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2 7 2 . 0 9 0 I N An International Action Programme on

WATERAND

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURALDEVELOPMENT

* * •

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A Strategy for the Implementation of theMar del Plata Action Plan for the 1990s

© FAO 1990

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in anot imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of thecountry, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purposeits frontiers or boundaries. ar|d extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to:

The DirectorPublications DivisionFood and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsVia délie Terme di Caracalla

00100 RomeFirst published 1990 l t a l v

CONTENTS

Foreword 4

Introduction 6

Background to the Action Programme 8

Water and Sustainable Agricultural Development-Challenges and Opportunities 12

Priority Action Programmes 18Efficient water use at the farm level 18

Waterlogging, salinity and drainage 20

Water quality management 23

Small-scale water programmes 26

Scarce water resources management 29

Supporting actions 32

Implementing the Action Programme 38Resources mobilization 38

Operational arrangements 40

Development stages of the Programme 42

qo

Foreword

T his International Action Programmeon Water and SustainableAgricultural Development (IAP-WASAD) has been formulated by

FAO with the full cooperation of other appro-priate UN Organizations within the frameworkof the UN Administrative Committee onCoordination-Intersecretariat Group on WaterResources (ACC-ISGWR). The IAP-WASAD willform an integral component of the UN strategyfor the implementation of the Mar del PlataAction Plan for the 1990s.

Since its adoption, in 1977, significantprogress has been made in the implementationof the Mar del Plata Action Plan. In spite of tnisprogress, however, much remain^ to be done.The progress in implementation has generallybeen hampered by a host of complex factorsand circumstances, which are often interre-lated. Deficiencies in planning and policyframeworks, weak implementation capacitiesand lack of monitoring and evaluation of per-formance halve generally impeded progress ofits implementation. These problems were fur-ther compounded by the continuous worsen-ing of the national and international economicenvironments, the depressed production sys-tems and the occurrence of severe climaticanomalies which have prevailed since theadoption of the Mar del Plata Action Plan.

Agriculture in most of the developing coun-tries continues to be the primary source of eco-nomic growth and the main sector for employ-ment and sustenance for the majority of thepopulation. This primacy of agriculture can onlybe maintained or enhanced by the sustainability

of its productivity and continuing increases inthe total food and agricultural production.Moreover, according to various perspectivestudies, including FAO's Agriculture Toward2000 study, the future expansion of food pro-duction will be increasingly dependent onsound irrigation and water management.

The Mar del Plata Action Plan, to a signifi-cant extent, recognized the linkages betweenwater and sustainable agricultural develop-ment. For example, it sharpened the focus onefficient water use as a key issue in the processof water resources development and manage-ment to secure and ensure good agriculturalproduction and thus the highest level of humanwelfare.

While significant expansion of the areaunder rainfed and irrigated agriculture hasbeen achieved during the past decade, the pro-ductivity response and its sustainability havebeen constrained by many complex and inter-related factors. Deterioration of irrigation sys-tems and problems of waterlogging and salin-ization have caused loss of agricultural produc-tion. Soil erosion in the upper watersheds, mis-management and over-exploitation of the natu-ral resources in the droughtrprone areas andacute competition for water, have all acceler-ated the spread of poverty, hunger and faminein the developing nations, particularly on theAfrican continent.

The IAP-WASAD recognizes the complexityand seriousness of the situation. The ActionProgramme is designed to update and expandthe implementation of the Mar del Plata ActionPlan for agricultural water use on the premise

4 Water and Sustainable Agricultural Development

that the farming community, given an enablingenvironment, can contribute significantly tosustainable agricultural development. ThisAction Programme stresses the importance ofthe traditional farming sector and its effectiverole in sustainable agricultural development, aswell as the private and public sectors.

The IAP-WASAD has identified five priorityareas of action and some common measureswhich require concerted actions to realize sus-tainable agricultural development with specialreference to water use. The priority areas ofaction include: efficient water use at the farmlevel; waterlogging, salinity and drainage;water quality management; small-scale waterprogrammes; and scarce water resources devel-opment. The common actions are: develop-ment of adequate data bases, adaptiveresearch, institutional strengthening, humanresources development, environmental protec-tion and technology transfer and infrastructure.

The Action Programme specifically aims torekindle the spirit of Mar del Plata by encourag-ing a new spirit and commitment for its imple-mentation during the 1990s. I wish to expressmy personal appreciation to the UN System ingeneral and FAO in particular for their gallantefforts to give a new boost to the implementa-tion of the Mar del Plata Action Plan in the1990s. I wish the Action Programme all success.

May 1990

Yahia Abdel MageedSecretary General

United Nations Water Conference

Water and Sustainable Agricultural Development 5

Introduction

T he concept of sustainable development is notnew. For example, considerable similarityexists between the concepts of eco-

development, a term which was widely used during andimmediately after the UN Conference on the HumanEnvironment held in Stockholm in 1972, and sustainabledevelopment. However, the concept of sustainabilitycame into prominence in 1980. It is now accepted bymany that development which destroys the naturalresources on which it is based is not development. Thereport of the World Commission on Environment andDevelopment (WCED), Our Common Future, 1987, (theBrundtland Commission) emphasized the central neces-sity of agricultural sustainability.

Sustainability has been defined in many different,ways (see box on right) and there is no single, univer-sally accepted definition. On the other hand, long-termstrategic and policy choices require a clearly definedconcept. FAO has therefore formulated its own defini-tion in the context of agriculture, forestry and fisheries:

'Sustainable development is lhe managementand conservation of the natural resource baseand the orientation of technological and institu-tional change in such a manner as to ensure theattainment and continued satisfaction ofhuman needs for the present and future genera-tions. Such sustainable development (in theagriculture, forestry and fisheries sectors) con-serves land, water, plant and animal geneticresources, is environmentally non-degrading,technically appropriate, economically viableand socially acceptable. '

Scarcity of water is a major constraint for furtheragricultural development of arid and semi-arid coun-tries. In many countries, all available water sourceswhich can be economically used have already beendeveloped or are in the process of development. As thedemand for water continues to increase, it is imperativethat this limited resource be used efficiently for agricul-tural and other uses. In developing countries, on. aver-age 80 percent of water used is for agriculture, andaccordingly rational use of water by this sector is abso-lutely critical for any overall efficient water manage-ment strategy. Resolution of conflicts between various

Alternative definitionsof sustainable development

'Development which meets the needs of the present with-out compromising the ability of future generations to meettheir own needs... ' (WCED 1987, p.43).

'... sustainable development is a process of change inwhich the exploitation of resources, the direction of invest-ments, the orientation of technological development, andinstitutional change are all in harmony and enhance bothcurrent and future potential to meet human needs andaspirations' (WCED 1987, p. 46).

