pakbaz writes that

Manickaean close relations with Buddhists led to the influence of elements in

Buddhist art on Manichaean art. As a result, we see the following aspects

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showing up in Manickaean art: large head, short figure, the almond shapes of

eyes and the halo around the head. On the other hand the art of Central Asia was

influenced by Persian art like extant Murals at Bamiyan in Afghanistan. (See fig

13). (Pakbaz, p. 45).

Hans-Joachim Klimkeit writes in The Manichaean Art and Calligraphy that the

colors usually used in these paintings are purple red, bright red, blue, yellow,

dark green. Sometimes, bright blue was used in priming, probably derived from

lapis lazuli. The main designs were made by drawing tools. Not only were the

lines filled with color, but they were strengthened by extra and skillful brush

strokes (Klimkeit, p. 63). This book is one of the few instances which study the

history of murals from a technical point of view. We read in Manickaean Art

that the dominant technique in murals at that age was water color.

Figure 2.5: Beautiful Buddhisatva, Mural Water

Color Painting the 5–6 Century A.D

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After Islam

Immediately after the advent of Islam, the murals that have survived to the

present day have been found in and around Neishapur. The Middle-Asian and

Sassanid styles are detected in these works of art. From the Seljuq Dynasty,

which is one of the most important periods in Islamic arts, only a few murals

remain (Pakbaz, p. 55). Seljuq art was influenced by Manickaean art. Kharghan

Towers which has an octagonal shape has valuable fresco murals under its

dome. The images seen here are pomegranate trees, peacocks and other birds

and there are also geometric motifs and flora in blue and Kufi calligraphy in

green and blue colors (Sharifzadeh, p. 84-85).

Soltanieh Dome which remains from Moghul dynasty is, as Sharifzadeh

mentions, a very beautiful octagonal monument. This monument is embellished

with bricks, stones, stucco, wood, tiles and painting. The embellishments and

motifs on the southern veranda are done in the form of Arabesque in blue, gold

and brown colors. Also, the delineation of inscription in the center of the dome

and the rosettes above it are created by the use of color. In general, all

inscriptions are written in color (Sharifzadeh, p. 91). By studying the above-

mentioned murals, one can see that although they are still influenced by pre-

Islamic art, important changes in technique such as increase in embellishments,

calligraphy and arabesque and also difference in materials are evident after

Islam.

Hossein Aghajani writes in his article that murals before Saffavids were often

created using water color. In this technique, it is customary to first prepare the

wall and execute the design on it, then start delineation, making the golden

grounding and applying red color to the proper spots. In some cases a small

amount of red ochre was added to priming liquid order to create a red surface

(p.160). The above-mentioned red layer is very thin. Priming covering the

plaster surface with a diluted solution of glue in order to prevent the absorption

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of the liquid used for spreading colors which will be applied later by the artist. In

fact, this layer works as the foundation. Afterwards, the design is executed on

the wall together with the gold work and the well-ground colors that have been

tried for spreading are applied in a flat, physical color manner. Figures are done

with delineation in a darker color. After the work is finished, a protective layer

which was a combination of tragacanth (a kind of gum) and sugar was spread on

the surface (Aghakhani 172). Thus it can be seen how muralists in this period

altered previous techniques to achieve aesthetic standards of their own time.

Shah Ismail the Saffavid took the famous artists of Heart along with

Kammaluddin Behzad Harati to Tabriz. Thereby Tabriz became an artistic

capital. Unfortunately not many of the murals of this era remain. Sharifzadeh

writes that in Venetians Book of Travels, it is mentioned that inside the palace of

Sultan Hassan Beig there was a mural on the ceiling of the great hall showing

scenes of battles and hauntings (Q’ted in Sharifzadeh, p. 100). When Qazvin

became the capital of the Saffavids, the royal palaces were embellished with

many murals. However, only Chehel Sotoon Monument survives now and the

murals in this monument show scenes of banquets and musical performances.

These are mostly painted inside racks and the upper parts of the walls, showing

whole female figures clad in scarves and holding goblets (Sharifzadeh, p. 102).

Sharifzadeh writes that Iranian artists were most probably familiar with oil color

from the beginning of the Saffavid dynasty. It is very likely that some of the

murals in Qazvin at the time of it being the capital city were performed with oil

color technique (Sharifzadeh, p.159). But (The oil color technique appeared

probably at the time that Europan painters came to Chehel Sotoon.) (Aghajani,

p. 168). One of the artists in Shah Tahmasp’s court who was very influential in

creating murals in Chehel Sotoon in Qazvin was Mozaffar Ali. This artist was

completely familiar with oil color. As the relations between Iran and the West

grew, Iranian artists felt the tendency to adopt naturalism in their works.

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When the Saffavid capital was transferred from Qazvin to Isfahan, the first

important monument covered in murals was Alli Qappoo Palace. The murals

showed flora, fauna and abstract motifs. On the sixth floor of the palace, there

were murals of banquets and 70 miniatures. Pakbaz explains that the palace of

Chehel Sotoon in Isfahan is one of the important Saffavid monuments and also

very significant as far as murals are concerned. The technique of older murals is

physical water color and the technique of later murals is oil color. (See fig 15.

The subjects of these murals are banquets, battles, hunting, and male and female

portraits. The style of these murals is integrated and the influence of western art

is very much pronounced in them (Pakbaz, p. 126-129).

Figure 2.6: The Girl in Nature.

Mural Alli Qappoo, 1610-1620

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Figure 2.7: Feast in the Lap of Nature, Chehelstoon

Pakbaz says that the older murals belong to the reign of Shah Abbas II, follow in

Isfahan school. Later on, the added murals have a mixture of Iranian and

European styles. Pakbaz writes that in the eighteenth century, Isfahan was a hub

for merchants, tourists, ambassadors, preachers and foreign artists. At this time,

European art works entered Iran Church murals like Vanq Church were

influenced by European arts and Gurkani style which was in turn an Indo-

European style.

Figure 2.8: King Tahmaseb Hosts the King, Homayoon, Chehel Sotoon

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As the Iranian artists at this era strived towards this was in turn an Indo-

European style. As the Iranian artists at this era strived towards naturalism, they

used oil color (Pakbaz, p. 134). Obviously the style and the technique should

proceed hand in hand and are directly related. Thus we see that these artists

could no longer use water color to create the new style they had in mind and had

to change their technique as well.

From the Zand Dynasty many monuments of unique architecture and tile-work

have survived, mainly in Shiraz. Karimkhan Citadel is one of the buildings in

which murals of that era have remained. The usual Zand techniques were

performed on plaster with golden background in colors such as red, violet,

green, golden. The images included flora, birds on flowers, and Lilies’ Pavilion

in Nazar Garden contain murals. The tall racks in the upper part of this building

have paintings of that era. The subjects of these paintings include classrooms,

Joseph and Potiphar’s wife and Chaldoran Battle. The ceiling is done in

Muqarnas beautifully embellished with flora images on plaster. The paintings

installed within the racks, especially those created in the shape of these racks,

are painted of exactly the same size. They are a technique of mural in

themselves. However, they fully follow the architecture of the building and the

wall and considered a mural (Sharifzadeh, p. 132).

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Figure 2.9: Maidservants in an Open-Air Feast.

Probably Isfahan. 18th. Century.

During Zand Dynasty most of the murals are done in oil color and the colors

were in green tonality. In Qajar Dynasty, Fathalishah created conditions in

which the art of mural got to its peak. At the time of his reign, the situation was

ripe for court arts. Fathalishah gathered the most prominent artists of the time in

Tehran, the capital city of Iran. Fathalishah ordered them to paint large canvases

for the embellishment of the new palaces. Abdollah Khan one of Fathalishah’s

favorite artists specialized in drawing solo portraits. Fathalishah created huge

murals of Norooz ceremonies held by Fathalishah in the great hall of Negarestan

Palace, unfortunately not extant today. Yaghub Azhand writes that during Qajar

Dyanasty, the houses of the gentry were decorated with murals. For example,

Nassirolmolk’s house in Shiraz was embellished with murals showing the

portraits of European women. These portraits could also be seen on the wooden

ceiling. Painting on wood was a usual technique during Qajar Dyansty and the

dominant tonality was red and brown. (Azhand, p. 36)

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Sharifzadeh quotes Ahmad Tondi’s dissertation which explains that using oil

color became very fashionable during Qajar Dynasty. This was due to the

properties specific to oil color such as the simplicity of its technique and its high

potential for covering surfaces. Oil color found a special place in painting,

especially in mural arts, because it gave the artist an ability to create art works in

larger dimensions. This technique gradually became more dominant, so much so

that most of the art works during Qajar time were created in oil color, whether

on canvas or on walls. To facilitate the job, the large canvases or woods were

created in a shape which was in accordance with the architecture. When the

painting was finished, the canvas or woods would be installed in its place such

as the paintings on racks (Sharifzadeh, p. 159). In Qajar period, murals were

created by applying oil color to the wood or canvas and fixing the resultant art

work on the walls. This difference in technique and material created a

completely different effect compared to the previous periods.

Ruyan explains that during Pahlavi Dynasty mural continued to thrive in

different forms. In palaces and monuments murals took a formal and courtly

style, whereas in more modern buildings artists tried to use various techniques

such as mosaic, metal, pottery, concrete, wood and plaster. It had different

functions such as decorative, identity-expressing and advertising. (Ruyan, p.

106).

At this time technique and its relationship with architecture became very

important. Since modern architecture in Iran was rapidly developing at this time,

the artists were both concerned with creating works compatible with this

architecture and also determined to keep the Iranian identity of the murals in

these modern spaces. Some of the high-quality art works created in this era

included Arabshahi’s murals.

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Figure 2.10: Ghavam’s Narenjestan, Shiraz, Oil color

on Wood Fixed on Ceiling.