'Sustainable development is economic change subject tothe constancy of natural capital stock—the stock of envi-ronmental assets is held constant while the economy isallowed whatever social goals are deemed appropriate.'(D. Pearce; Economics, Equity and SustainableDevelopment, Futures, Special Issue, 1988).

'Sustainable development... as a pattern of social andstructural economic transformations (i.e. 'development')which optimizes the economic and other societal benefitsavailable in the present without jeopardizing the likelypotential for similar benefits in the future.' ( f t Goodlandand G. Ledec; Neoclassical Economics and Principles ofSustainable Development, Ecological Modelling Vol. 38,Nos. 1/21987).

'... development that maintains a particular level ofincome by conserving the sources of that income: thestock of produced and national capital.' (P. Bartelmus;Accounting for Sustainable Development, UN/DIESAWorking Paper No. 8,1987).

'... sustainability... the ability to maintain productivity,whether of a field, farm or nation, in the face of stress orshock.' (6. Conway and E. Barbier; After the GreenRevolution, Futures, Special Issue, 1988).

Source: FAD 1989a

6 Water and Suxiainable Agricultural Development

water demands is currently a major problem in mostarid and semi-arid countries, where water availability islimited.

Renewable water supplies are essential for sustain-able agricultural development. Agriculture, in the con-text of the international Action Programme, includesboth irrigated and rainfed agriculture. While inputs likepesticides, fertilizers and better quality seeds are impor-tant, reliable water availability and control are com-monly critical prerequisites for the profitability of suchinput use and for the enhancement of agricultural pro-duction on a sustainable basis. Thus, the interrelation-ship between water and sustainable agricultural devel-opment is a direct and vital linkage: the latter is not pos-sible without the former.

The linkage between water and sustainable agricul-tural development was implicit in the Mar del PlataAction Plan. For example, the preamble to the recom-mendation on agricultural water vise states that 'particu-lar attention should be given to land and water manage-ment both under irrigated and rainfed cultivation, withdue regard to long-term as well as short-term productiv-ity'. Similarly, the operative part of this recommendationstates that 'high priority should be given to the adoptionof urgent measures for soil and water conservationwithin the framework of integrated land and water man-agement in order to increase agricultural productionwithout destroying these resources'.

During the formulation of a comprehensive strategyfor implementing the Mar del Plata Action Plan for the1990s, sustainable agricultural development issues wereexplicitly stressed. Such a strategy requires that sustain-ability concepts be translated into actions in order toachieve desired results. This International ActionProgramme is the result of this conviction.

This document presents an International ActionProgramme on Water and. Sustainable AgriculturalDevelopment (IAP-WASAD) for the 1990s. The objectiveof the IAP-WASAD is primarily to assist member coun-tries of the United Nations System in planning, develop-ing and. managing water resources on an integratedbasis in order to meet the present and future needs foragricultural production on a sustainable basis, bearing inmind competing demands for limited water resources.


Background to the Action Programme

T he United Nations Water Conference, convenedin Mar del Plata, Argentina, in March 1977, wasthe first meeting of its kind on water at a very

high policy-making level. All member states of theUnited Nations System approved the Action Plan at theConference and recommended its implementation. Thebox below presents additional information on the WaterConference, with particular reference to its recommen-dations on agricultural water use.

Since 1977, various reports had been prepared onprogress and issues encountered in implementing theMar del Plata Action Plan which were considered by

intergovernmental bodies of the United Nations System.At its 8th Session, in 1987, the Administrative Committeeon Coordination-Intersecretariat Group on WaterResources (ACC-ISGWR) agreed that these reports hadplayed a useful role in monitoring the progress and inrecommending actions for solving various problems.However, the ACC-ISGWR felt that a comprehensivestrategy for action should be developed at national,regional and global levels for the implementation of theAction Plan in the 1990s.

Following the 10th Session of the Committee onNatural Resources (CNR), the Economic and Social

The Mar del Plata Action Plan

The United Nations Water Conference was held in the city ofMar del Plata, Argentina, during 14-25 March 1977. Themeeting was convened upon the realization that the accelerateddevelopment and orderly management of water resources areprerequisites in improving the economic and social conditions ofhumankind, especially in the developing countries. Specific andconcerted actions are required to find solutions to various waterproblems and these need to be applied at national, regional andinternational levels in order to ensure better quality of life of allpeople on this planet.

Recognizing the important role played by the Republic ofArgentina to host the UN Water Conference in Mar del Plataand its great contribution to the success of the Conference,participants declared the recommendations of the Conferenceto be known as the Mar del Plata Action Plan and urgedstrongly that the recommendations be effectively implementedby all States.

The Conference was attended by representatives from 116States, 14 UN Organizations, and 7 UN Specialized Agencies.Observers from 18 intergovernmental organizations and 63non-governmental organizations were also present.

The recommendations of the Conference covered 8 majorareas: assessment of water resources; water use and

efficiency; environment, health and pollution control; policy,planning and management; natural hazards; public information,education, training and research; regional cooperation; andinternational cooperation.

Based on the above set of recommendations, theConference agreed on 10 resolutions on the following topics:assessment of water resources; community water supply;agricultural water use; research and development of industrialtechnologies; role of water in combatting desertification;technical cooperation among developing countries in the watersector; river commissions; institutional arrangements forinternational cooperation in the water sector; and water policiesin the occupied territories.

The main recommendation on agricultural water use, whichwas included within water use and efficiency, was as follows:

The increase of agricultural production and productivityshould be aimed at achieving optimum yield in foodproduction by a definite date, and at significantimprovement in total agricultural production as early aspossible. Measures to attain these objectives shouldreceive the appropriate high priority. Particular attentionshould be given to land and water management bothunder irrigated and rainfed cultivation with due regard tolong-term as well as short-term productivity. Nationallegislation and policy should provide for the properly



Council (ECOSOC), through Resolution 1987/7, agreedwith the ACC-ISGWR's view and requested the Secretary-General to undertake the following:-

'In consultation with the Regional Commissions andOrganizations of the United Nations System, to reportto the Committee on Natural Resources on progress informulating proposals for a comprehensive strategy toimplement the Mar del Plata Action Plan during thedecade 1991-2000, and to include an assessment ofthese proposals as they relate to the action of theUnited Nations System. '

Accordingly, it was decided, during the 9th Session of

the ACC Intersecretariat Group on Water Resources inOctober 1988, that a meeting of a Panel of Experts beconvened to advise on the formulation of a strategy forthe implementation of the Mar del Plata Action Plan in.the 1990s. This meeting was held in March 1989 atChalles les Eaux, France. The Panel recognized theimportant role of water in sustainable agricultural devel-opment, and recommended that an international pro-gramme on water and sustainable agricultural develop-ment be formulated as one of the areas requiring con-certed action by the United Nations Organizations. ThePanel of Experts also endorsed the proposal to carry out

integrated management of land and water resources.Countries should, when reviewing national policies,institutions and legislations, ensure the coordination ofactivities and services involved in irrigation and drainagedevelopment and management. It is necessary to expandthe use of water for agriculture together with animprovement in efficiency of use. This should beachieved through funding, providing the necessaryinfrastructure and reducing losses in transit, in distributionand on the farm, and avoiding the use of wastefulirrigation practices, to the extent possible. Each countryshould apply known techniques for the prevention andcontrol of land and water degradation resulting fromimproper management. Countries should give earlyattention to the improvement of existing irrigation anddrainage projects.