Figure 2.11: Technique: Carving on Plaster,

When the Islamic Revolution started in Iran in 1979, all efforts were focused on

changing the government. During this political and social upheaval, mural took a

special form. In an article entitled “Street Painting (Murals as Media),” graffiti

in critical times become a protesting tool for the opposition. One of the

important and influential media in the 1979 mural was graffiti, exciting the

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public against the Shah and his reign. Graffiti conveyed its message by using

either negative forms such as “Down with the Shah” or positive forms such as

“Long live Khomeini.” After the revolution succeeded in overthrowing Shah’s

regime, graffiti gave place to mural with aestheticism gaining more importance.

However, this trend ended in political propaganda becoming the most dominant

element in murals in Iran.

Figure 2.12: The Slogan “Death to the Shah”

The Revolution of Iran 1979

Ruyan interviewed Kazem Hassanvand for her dissertation which was abstracted

and published in an article. Hassanvand said in this interview that, “The Islamic

Revolution gave a cohesive direction to murals.” She also interviewed Eskandari

who said, “The murals created in public view were based on a mentality

stemming from the revolution” (Ruyan, p. 106-107).

Murals remnant from the time of the Islamic Revolution took the form of mottos

against Pahlavi Dynasty and the Shah’s regime and also portraits and images

created with stencils. Technique was not important in these works; ordinary

people made them on the walls using color sprays, magic markers, scratching. in

order to convey their messages. This was in fact a form of exchanging ideas and

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starting a revolutionary movement and the hurried forms of these graffiti

reflected the dangerous and stressful conditions in which they were created. In

an article entitled “The Art of Protesting, the Art of Revolution” Morteza Assadi

writes that “Artists also supported this movement but using their own methods.

For example Niloofar Qaderinejad was one of the artists who preferred drawing.

During the protests, whenever she found a plaster-covered wall she would start

sketching people’s combats and the way they carried the injured and the martyrs

using pieces of coal” (Assadi, p. 55).

Eskandari writes in an article entitled “The Movement of Iranian Revolutionary

Art in 1979” that, “The Revolution in 1979 started a political and social change

which took the artists back to their national and religious traditions.

Revolutionary and religious features substituted the official art of Pahlavi time”

(p. 50). Ruyan studies mural after the Islamic Revolution in the following

categories: a) after the revolution, b) wartime and c) after the war. She mentions

that after the revolution, artists worked in agreement with revolutionary actions

and answered the needs of the society aesthetically by painting on large canvases

and walls in the cities. Hannibal Alkhas and his students were such artists. One

of the most famous murals of this time as described by Ruyan is the occupied

American Embassy painted by Hannibal Alkhas and Adham Zarqam. Bahram

Dabiri and Manoochehr Safarzadeh created another famous mural in the

Southern Bus Terminal showing scenes of the daily lives of ordinary people.

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Figure 2.13: Nilufar Qhaderinezhad.

Technique: Sketching. Revolution 1979

Figure 2.14: The Wall of USA Embassy. Hanibal Alkhas,

Adham Zargham. Taleghani Street. Oil Color on Wall.1980

Iran-Iraq war influenced all social and political aspects. Hassanvand says in his

interview with Samira Ruyan that, “Mural was one of the arts that successfully

reflected the conditions of war”. Kafshchian explained in another interview with

Ruyan that Art Unviersities and Colleges played a major role in this era. (See fig

23). These institutes created many murals in war zones and towns outside these

zones (p. 107). In an interviewed with Ruyan, Mostafa Goodarzi said that

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amateurs also had a big part in mural creation at this time. They drew copies of

the posters made by professional artists on the walls (p.108). These murals were

more about content than form. Compatibility with architecture and technical

issues were unimportant in their creation. The most important styles used at this

time included realism, symbolism, subjective realism. Plastic colors and oil

colors were vastly used. These works have gradually deteriorated.

Figure 2.15: Iraj Eskandari, Oil Color on Wall,

Palestine Square

As the war ended, the time came for reconstruction and the country moved

towards flourishing and a compensation of war losses. At that period, murals

usually depicted war martyrs in order to endear their memories. Values such as

bravery and sacrifice were shown by symbols such as red tulips, cedar tree and

identification tags accompanied with martyrs’ icons and messages showing the

name of the martyrs and cherishing words. The techniques used for these murals

were plastic color and oil color. Several years after the end of Iran-Iraq war,

many factors caused a change in the form and content of murals. These factors

included urban development, the steep increase in population, denser traffic and

audio and visual pollutions. Such situations required murals that would help with

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beautifying and pacifying the urban environment while also awakening hope and

high spirits in the population.

Figure 2.16: Martyrs (Hosein, Reza, Mehdi Borhani)

Komeil Street

Figure 2.17: Mural by Mahmood Shoeibi (2005),

Acrylic Technique on Wall

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The Organization for Urban Beautifying and Urban Graphic intended to give

discipline and direction to murals so that they would follow the above-

mentioned goals. They focused on improving the technique and form instead of

giving priority only to the content and the message conveyed. Although the

social and decorative functions and that of improving the visual space were still

very important, the need for good technique was also brought up just as strongly.

The Organization for Urban Beautifying and Urban Graphic intended to give

discipline and direction to murals so that they would follow the above-

mentioned goals. They focused on improving the technique and form instead of

giving priority only to the content and the message conveyed. Although the

social and decorative functions and that of improving the visual space were still

very important, the need for good technique was also brought up just as strongly.

Techniques were divided into the two categories of enduring and semi-enduring

depending on the endurance of the buildings in question. (Personal Interview

with Arbaboon 2011)

By studying the works of previous murals, we can see why Siqueiros believed

that technique is always developing. We also see how mankind has used

different techniques in different eras based on the aestheticism and the artistic

taste of the era. Also, depending on the function of the art work, artists have

used various styles. For instance in the Qajar Dynasty, depth-processing became

very fashionable so artists used the technique of oil color because it dried slowly

and gave the artist the opportunity to add details.

There is a permanent link between function, content, style, form and technique

and they are constantly affecting each other. As technology develops, the

materials used in art and their availability change. It can be said that technique,

like everything else, is always being discovered and improved by human being.

All these have been formed by using previous experiences, finding new

solutions and making use of latest inventions. Thus materials and their

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application in art work are influenced by the mentioned procedure of combining

past and present knowledge. For example, in a certain period a certain color was

used that distinguished the color harmony of that period from that of the

previous ones. For instance, for a special kind of azure or red the artist had to

use a special kind of material.

Figure 2.18: Self Portrait of Siqueiros

Siqueiros Theories About Mural

David Alfaro Siqueiros (1896–1974) was born in Chihuahua, Mexico. Siqueiros

is part of “Los Tres Grandes” which means the “Big Three Muralists”. Siqueiros

was the youngest of the three, the other two being Diego Rivera and Jose

Orozco. These three artists were the leaders of the Mexican Mural Movement.

(Hsanvand, p.62-66). Siqueiros trained Jackson Pollack in an experimental

workshop that Siqueiros had started in 1936. (Siqueiros, P. 35). According to

Philip Stein (Siqueiros’s assistant in 1948-58), the writer of Siqueiros: Life and

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Works, “Alfaro inspired monumental art in the midst of social action and

turmoil. Siqueiros won the top award at the XXV Venice Biennale Exhibition

and unsurpassed as a modern portrait painter, Siqueiros became the muralist

champion of modern realism, who brought his public art forms into direct

relation with the viewer” (Steinp, P.215).

Jennifer Henry writes that Siqueiros, like Rivera and Orozco, believed that

mural as a real art can educate people, make ideal for them and show the people

believed. They wanted to comment in social issue and created a common

national identity to illustrate hope for future by art works (Henry 2). Hassanvand

writes that Siqueiros emphasized content as well as technical experiments.

Siqueiros developed a dynamic and structural art. His language had roots in the

modern aesthetics of cubism and futurism (p.67). In the following sections, we

shall investigate aspects of Siqueiros’s ideas and art. All the citations, unless

otherwise stated, refer to Art and Revolution by David Alfaro Siqueiros.

Figure 2.19: “Art Now and Then.” David Alfaro Siqueiros Mural

Siqueiros and Technique

In Siqueiros’s opinion which he expresses in Art and Revolution, Technique is

of special importance. Siqueiros considers technique, materials and tools so

important in creating art works that even to achieve his ideal realism through

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expressing forms, he cannot imagine any other way but new technique and

technology. His reason is that this technology incorporates using materials and

tools by science and also through all the complicated mental issues. Old

technique can only create old forms and feelings (Siqueiros, p. 169)”.

Siqueiros also writes that the fact that:

“Tools and materials are of utmost importance, is a fixed

artistic rule. Tools and matter each bring forward their own

fruit. Old matter specifies things created before and each

society with its own industrial aspects relate to a special kind of

matter in a special era. In public art where dimensions are large,

we need to take various factors into consideration. One such

factor is the humidity resulting in saltpeter, natural cracks and

what relates to building subsidence. We must understand that

great scientific, technical and industrial advancements play a

major role in the visual technique and the poetic spirit of our

world. I believe that we have to upgrade our old technique to

the technique of our contemporary industry. This is of course

not gained without prior experience or all of a sudden. Rather it

is the resultant of a slow and error-ridden functional process

from which man always learns.” (p.201)

Siqueiros believed that when it came to the personal experiment of the artist

with technique, tools and matter, experiment and practicality have the highest

priority. Siqueiros pointed out that he himself had never put theory before

action. In Siqueiros’s opinion, artists had to understand the spirit, potentials and

needs of their time. He maintained that,

“Materials and tools are of vital value and this is an immutable

artistic principle. Materials and tools bear their own special fruit

in arts. Each era reflects its own industrial language and

technical status. This is an eternal law. None of my objective

theories about the composition of mural results from an

intellectual idea conceived before experimenting. All of my

theories are the natural products of a chain of logical incidents

which were corrected step by step. The same goes for

materials.” (p.195)

New tools and materials necessitate a new artistic expression which is partly

why different techniques are seen in different periods. For example, Siqueiros

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used the following modern tools in creating his works: airbrush, camera and

projector.