The action programme on water for agriculture was includedunder Resolution IH, Agricultural Water Use, a summary ofwhich is given below:

Attention was drawn to the urgent need for action toinitiate a worldwide programme for the intensification andimprovement of water development in agriculture. It wasstated that such a programóme should in particular, thoughnot exclusively, be directed at:

(a) improving existing irrigation with the objectives ofraising productivity with minimum cost and delay,improving the efficiency of water use andpreventing waste and degradation of waterresources;

(b) developing efficient new irrigation for furtherexpansion of production ;

(c) improving and extending rainfed agriculture andlivestock production, through both better soilmoisture management and opening up of new landthrough the provision of water supplies to humansettlements and livestock;

(d) protecting agricultural land against the harmful'effects of flooding and waterlogging, and wherenecessary its reclamation; and

(e) introducing or expanding fish rearing in conjunctionwith overall rural development activities.

As an indication of the task ahead in the area of irrigationand drainage development, the magnitude of a 15-year globalprogramme was estimated at some 45 million hectares ofimproved and 22 million hectares of new irrigation development.

The action programme also contained recommendations onphased action programmes: financing, training extension andresearch, promotion of national advisory services, andinternational programme support.


Background lo the Action Programme

Chronology of events since the declaration of theMar dei Plata Action Plan

March 1977Adoption of the Mar del Plata Action Plan by theUnited Nations Water Conference.

December 1979General Assembly Resolution 34/191 requested theCNR to review during the 1980s the progress madeby Governments in the implementation of the Mardel Plata Action Plan.

January 1981Beginning of the International Drinking WaterSupply and Sanitation Decade.

January 1987Interregional seminar convened on 10th anniversaryof the UN Water Conference, which included adetailed review of the progress made in implement-ing the Mar del Plata Action Plan.

May 1987ECOSOC, in agreement with the ACC-ISGWR recom-mendation on the need for a comprehensive strategyfor the implementation of the Mar del Plata ActionPlan in the 1990s, requested the Secretary General toreport to the 11th Session of the CNR on the strategyand measures necessary for implementation.

March 1989ACC-ISGWR convened a meeting of a Panel ofExperts to formulate a strategy. The Panel recom-mended six activities to constitute key elements ofthe strategy, namely, water resources assessment,sustainable agricultural development, mobilizationof financial resources, human resources develop-ment, institutional strengthening and promotion ofappropriate technology. A lead agency was desig-nated for each of the key elements. FAO was desig-nated the lead agency for sustainable agriculturaldevelopment. The panel also recommended thatregional assessments of progress achieved in theimplementation of the Mar del Plata Action Plan beundertaken to determine the main issues on whichto focus in the 1990s.

October 1989ACC-ISGWR at its 10th Session endorsed the FAOproposal for an Interagency Action Programme onWater and Sustainable Agricultural Development as akey element of the Mar del Plata Action Plan strategyfor the 1990s.

January 1990Regional assessments of progress made in the imple-mentation of the Mar del Plata Action Plan withregard to agricultural water use were carried outthrough a UNDP funded and UNDTCD executedproject with technical backstopping by FAO.

February 1990Interagency preparatory meeting convened to dis-cuss the findings of the regional assessment missionsand prepare the Interagency Action Programme onWater and Sustainable Agricultural Development.

May 1990Technical Consultation on Water and SustainableAgricultural Development convened by FAO to dis-cuss the Draft Interagency Action Programme with allinterested UN agencies, selected bilateral donoragencies and governments and developing countries.

October 1990Adoption of the Programme as an InternationalAction Programme by the ACC-ISGWR and as anintegral component of the Strategy for the imple-mentation of the Mar del Plata Action Plan for the1990s.

Spring 1991Submission of the Strategy to the CNR by the UNSecretary General.

Autumn 1991ACC-ISGWR-UN Organization donor meeting toreview and examine funding and implementation ofaction programmes.



in-depth regional assessments of progress and problemsin the implementation of the Mar del Plata Plan.

The recommendations of the Panel of Experts werereported to the 11th Session of CNR and to ECOSOC. TheECOSOC through Resolution 1989/7 reiterated the needfor a strategy for the 1990s, and requested that the strat-egy be submitted to CNR at. its "12th Session in 1991.

Following these developments, regional assessmentsof the progress made in implementing the Mar del PlataAction Plan since 1977 were carried out. The assessmentsspecifically took into account the principles of sustain-able development as they affected the water and agricul-tural sectors. These regional assessments assisted inidentifying the main elements of this Action Programmeat the national, regional and global levels.

In addition, the Committee on Development Planning(CDP), which met in May 19^9, stressed the importanceof water in sustainable development and requested con-certed action by the United Nations Organizations. Theproblems of water scarcity resulting from uncoordinatedand badly planned land, and water developments, as wellas water quality degradation due to agricultural, indus-trial and municipal water pollution, were highlighted.The CDP recommended that the Conference onEnvironment and Development, scheduled for 1992,should include in its agenda a separate item on sustain-able development in utilization of water resources, andtake into account the strategy for the implementation ofthe Mar del Plata Action Plan in the 1990s, to be formu-lated by CNR. The chronology of events since the Mardel Plata Conference in 1977 is summarized on page 10.


Water and Sustainable AgriculturalDevelopment—Challenges and Opportunities

W ater is an essential component of sustainableagricultural development. Without appropri-ate and reliable water control and manage-

ment, sustainable agricultural development is simply not.possible.

Conservation and rational development of water,land and associated natural resources are essential ingre-dients for sustainable development. However, a rootcause of deterioration and improper management of nat-ural resources in most developing countries is the strug-gle for survival. Those who are poor and hungry willoften destroy their immediate environment in order tosurvive; poverty itself could be major global scourge. AsMrs. Indira Ghandi, the late Prime Minister of Tndia,pointed out graphically during the UN Conference onthe Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972, povertyis the worst form of pollution. Poor farmers, fishermenand herdsmen are not necessarily less resourceful or lessaware of the importance and need to conserve their nat-ural resources and. the environment than their counter-parts in the wealthier countries. It is their desperatestruggle for survival which compels them to adopt: and.undertake environmentally unsound practices. On theother hand, even today, there are some primitive peopleand forest dwellers living in Amazonia and other areaswho are still able to meet their apparent needs using tra-ditional, environmentally-sound practices.