All this, however, does not mean that the artist is enslaved by the tools and

materials Siqueiros uses. Siqueiros believes that the artist should follow his

creativity while listening to his tools and materials as well. The chain of

incidents that Siqueiros mentioned in explaining how Siqueiros constructed his

theories gains significance here. Siqueiros instructs artists to find the right

texture by experimenting with tools and materials and following their creativity,

but at the same time by welcoming incidents. For Siqueiros, even the smallest

technical details were important. For example, scaffold was something that he

paid a lot of attention to. Siqueiros said that:

“A scaffold should be complete in order to enable the artist to

draw the main lines in a way he called “interspatial harmonious

relations”. The scaffold should also be light and mechanic so

that it can be installed and removed quickly and also make it

possible for the artist to reach any spot on the wall. It should be

portable and revolving in all directions.” (p.201)

Even a tool such as scaffold can play an important role in creative art. Each tool

introduces its own potentials, opening new channels for artists’ creativity.

Form and Style in Siqueiros’s Opinion

Siqueiros found form and style very important in all artistic expressions,

especially in visual arts which are physical, forms and styles and finally

aesthetic principles that derive from them are all a result of conclusive functions

and similar techniques. Siqueiros mentions that:

“Conclusive function of the art means that art in all its eras had

a conclusive quality. In other words, a single art existed that

was exhibited in architecture, sculpture, painting and color

printing. This visual unity and cohesion was a result of the

unity of function; a function that was born of loyalty to

geographical and local conditions and working with techniques,

materials and tools that complied with each other historically.

This conclusive function was also committed to the social-

aesthetic goals of its time.” (p. 303)

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All elements should work together so as to establish a harmony and create this

conclusive function. In this way, an organic art work will result that appeals to

the society. Siqueiros states that:

“New methods for materials require new methods for forms.

This relates to new methods, composition and perspective,

because old methods are very fixed, rigid, mechanical and

stagnant in the philosophical sense of the word, not suitable for

the dynamic spaces and dynamic architecture.” (p.174-175)

In dynamic architecture, rectangles, squares, circles and other shapes are not

fixed shapes anymore, but can change into all imaginable geometric shapes. In

the dynamic, new composition and perspective, the spectator is no longer treated

as fixed but considered a mobile subject that can move in innumerable

directions. Siqueiros says about style that it should not be chosen before starting

the work. The decision about style should be made during working. When the

beginning is wrong, i.e. when the style is decided upon beforehand, the work

will finish wrong too. Style is not the startup of artistic dynamism but its result.

Siqueiros believes that muralists should visit the location of the mural and take

into consideration environment, spectator and architecture and then keep

function in mind to reach a form and style as their work progresses. Form and

style cannot be determined beforehand, otherwise they will fall into isolation and

the art work will not be organic. Siqueiros writes:

“The fact is that the contemporary world thinks style to be not

the end and peak of aesthetic and practical functions, but both

cause and effect. In murals, style is determined by architectural

factors and if the place is to have a decorative function, the

style is also influenced by spatial and cultural factors. If you

start a work by determining the style beforehand, you have

destroyed everything before you have begun. In our group work

we saw that individualist artists not only began their work with

a predetermined style, but each tried to execute their own

special style. They worked like good artists on canvas,

completely forgot about the spatial sense of composition and

each painted a separate area.” (p.183)

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Therefore, unlike the belief of many artists who think that form and style are the

first elements to be decided in murals, the first step should be visiting the

location and considering the wall, function and environment.

Siqueiros emphasized that in murals, more than other types of painting, the artist

must go from general to particular. In murals the main focus should be on major

volumes which are the base of later details. Depending on the distance from

which the image is to be observed, the redundant elements of the image must be

eliminated, for example facial lines and all anatomical details. In great

observation distances, these elements do nothing but weaken the structure of the

image (p. 203). The reason that the artist should go from general to particular is

that the mural should be in harmony with the whole ambience and this is why it

is best to comply with Siqueiros’s advice and move from general to particular.

The Features of Murals in Outdoor Environment

Siqueiros says that:

“Murals in outdoor environment cannot be left entirely flat and

artists must use sculpture-like reliefs. When flat forms are

observed outdoors, they will lose objective power in

competition with the three-dimensional forms of trees, houses

and other surrounding things .” (p.304-305)

Siqueiros developed his sculpture-like painting style with regard to the above

issue. In the outdoors, because of the sunlight and the effect of light and shadow

on volumes, the value of volume becomes more than surfaces. This is why

Siqueiros emphasizes that sculpture and relief should be used in murals and

artists should not use only flat techniques. Siqueiros explained that:

“Outdoors murals are often observed by spectators riding in a

car. This type of observation creates new issues in relation to

the composition. The focal radius of such spectators is a lot

bigger and more complex than an indoor spectator of murals.

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Since the spectator looks at the work from the longest angle, a

multi-angular collection is needed.” (304-5)

This is even truer today because of highways and high speeds of the spectators.

So muralists should note this and establish the rhythm of the lines and forms so

that they conform to the time that the mural is seen by the spectator on the move.

Siqueiros had worked on this issue and was pleased with his achievements.