Poverty, environmental degradation and populationgrowth are related. The sustainability of agriculturaldevelopment is intimately linked to population growth.The world's population reached 5 000 million in. 1988,which was nearly twice what. it. was in 1950. By the year2000, the world population is likely to increase to morethan 6 000 million. Currently, over three-quarters of theworld's population live in developing countries, and it isin these countries that 90 percent of the projectedgrowth will occur.

One of the important concerns regarding populationgrowth is how to ensure present and future needs of allpeople in terms of food, fibre, shelter, etc., withoutdestroying the resource base and. the environment. For

example, it is axiomatic that food, production must atleast keep pace with population growth. To maintaineven the present level of food, consumption for the pop-ulation in the year 2000, it is estimated that food produc-tion must increase by approximately 40 percent.Simultaneously, good agricultural land should, not beunnecessarily lost: due to urban and rural growth andinfrastructure. Of equal importance, adequate quantitiesand quality of water must, be available for agriculturaland other uses. Ensuring that present and future genera-tions will have adequate food and water, and concurrentmaintenance of the resource base and. the environment,are two of the most challenging tasks that have everfaced mankind.

The amount of land, and water, available for all practi-cal purposes, can be considered to be finite. Therefore,there are some natural constraints to development.Beyond these natural constraints, man dictates the pat-tern of development, if the strategies adopted are envi-ronmentally sound, it should be possible to increaseagricultural production on a sustainable basis. Food, andfibre crops are net products of an ecosystem, and as longas the ecosystem remains healthy, it will continue to pro-duce sustainable levels of food. and. fibre. In contrast,unsound management of any ecosystem will undermineits production potential. The rate at which the produc-tion potential may decrease will depend on the intensityof such management practices.

However, the issues are not simply those of physicalconstraints. Economic constraints are equally important.A development path that is sustainable cannot besecured unless development policies consider economicaspects, such as costs and benefits to the society andindividuals. This means that sustainable developmentand use of natural resources should be compatible, withthe principles of sustainable economic activity.

Economic aspects of water and sustainable agricul-tural development are vitally important, as is clear fromanalysis of why many past irrigation schemes have failed,or were much less successful than expected at the plan-ning stage. They—the economic aspects—range from


Challenges and Opportunities

macro policies at the national and international level tomicro policies and mechanisms for implementation atthe project and farm levels.

Water is an indispensable resource for all life systemsand is a critical component of sustainable agriculturaldevelopment. In arid and semi-arid countries, irrigationis often the only option for achieving major increases infood and fibre production. Tn sub-humid and manyhumid areas, irrigation is essential for the multiple crop-ping necessary to compensate for high population densi-ties or has a valuable role to play in counteracting rainfallvariability.

During the past four decades, development, of irri-gated agriculture provided a major part of the increase inproduction necessary to meet population demands. Bythe mid-1980s, 36 percent of the total crop productioncame from less than 15 percent of the arable land whichwas irrigated. On a global basis, the average rate ofexpansion was about 1 percent per year in the early1960s and reached a maximum of 2.3 percent per yearfrom 1972 to 1975. The rate of expansion began todecrease in the miel 1970s (see graphs below) and is nowless than 1 percent, per year.

The reasons for the decrease in expansion in irrigatedland, are many and since the 1970s have been elaboratedin various reports. One of the commonest causes was the

high cost of irrigation development. Construction costshave risen steadily and the world price for major cerealshas fallen sharply; for example, the price for rice fell byabout 40 percent, in real terms between 1965 and 1985.Further, as much of the suitable land for irrigation devel-opment and available water supplies are already devel-oped, progressively more expensive and socio-economi-cally less favourable areas are left for further expansion.Nevertheless, new lands need to be brought under irriga-tion. Their economic viability will have to be evaluatedin the context of trade-offs between increased yields andenvironmental protection.

Of major concern is the continuing decrease in therate of expansion of irrigated land in. developing coun-tries while population growth rates are about 2 percentper year. The FAO projections of expansion of irrigatedland to the year 2000, based on previous trends modifiedby land, capital and inputs required to meet futureneeds, was 2.25 percent per year from 1982/4 to 2000(see illustration on next page). Recent data show that:these projections are not likely to be met. Clearly,needed increases in production cannot be achieved fromcontinuing increases in irrigated land. Rather, productionincreases must be achieved from both rainfed and irri-gated agricultural lands. Investment costs in conservationmeasures to increase available water on rainfed lands

Trends in irrigation developmentSource: FAQ 1989b

World

rate of increase in irrigated land4.0

a. 2.0 -

Latin America

developingcountries

1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987



Land use by different water regimes (percent)Source: FAO 1988

93 developing countries (excluding China)

2000

Sub-Saharan Africa

1982/84 2000

In 3%

. NF 3%

Near East/North Africa

1982V 2000

Asia (excluding China)

Í9SÍ.1:'- 2000

Latin America

2000

Key

LB :] low rainfall rainfed land:rainfall provides 1-119 growing days;soil quality marginal to very suitable

j F | uncertain rainfall rainfed land:rainfall provides 120-179 growing days;soil quality marginal to very suitable

ow | good rainfall rainfed land:rainfall provides 180-269 growing days;soil quality suitable to very suitable

¡•p. j problem land—area with excessive rainfall or marginal soil:rainfall provides more than 269 growing days;soil quality marginal to very suitable

| j | | naturally flooded land:land under water for part of the year,and lowland non-irrigated paddy fields (gleysols)

Q | irrigated land:fully or partially irrigated lands

must be evaluated, relative Lo capital investments andoperating costs of irrigated agriculture. In some regionssuch as sub-Saharan Africa, rainfed agriculture is the pri-mary source of agricultural production and this produc-tion can be increased significantly by implementingeffective soil and water conservation practices.

Currently, the overall performance of many irrigationprojects is much less than was expected. Inadequateoperation and maintenance and inefficient managementof an increasingly scarce water resource contribute tomany socio-economic and. environmental problems. Ofmajor concern is the rapid rise in groundwater leading towaterlogging, depressed crop yields and soil salinity. It isnot unusual to find that 60 percent of the water diverted,or pumped for irrigation is not. made available for cropuse. This excess input to project areas from canal andwatercourse seepage and deep percolation on farmfields is the major cause of waterlogging.

In modern high input, systems of irrigation, cerealyields of 1.5 kg/m3 of water consumed can be expected.The cost of providing this water by irrigation is high andwhen more than half is not used by crops, the cost perunit, production may be doubled.



The estimated gross area of irrigated land globally is270 million hectares. The gross irrigated area includesthe land commandable and equipped to be irrigated andcropped, fallow and land temporarily not irrigated due torehabilitation of irrigation systems and reclamation fromwaterlogging and salinity. About 20/30 million hectaresare severely affected by salinity and an additional 60-80million hectares are affected to some extent:. The princi-pal techniques for controlling waterlogging and salinityare well-established, but they are not being applied for avariety of reasons. The total area currently irrigated isabout 235 million hectares.

The quality of water available to agriculture is asimportant as the quantity, and the quantity and qualityare interlinked. Depending on the sensitivity of the crop,when the nature and composition of dissolved salts andpollutants or ions in the water exceeds threshold levels,crop production decreases with increasing concentra-tions. In addition, there may be phytotoxic and con-sumer health implications. Agricultura! practices can alsoaffect surface and groundwater quality. Excess plantnutrients in surface runoff and deep percolation fromboth irrigated and rainfed areas can contribute toeutrophication of surface water bodies and to the growthof aquatic weeds in canals and watercourses. Effluentsfrom agro-industries and aquaculture also contribute toserious water quality problems.

Tn many arid and semi-arid developing countries,availability of fresh water is limited for agricultural anddomestic use and thus marginal quality water is beingused. This includes treated wastewater as well asdrainage water. China, Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, UnitedKingdom, USA and many other countries are now usingsuch marginal quality water for irrigation and groundwa-ter recharge. Use of marginal quality water requires spe-cial attention in terms of salinity control, health consider-ations and other environmental protection measures.

Sustained production on both irrigated and rainfedlands requires optimal use of the physical environmentin each soil-crop-climate ecosystem. In rainfed areas, ofprimary importance are water conservation measuressuch as fallow management including crop residue man-agement, control of runoff and water harvesting.Integrated with these practices are selection or develop-ment of high-yielding, drought-tolerant varieties, effi-cient use of herbicides and fertilizers, crop rotation andoptimal planting dates to maximize the probability ofrainfall during critical periods of crop growth. The syner-gistic effects of such practices are complex when inte-grated through rainfed farming systems, yet are evenmore pronounced under irrigation. Under irrigated agri-culture, additional effects may arise because of continu-

ous monocropping. In rice production areas, for exam-ple, drainage may be required to remove toxic sub-stances that accumulate in the soil after several consecu-tive crops of rice.

Aquaculture is becoming an increasingly importantconsideration in use of land and water resources. Fishcan be considered to be a crop with specific require-ments for water quality and qtiantity. It thus competeswith other agricultural uses for land and water but pro-vides farmers the option of diversifying their production.Harmonious interactions have been developed betweenfish and other crops in many parts of the world, like therice-fish culture in south and south-east Asia. There isalso increasing use of small on-farm water storage reser-voirs for agriculture and aquaculture. Alternatives needto be explored by which all these activities can be con-sidered within an integrated programme of water andsustainable agricultural development.

During recent decades, large irrigation projects havebeen given high priority while small-scale water pro-grammes for agriculture have received inadequate atten-tion. Small-scale irrigation, including supplementarywater for rainfed agriculture, and a variety of water har-vesting and water spreading techniques, have consider-able potential to meet agricultural and domestic waterneeds and to enhance land and water conservation. Ithas been estimated that in the semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions of Africa, water harvesting can increase-agricultural production on 10 million ha in the short termand 50 million ha in the long term.

The climatic anomalies of the seventies and eighties,especially in Africa, and the associated problem of howto ensure sustainable agricultural development undersuch uncertain water regimes, have highlighted theimportance of rational water management in water-scarce and drought-prone areas. Increased rates of landand water degradation, induced by low and uncertainrainfall, are often the principal long-term effects ofdrought. Accelerated erosion by water and/or wind is amain hazard. In drought-prone areas, a few very shortduration and high intensity rains may occur each year.The accelerated runoff from these rains causes soil ero-sion and permanent soil damage.

Land degradation such as soil erosion is acceleratedby increasing human and livestock populations, resultingin overgrazing, bushfires, exploitation of croplands anddeforestation due to demands for firewood. Such degra-dation in semi-arid and arid areas is called desertifica-tion. It was estimated in 1983 that desertification affectednearly 75 percent of all productive rainfed lands (3 500million ha out of a total of 4 500 million ha) and 60 per-cent, of the rural population (280 million people) living in



Destruction oftopsail on pasture could be caused byimproper land development and inappropriate watermanagement. When such problems are not corrected ata very early stage, uncontrolled erosion can lead to theformation qfgulleys.

ihcse areas. Thus, water and land management underwater scarce conditions needs special attention.

In recent, years, there have been a number of notablecases of adverse changes in patterns of water-borne dis-eases resulting from development of water-related pro-jects. One reason is because many irrigation projects pro-vide an ideal environment for the multiplication ofwater-borne disease organisms and their increased con-tact with people. Of notable importance is the increasedpopulation of mosquitoes that cause malaria and aquaticsnails that infect people with schistosomiasis. The water-borne vector related diseases seriously threaten thehealth and productive life of rural families and hence thesustainability of irrigation development itself. Thus it. isimperative that sustainable water development shouldtake into consideration these health hazards and shouldbuild into the process of irrigation project planning,design and operation means to overcome these hazards.Many interventions are now available to minimize the

health hazards, such as chemotherapy, improved watersupply and sanitation for farm families, and control ofmultiplication of disease vectors. In the case of the latter,environmental management measures that would lead toreduction of vector multiplication sites are found to becost effective. Measures such as drainage, filling depres-sions, land levelling, vegetation clearance, improved irri-gation systems and water management, broadly classi-fied as environmental management measures, can leadto significant, reduction in the occurrence of water-borne-diseases in water development projects.

All the foregoing subject areas are important in thedevelopment of water for sustainable agriculture, butfive are identified in this International Programme as pri-ority areas for action. These are:

• efficient water use;• waterlogging, salinity and drainage;U water quality management;Ü small-scale water programmes; andLJ scarce water resources management.The main reasons for the selection include the impor-

tance to national development; magnitudes of problems,and their geographical distribution; solutions are gener-ally known and thus the problems can be controlled ifappropriate measures can be implemented.

However, all the five subject areas selected require aset. of common supporting actions, namely, developmentof adequate data bases, adaptive research, institutionalstrengthening, human resources development, improve-ments in socio-economic analysis, environmental protec-tion, technology transfer and infrastructure development.

Availability of reliable hydro-climatic data is an essen-tial prerequisite for rational planning, design and man-agement of water resources. Thus, development offunctional data bases and data management systemsshould receive priority attention.