Siqueiros believed that in such murals, the sculpture-like reliefs should not be

static as before because such stasis would be in conflict with the new

composition based on the moving spectator. It would also be in conflict with the

role of these reliefs in increasing the three-dimensional effect of the mural. The

forms that take the shape of sculptures must be capable of being pulled and

tightened just like paintings. One of the most important issues in outdoors

murals is size. Siqueiros criticizes those who think that body shapes, big subjects

and even big spaces diminish the eternity of the building. Siqueiros said that:

“Using the big image of body when this image had to be

observed from afar was inevitable. The spectator made a mental

comparison to his own body and thus the scale of the building

seemed even bigger to him.” (306)

Siqueiros also supported a big size for outdoor murals because mural is a public,

social art. According to Siqueiros:

“Direct sunlight with extremely varying intensity complicates

outdoor murals even further. For example, absolute whiteness

in indoor mural enhances brightness. However, whiteness in

open air and in relation to other colors reflects light and looks

like a hole. (p.305).

As Siqueiros points out muralists should experiment with colors in the light of

outdoors to practically see which colors are more suitable with the conditions in

which the murals are to be created.

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The Relationship of the Spectator and Mural

The spectator is a mobile creature that can observe the art work from

innumerable angles. Each of these angles in turn changes the optic surface of the

art work in indefinite numbers of ways. In fact, the spectator is not a statue but a

person who walks on a flat surface and his movement moves all the geometric

shapes around him.Siqueiros suggests using a multi-angular method which is a

necessity in the art of mural, since it addresses the many angles from which a

spectator can look at the mural. A separate composition and arrangement is

made for each angle and then the compositions of each angle must be juxtaposed

in a manner that the spectator imagines them as real from whatever point of view

that he might have.

Public art Theories

The theories of Siqueiros led later to what has been called ‘public art’. Murals

nowadays are a branch of public art. In an article entitled “Public Art and Its

Combination with Urban Space,” Salman Moradi writes:

“Urban planners and designers all over the world see public art

-the art that is in the public sphere, dealing with the public

space of the cities, parks, streets, public buildings and all the

spaces used by people -- as a strong and influential element that

can bring about the social, economic and cultural growth and

improvement of cities and public spaces. Public art is formed

based on the social structure of art. Public art is not a new

concept. The city has always been a carrier for cultural and

social effects, accommodating diverse branches of permanent

art (monuments, special buildings, memorials, landscape

decorations and urban furniture) and per formative art (events,

activities, dramatic performances and musical performances).

The characteristics of public art include being communal,

beneficial, supportive, democratic and meaningful.” (p.81-90)

Siavash Armajani, an Iranian artist and theorist, has some interesting ideas about

public art:

“Public art wants to make art public and the artist one of the

public. Public art is committed to carry out its duty. Public art is

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a cultural and social product, stemming from public cultural

and social needs.” (p.10-11).

As a public art that benefits every member of the society is one of the arts in the

public art category and therefore what Armajani says apply to mural as well.

“In a research conducted by the Department of Education,

Employment and Workplace Relations in Australia, it is written

that “Public art work may consist of work which is devised by

an individual artist, the outcome of a community development

process or the result of collaboration between artists.” (p.8).

In the same research, we read that public art work include murals, architectural

forms, light work, sculpture while techniques used in public art include

ceramics, digital, photography, electronic art, drawing, painting, fiber/textile

work, light, laser, sound. This research states that materials used in public art

can be wood, glass, film, fiber, plantings, water and oil based paints, marine

paints, clay and metals among the rest while tools and equipment may include

computer, engravers, polishing equipment, camera, looms, protective clothing,

scaffold, crane.

Malcolm Miles explains that art has several impacts on public spaces. It creates

passion and emotion in the place. It creates a sense of commitment in the people

who use the place and involves them with the place. It also helps to regenerate

the urban space. Dani Karavan as an artist who designs and makes sculptures for

public spaces claims that the goal of public art is to invite people to socialize and

relate to the environment, materials, memories and in short to themselves. Not

all art created in the public space is public art. Karavan enumerates the following

factors that are in common between all public art works:

(i) Commissioned by private and public institutions.

(ii) The exact position can be either in a city or in nature.

(iii) At the time of commissioning it must be determined if the work is just for

a limited period related to a known event or is to be permanent. Also, it must

30

be determined how long the artist needs for preparing and creating the art

work.

(iv) The goal of the commission and the most appropriate use for the art work

must be known.

(v) The financial means available to the artist must be known.

Remesar suggests the following parameters for evaluating public art works:

Parameters to evaluate Indicators

Identity Distinctiveness,Entity,

Wholeness,

Independence from context

Structure Color Shape,Scale,Form,Materials

Meaning Functionality,Recognizability,Codi

ficability,Usefulness,Coherencebili

ty,Fitness to the Context

Table 2.1 : Remesar’s Parameters for Evaluating

Public Art Works

Tony Bovaird says that public art can have a major role in increasing the

economic level of a city. Now that we have discussed the historical and

theoretical backgrounds of the subject of this dissertation, it is time to review

some of the seminal books and articles related to this subject. Thus mural as a

public art can become a source of income for the country as long as its artistic

merits are not sacrificed for the sake of financial concerns.