Adaptive research on agricultural water use and man-agement requires strengthening in developing countries.The research approaches should be inter-disciplinary,and the research foci should, cover technical as well associo-economic: and environmental issues.

Institutional strengthening is another important task.Without an efficient institutional framework at thenational level, it will not. be possible to promote andensure sustainable agricultural development.

Shortage of properly trained and. experienced staff at.all levels is an important constraint to efficient waterdevelopment and management. Systematic: assessment ofmanpower requirements for the agricultural water use-sector has not been undertaken in all countries. It. is notonly essential to assess manpower requirements at vari-ous levels, but. also it is critical that appropriate steps are



taken to train national staff within the shortest time pos-sible. Without a complete trained human resource base,it will not be possible to ensure efficient management ofwater for agriculture.

In many societies, women play a major role in foodproduction, distribution and nutrition. Women contributelabour for cash crop production, they grow food fordaily consumption or to earn money to purchase off-farm commodities. In Africa, women not only contributelabour to the production of crops and care of small ani-mals, they are often the decision makers. This is increas-ingly the case due to male out-migration to find work, orbecause of separation or divorce. Unfortunately, womenare often not recognized as fanners in their own right.They do not have access to resources, inputs and ser-vices such as training needed to strengthen their skillsand lo increase their efficiency. When women lack tech-nology, larger families may be wanted to help with homeresponsibilities as well as in the field. Thus, improve-ment in quality of rural life by research and developmentof technology appropriate to women as well as mencould help reduce population growth. Extension servicesfor credit and marketing as well as home economics canenhance production of subsistence food crops toimprove food security and nutrition. Women should beintimately involved in development assistance pro-grammes as food producers. Assistance programmes tar-geted at women should be a major component of humanresources development.

There must be an increased focus on the fanners ancitheir capabilities in managing water resources andimproving production. Thus, data collection, adaptiveresearch and training of officials must all involve greaterinteraction with cultivators and. livestock herders. Therole of local communities in implementing and managingwater developments should also be enhanced.

Economists and financial analysts always argue for astrict application of economic criteria in evaluating thefeasibility of new agricultural development. A commoncriterion used is the Economic Internal Rate of Return(ETRR). As a rule of thumb, a project is recognizedto be in the danger zone if the EIRR is less than 10 to 12percent.

The strict application of the KIRK to evaluate feasibil-ity of projects is now seriously questioned. The EIRR isonly one indicator of the project's merits as it is only con-cerned with those effects of the project which can. bemeasured in monetary terms. There are inevitably othereffects to be taken into account in making a responsiblejudgement on whether a project is feasible or not. Theeffect, of development, both favourable and adverse, onnatural resources, human welfare, and the ecosystem as

a whole, should be evaluated. Perhaps, the applicationof 'cost-effectiveness' as an economic principle to evalu-ate new investments may offer a new realistic approach.

Multilateral development, banks and funding agencieswill have to consider effective financial mechanisms thatwill promote sustainable development . Theseapproaches should pay specific: attention to the conser-vation of ecosystems in developing countries.

The environmental implications of water manage-ment are an important considerat ion at present .Objective environmental impact assessment in the uppercatchments, especially evaluating the effects of defor-estation, is an important aspect, of feasibility studies formost water development projects. The main impacts ofdeforestation, as they affect water projects, are acceler-ated soil erosion and changing river flow regimes, whichcan change intensity and frequency of floods. FAO esti-mates that 160 million ha of watershed areas have beendegraded in tropical developing countries alone. Tn arid,areas, where water is the major limiting resource, all newuses of water will require trade-offs. The initial and con-tinuing environmental impacts must be considered in allwater development projects. Knowledge and technologytransfer among scientists, technicians and farmers contin-ues to be a major constraint to improved land and watermanagement. Equally, experience and technology trans-fer among developing countries needs to be enhanced.

The actions proposed under the IAP-WASAD consti-tute a 10-year programme which will contribute to sus-tainable agricultural development through optimum useof water and associated natural resources. The proposed,programme will also increase the capacity of the organi-zations of the UN System to act as catalysts in formulat-ing national and regional policies anci programmes andto assist, in a concerted manner, national, agencies in theformulation of policies and programmes, and in theimplementation officiel projects.


Priority Action Programmes

Efficient Water Use at the Farm Level

IssuesLarge amounts of water are consumed (evaporated) inproducing food, feed and fibre crops. Plant leaves haveopenings that enable plants to absorb carbon dioxidefrom the air in producing photosynthates. These sameopenings result in evaporation from internal wet cellsand diffusion of the water vapour to the atmosphere.Examples of water consumption (evaporation and tran-spiration) from planting to harvest required to produce aunit of marketable product are about 1.4 kg of grainsorghum or sucrose and 2.0 kg of maize grain per m.3 ofwater. Example yields per unit of water consumed forthese and other crops are illustrated in the figure below.

Yield versus water consumption

18 G::;

16 i

14 :

12 -

«• io -

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

water consumption (mm)

! mmmmmmm

• : ; . ' : : : : • : . " . . : :: • ' : • ' V " " " : " • . • • : : : • • • ] • . • ! • • • 1

i: v

- • • : • • . - • : : • . . . • ' • ' ' • : . . • • ; • .

. . . . . ; . . • • • . : • • . . • • • • .

barley(Utah)/

/

^ sugarbeets,sucrose

/' X/X h

,/ j r 9 r a i n sorghum^ ^ (Texas)

i t i i

When crop yields are reduced by other factors such asplant nutrients, plant diseases or pests, the amount, ofwater consumed remains about the same. As a result,production per unit of water consumed will be reducedin proportion to the reduction in yield. With limited irri-gation, the addition of water at critical stages of growthmay produce abotit 2.0 to 2.4 kg of grain sorghum foreach m3 of irrigation water added.

The production of grain per unit of water consumedunder rainfed agriculture is less than that under irrigatedagriculture because a larger part of the water consumedevaporates from the soil surface. Significant increases inproduction from rainfed agriculture can be achieved byreducing evaporation and minimizing runoff. Land shap-ing helps reduce runoff. Maintaining crop residues onthe surface reduces both runoff and evaporation. Studieshave shown that the amount, of rainfall stored in the soilduring a fallow period can be increased by up to two-fold by maintaining 11-12 tonnes per ha of wheat, strawcompared with bare soil. Where runoff occurs, waterharvesting, e.g. diversion of runoff water to basins, cansignificantly increase water storage and consequentlyincrease crop production.

The current and potential roles of rainfed and irri-gated agriculture need to be quantified taking intoaccount the probabilities of rainfall, the available irriga-tion water supplies and their cost. With this information,resources can be invested proportionally to the probablebenefits to be derived from both rainfed and irrigatedagriculture.

Actions-IIB Increases in developing country production in• fSS; the 1990s must come primarily from increasesigiil on existing irrigated lands and secondly from?$0§ increases on rainfed lands; positive actions areg f l required to transfer existing technology and toSill support its implementation. Urgent action isSill required to educate and train extension staff,Wffé strengthen water and soil management research=i!l!! under irrigated and rainfed conditions, monitor



and evaluate irrigation project performanceand establish effective demand managementprocedures and water pricing policies.

Ralnfed. Agriculturea. Take necessary measures to translate existing soil and

water management knowledge into action to increaseagricultural water use efficiency:• educate and train extension staff in water and soil

management principles and practices;• establish or strengthen infrastructure including

transport facilities for extension staif to provideeffective extension services in soil and water man-agement; and

U train extension staff and lead farmers in effectiveand economical water conservation practices.

b. Strengthen rain fed water and soil managementresearch:• conduct and assess long-term research training

needs;• educate and train research staff and technicians in

adaptive water and soil management researchtechniques and in establishing field test plots, col-lecting field, data, and in laboratory techniques;

• establish or strengthen soil and water researchinfrastructure, establish procedures for setting pri-orities based on needs, and allocating resources tohigh priority adaptive research including strength-ening research on traditional farming practicesand on crop residue management;

• provide adequate and stable funding for adaptiveresearch programmes as most rainfed research

Modern irrigation methods can greatly enhance wateruse efficiency and, increase yields. A low-pressure,centre-pivot spray irrigation system such as this applieswater uniformly and does not cause erosion or pondingof water on the surface.



requires multiple years of testing to verify adaptedand new technologies; and

• facilitate interdisciplinary research projects includ-ing socio-economic aspects.

c. Document and disseminate, through internationalsupport, examples of successful and effective rainfedpractices.

Irrigated Agriculturea. Establish monitoring, evaluation and feedback sys-

tems for all existing and future irrigation projects toimprove performance of water deliveries and mainte-nance of distributary systems and watercourses, andto control groundwater levels to increase crop yieldsand social and economic benefits:• train project managers in use of monitoring, evalu-

ation and application of feedback techniques toimprove irrigation performance and to reduceoperating costs;

Ü identify meaningful irrigation component perfor-mance parameters, establish required measure-ments including their accuracy and sampling fre-quency and establish a management informationsystem to assist real-time project managementdecision-making and scheduling of major mainte-nance operations; and

• link project performance with operation andmaintenance costs and agricultural production,

b. Develop and strengthen irrigation extension servicesand provide appropriate irrigation management train-ing at all levels including water users:LI educate and train extension staff in irrigation

water management principles and practices andassociated agronomic and cultural practices;

• establish or strengthen irrigation technical supportinfrastructure, train extension staff in establishingdemonstration plots on farmers' fields, and pro-vide adequate transport facilities to enable exten-sion staff to interact with farmers and project offi-cers; and

U train lead farmers in effective and economic irriga-tion management practices.

c. Promote exchange of information among farmers,extension workers, design engineers and researchersso that research and new design approaches meet thechanging needs of farmers and the farmers fullyunderstand the relevance of new and improved tech-nology. In this regard it is recommended that actionbe taken to:

• create opportunities for increased interactionamong farmers, extension workers andresearchers through organized visits of farmersand extension workers to research stations andthe researchers to farmers' fields; and

• hold regular 'field events' for the participation ofdesign engineers, extension workers and farmersto enable exchange of knowledge and informa-tion among the participants.

d. Enhance design, operation and maintenance of irriga-tion projects by training of relevant professionals andmembers of water users' organizations:U initiate training for operation and maintenance

personnel during the construction phase of newprojects and during rehabilitation of existing pro-jects to prepare them for project operations;

• train system designers and. operators in effectiveand economic approaches to modernizing irriga-tion and drainage systems and in effective andeconomic maintenance technology including prin-ciples of preventative maintenance; and

• develop operation and maintenance criteria, tak-ing into account the cost, manpower availabilityand requirements and social and environmentalprotection needs. Ensure that the criteria are takenfully into account in the design of irrigation sys-tems.

e. Review, develop and implement water pricing poli-cies, establish effective demand/supply managementprocedures and cost recovery mechanisms for opera-tion and maintenance of irrigation projects:• establish manageable water demand and pricing

systems which will minimize excess water appli-cation and reduce drainage requirements andcosts; and

• ensure that new or rehabilitated irrigation projectswill have adequate resources for sustained opera-tion and maintenance.

f. Document and disseminate, through internationalsupport, examples of successful irrigated projects.

Waterlogging, Salinity and Drainage

IssuesThe greatest technical causes of decreasing productionon many irrigated projects, or failure of large areas, arewaterlogging and salinization of soils especially in aridand semi-arid areas. Waterlogging is not an inevitable



Increase in water table due to irrigation

irrigation project

Nubariya, Egypt

Beni Amir, Morocco

Murray-Darling, Australia

Amibara, Ethiopia

State Farm 29, Xinjang, China

Salt Valley, USA

SCARP 1, Pakistan

Bhatinda, India

SCARP VI, Pakistan

Khaipur, Pakistan

water table

original depth rise(metres) (m/year)

15-20

15-30

3040

10-15

5-10

15-30

40-50

15

10-15

4-10

2.0-3.0

' 1.5-3.0

0.5-1.5

1.0

0.3-0.5

0.3-0.5

0.4

0.6

0.2-0.4

0.1-0.3

Adapted from Smedema, 1990

Irrigation often results in a rise of the groundwaterlevel. The table above shows the increase ingroundwater levels resulting from the introduction ofirrigation without adequate drainage in a number ofprojects. Waterlogging and salinity can be prevented bybetter water control and by ensuring that all irrigationprojects have provision for proper drainage.

result of irrigation. It is due to excessive input of waterinto systems that have finite natural drainage capacities(see table above). The excess water input, causes thegroundwater level to rise until a new equilibrium isreached. The sources of excess water input include seep-age from unlined canals and on-farm distribution sys-tems, deep percolation on irrigated fields, and rainfall.After waterlogging has occurred, soil salinity increases asplants extract pure water and evaporation from the soilsurface leaves dissolved solids in the soil that were pre-sent in the irrigation water. Waterlogging also may con-tribute to human health problems, particularly malaria,because of ponded water.

Monitoring the change in water table levels from thebeginning of a. new project is essential to implementingcorrective actions before soil damage has occurred.Monitoring and evaluation will also enable prediction ofwhether small-scale drainage will be adequate to prevent

localized waterlogging problems, or whether a large-scale system will be needed.

For new irrigation projects, an integrated design ofthe irrigation and drainage systems along with operatingpractices will minimize irrigation development and man-agement costs. Farmers also must be involved in thedevelopment, operation and maintenance of effectivewaterlogging and salinity control measures.