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Table 2.2: Tony Bovaird. Objectives for

Urban Regeneration

32

Now researcher discussed about historical and theoretical backgrounds of the

subject of this dissertation, it is time to review some of the seminar papers,

journals, books, and articles related to this subject.

Discussion of Previous Researches

Before starting to review the more related sources, the researcher shall briefly

look at the past studies that have touched on murals. The following three sources

are the ones used in this dissertation as reference for the historical aspect of the

research. In The Story of Art by Ernest Hans Josef Gombrich (2006) studies

murals in all eras and civilizations past and present It investigates the prehistoric

times, ancient Egypt, Christianity, ancient Iran, Mesopotamia, ancient Rome,

Greece, China, India, Africa, and Mexico in the modern times. By reading this

book which is one of the best sources in the history of arts, reader grasps the

importance of murals in different eras, their techniques and their functions.

A book entitled L’Art de L’Iran (1993) in two volumes by Ghirishman studies

the art in ancient Iran and it emphasizes on murals as the main art in the Medes,

Achaemenian and Sassanian dynasties. In books such as Persian Miniature

Painting by Laurence Binyon (2004) murals in Zand and Qajar dynasties are

briefly mentioned.In the rest of literature review, the researcher has chosen some

texts more relevant to this dissertation and they are more or less representative

of other sources. The article entitled “The Movement of Mural Arts in Mexico”

by Hassanvand summarizes the factors of mural formation as a public art.

In a book called Murals in Iran: Zand and Qajar Dynasties in Shiraz (2002),

Sharifzadeh states that architecture and murals have a close relationship and also

that the government’s predilections have affected the murals of the time.

Nevertheless, it seems that this book is more concerned with the city of Shiraz,

its development and its buildings rather than mural arts. The abundance of

selected works and their photos is valuable because some of thse works are

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being deteriorated over time and the documentation offered by these photos is

important. But the works are not analyzed from all angles and they are treated in

a statistical or merely introducing manner.

An article entitled “Exploring the Features of Mural Arts” (2005) by Kafshchian

tries to probe influential factors in this area of arts which he considers a

multimedia art. The author believes that murals have much potential in various

structures including aesthetical, social, psychological, cultural, artistic and

political frameworks. The important characteristics he enumerates for murals

include the relationships between the mural on the one hand and the wall,

architecture, environment and spectators on the other. Kafshchian has also

investigated technique. Although the researcher agrees that murals have a strong

impact on spectators and the environment, he also maintains that the

environment and community have a reciprocal effect on the form and content of

murals.

Another source is the book by Pakbaz entitled Painting in Iran: Past and

Present (2000) which looks at Iranian paintings from ancient times to modern

times. This book includes all types of paintings, from book illustrations to wall

paintings in different eras, exploring their characteristics from the aesthetic

viewpoint. Unfortunately, contemporary wall-paintings are not included in this

study and only teahouse paintings are mentioned. This is unusual because in the

past fifty years the presence of murals among Iranian arts has been felt very

strongly.

Whether the reason behind this shortcoming is a lack of valid published sources

or that the author did not want to risk looking at artworks too close to his time or

a discontinuance that he saw between past trends of mural art and modern ones,

this is a gap in research that has to be filled by a careful study of recent murals

and the factors influential on them which this research hopes to achieve.

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Another study will use a dissertation called “Exploring Contemporay Murals in

Tehran Before and After the Revolution” (2008) by Rooyan abstracted in Fine

Arts Journal (2009) which studies murals regarding qualitative and basic

changes. The author considers the murals created in Pahlavi era as more

decorative, in the post-revolution era as containing social and political concepts

and in the wartime as event recorder and creating symbols based on martyrdom

and bravery. Rooyan’s dissertation is written with great attention to details, but

even here there is no reference to social changes and the governments’ policies

or how these changes are reflected in the works of art and strengthen or weaken

them.

In spite of the author’s efforts, the main role played by the society and its

changes in arts, specifically mural arts, is either neglected or just transiently

touched. In other words, the extra step of relating the types of works and the

differences in technique in each era to social challenges is not taken in Rooyan’s

dissertation. This dissertation is also used in the historical section of the present

research. In an article entitled “How to Organize Murals” Kafshchian

investigates the importance of walls as the practical carrier for the execution of

murals. Kafshchian maintains that a wall can be studied from four angles: visual,

expressive, technological and demonstrative. In this article he studies only the

visual angle in more detail and under the following four topics:

(i) The general features of the wall (e.g. whether the wall is indoors or outdoors,

dependent on architecture or independent, simple or complex, regular or

irregular, vertical or horizontal).

(ii) Physical and quantitative features (e.g. length, width, height, depth, height

from the horizon, shape and form such as being conclave or convex)

(iii) Visual obstacles (e.g. being natural or artificial, enduring or non-enduring,

being fixed or transient like architecture, passer byes, vehicles.)

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(iv) Geographical location in relation to the neighboring environment,

geographical directions. Kafshchian (2011) summarizes this article by saying

that:

“Murals are formed as a result of the harmonious

interaction between the wall and the environment,

architecture, cultural and historical atmosphere and the

spectator. Research must be considered a necessary stage

in the preliminary creation of murals and the artist should

achieve the subject and the visual structure of the work

by seeking to know the visual and expressive potentials

of the wall.” (p.49)

Another article reviewed here is written by Kafshchian and Alavinezhad and is

entitled, “A Research into the Materials Used in Murals.” In this article the

importance of materials is considered vital and getting familiar with materials

for the muralist is called inevitably necessary. Materials are categorized into the

following four groups: (i) Carrier (base) which is the wall. (ii) Underlying

materials (connection layer). (iii) Main materials. (iv) Fixing materials.

This research used Siqueiros’s theories, dividing materials to old (e.g. colored

powders, pottery, plaster.) and new (e.g. light, plants, gases, liquids, audio-

visual). This article studies materials quantitatively and qualitatively, taking the

following aspects into consideration: physical, chemical, mechanical and

functional properties and visual, spiritual and economic effects). The writers

summarize that in modern art there are no limitations in choosing materials.

Rather, the huge variety incites creativity. However, the artist must completely

know the requirements of the wall on the one hand and the characteristics of the

materials on the other.

The next article is “Modern Materials in Contemporary Murals” written by

Kafshchian about the value and importance of contemporary technique and

materials. Kafshchian considers the modern mural to be a multidimensional and

complex art. The artist is faced with the taste and situation of the spectator in

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front of the wall and on the other hand he is conditioned by time, place,

technology and the other conditions under which he is creating the mural.

Since the modern architecture is constantly changing, using different materials

every day, the artist must be familiar with new techniques and materials, because

in the past architecture used local materials and each area and each tribe

captured its own religious, regional and cultural features in its traditional local

structure. However, nowadays there are no borders or limitations for materials

because of reasons pertaining to business, technology. Therefore, murals should

follow architecture and materials in transcending limits.

Kafshchian summarizes that if an artist has complete knowledge in choosing

materials, he can use the best options regarding each situation and especially the

budget. He says that expenses should be economically defendable. For example

in an outdoor work in large dimensions, it is not suitable to use fresco technique

that would be time-consuming and expensive. These three articles have each

considered murals from a different angle, each treating one of its aspects. One

studies the wall as the carrier of the work, the second studies the importance of

materials and their variety and emphasizes the importance of the artist’s

familiarity with different materials and his care in choosing the right ones. In the

third, the importance of modern materials and their compliance with modern

architecture and technology is under study. Each of these sources are related to

this dissertation in one way or another but the present dissertation investigates

technique in murals whereas none of these articles give much emphasis to this

matter.

Two important books are also quoted extensively in this dissertation. One is

Mural from Design to Restoration by Mansoor Hessami. This useful source

studies all techniques and materials used in murals and explain the various ways

they could be executed. Then it discusses the maintenance and restoration of

murals.This book investigates different issues in murals from a technical point of

37

view, familiarizing us with the method; materials and techniques used by our

predecessors and introduced materials as well. But this book only includes

traditional materials and techniques such as fresco, secco, tempera, mosaic.

Also, it only discusses technical matters and does not concern itself with

aesthetic issues.

Finally the very important book of Art and Revolution by Siqueiros must be

reviewed here. This book includes autobiography and a collection of articles and

speeches given by this great Mexican artist. In this book he studies murals in

detail and we can say that technique and its importance in murals is one of the

major themes of this book. In explaining about his works and experiments on

walls, Siqueiros talks about the relationship between technique and materials

and their importance in advancing the work. Siqueiros considers mural a social

art, because it belongs to the public. It speaks to them and exists in public places

in the reach of all classes of the society.

Siqueiros analyzes the art works created before him with scrutiny and believes

that one should use previous achievements and arts and blow the spirit of one’s

time in them. This can only be done by using modern techniques. Siqueiros

considers style to be born of technique, achieved through experimenting and

practical work, not the other way round. This book is full of important and

valuable points that look fresh even after many years and his achievements can

still be used. Siqueiros made predictions that are coming true today. Many

researches and articles still quote him vastly. Siqueiros experienced murals with

all his being.

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Conclusion

We cannot ignore the social aspect in analyzing murals and their

functions. However, the effectiveness of such functionality depends directly on

technique. Without a strong technique, the created artwork will not be long-

lasting, it will fail in delivering its message and it will not be able to attract a

wide spectrum of spectators.

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Bibliography

Arnold, H. (1999). The Social History of Art: Renaissance, Mannerism, and

Baroque. London: Routledge

Creswell J. W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and

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Pearson Education Inc

D’ Alleva, A. (2010). How to Write Art History. (2nd

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King Publishing

Eskandari, I. (2006) . “Iranian revolutionary art movement”. (Persian text).

Visual Arts Journal. Issue 25. Tehran: Tehran University Press : 50-53.

Gombrich, E. H. (2006).The Story of Art. London: Phaidon Press

Gardner, H. ( ). Art Through the Ages.

Pakbaz, R. (1999). Encyclopedia of Art. (Persian text). Tehran: Farhang Moaser

Philip, S. (1994). Siqueiros life and work. United State: International Publishers

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