Waterlogging can be corrected by reducing excesswater input and increasing natural drainage capacities byvertical (well) and horizontal drainage (pipe drains).Once soil salinity has increased to levels that affect plantgrowth, salts must be leached from the soil and theleachate disposed of in an acceptable manner. Typically,pipe drainage costs are high for projects that have lowefficiency irrigation systems and unlined canals. As aresult, installation of drains is often postponed until noalternative remains for increasing or maintaining soilproductivity. Optimal systems consider the trade-off inreducing excess water input by lining irrigation canals,lining or using on-farm pipe distribution systems, usingmore efficient on-farm irrigation systems, and improvingirrigation scheduling to minimize excess input. Theseactions increase irrigation system capital costs, butreduce drainage requirements.

On large irrigation projects with small topographicgradients, disposal of drainage effluent has become amajor problem. Because of increasing competition forgood quality water, saline drainage waters are beingdiverted into evaporation ponds and, where feasible,separate drainage channels to coastal waters or salt sinkshave been constructed.

Waterlogging and salinity also occur in rainfed areassuch as the semi-arid plains of northern India. In thatregion, standing surface water containing sodium bicar-bonate has caused the formation of sodic soils in lowerlayers. Reclamation of these soils requires a combinationof surface drainage and soil amendments for eliminatingsodicity, in some cases irrigation water for leaching, andsubsurface drainage.

Waterlogging and salinity can also be observed inrainfed areas which may be referred to as saline seepareas. They are caused by changes in vegetation overdecades which have changed the hyclrological balanceand increased localized groundwater flow. Such prob-lems have occurred in semi-arid areas of southern andwestern Australia, central Canada, and. parts of the GreatPlains of the United Stales.

Tn humid tropical areas, waterlogging occurs due toexcess rainfall and may not be associated with salinity.Soil salinity occurs in coastal areas mainly due to primarysaline deposits of marine origin in contrast to salinity



When, as a result of improper irrigation, soil salinitylevels exceed crop threshold levels, crop damage will besevere. Typical results of such damage are poor standestablishment, stunted plant growth and extensive leafburn.

caused by man-made activities. Waterlogging in theseareas typically can be corrected by surface drainage. Aspecial problem in some coastal areas is the reclamationof acid-sulphate soils.

Lack of drainage facilities in many projects existsbecause at the start of an irrigation project the watertables may lie at great depths below the surface.Typically, the estimated canal and on-farm irrigation effi-ciencies are over-estimated during project design and theamount of excess water input is greater than planned. Tnmost cases water table monitoring can give adequateforewarning of the impending waterlogging crisis that isimminent. Unfortunately, a rising water level is often nottaken seriously by decision-makers because the adverse

effects may not become significant for several years (seetable on previous page).

Technology is well established, for designing, con-structing and managing drainage systems. Some adaptiveresearch may be needed where local materials are usedand where unique local soil problems exist.

With current irrigation systems in developing coun-tries, increased drainage will almost invariably berequired to maintain soil productivity. The main questionis a mailer of when such drainage systems should beconstructed. Monitoring should Lie part of the operationof all irrigation projects to predict more accurately whenthe drainage system must be completed to avoid devel-opment, of waterlogging and salinity problems.



Actionsin rainfed agriculture, surface drainage isrequired Lo prevent any temporary waterloggingand flooding of low lands. In irrigated agricul-ture, artificial drainage is essential under mostconditions. It is essential to minimize drainagerequirements and costs by reducing the sourcesof excess water through improved system designand on-far m water management practices.Design of appropriate drainage systems, secur-ing funds for their construction and mainte-nance, farmers' involvement in the manage-ment of drainage systems and safe disposal ofdrainage effluents are important. Groundwatermonitoring, water balance studies and conjunc-tive use of surface and groundwater should beencouraged. Pilot projects in waterlogged andsalinized areas need Lo be established in orderto verify available technologies and providetraining for personnel.

Rainfed Agricultureimprove drainage to prevent, temporary waterloggingto increase and sustain productivity:• provide surface drainage where needed; and• prevent unnecessary flooding of low lands.

Irrigated Agriculturea. Ensure that all new or rehabilitated irrigation projects

have adequate drainage:• use realistic distribution and cm-farm irrigation effi-

ciencies when estimating drainage volume anddrainage system requirements-,

U consider alternative capital investments in irriga-tion facilities for increasing the efficiencies of dis-tribution, and on-farm irrigation systems, which cangreatly delay the need, for drainage and reduce theeventual capacity and costs of drainage;

• carry out thorough drainage investigations, evalu-ate alternative drainage designs and operation andmaintenance practices and introduce cost recov-ery mechanisms;

• where a drainage system will be needed, developthe organization and estimate costs of financingthe project and its operation and maintenanceincluding manpower and equipment needs;

• develop organizational arrangements and facilitiesto enable farmer participation in drainage activi-ties at the local level; and

Ü investigate environmentally acceptable alternativeapproaches for disposal of saline drainageeffluents.

b. Implement groundwater monitoring and water bal-ance studies to predict drainage requirements andimplement conjunctive ground, and surface water use,where feasible, to prevent or reduce waterlogging:• implement, groundwater monitoring to record

water table level and water quality changes fromthe beginning, in all irrigation projects;

U encourage, when applicable, conjunctive use ofground, and. surface water for irrigation, therebyreducing drainage requirements and cost;

U initiate water balance studies in order to predictwater table build-up and drainage requirements,taking into consideration contribution to ground-water from canal seepage, farmers' fields andother sources; and

Ü assist farmers with development and. adoption ofmore efficient on-farm irrigation methods toreduce excess water input to problem areas.

c. Establish pilot drainage projects in waterlogged andsalinized areas to verify design and effectiveness ofmaterials, demonstrate the effect of drainage on pro-ductivity, and train personnel in operation and main-tenance of drainage systems with emphasis on:• adaptation and testing of drainage technology

developed in other areas using local materials andconstruction techniques where feasible; and

• use of pilot areas to train personnel to operate andmaintain of drainage systems concurrent with theinstallation of large-scale drainage systems.

d. Implement soil salinity monitoring in problem areasand adopt appropriate water, soil and crop manage-ment practices to overcome the problem:• initiate appropriate soil salinity surveys, analyse

data, and adopt techniques to measure changes insoil salinity;

U equip laboratories with suitable instrumentationand train professional staff and technicians insalinity investigation and related, techniques; and

• adapt established and effective water, soil andcrop management practices to local conditionsand train farmers in adopting such practices.

Water Quality ManagementIssuesFrom the viewpoint of sustainable agricultural develop-ment, water quality management has two major implica-tions:1. The quality of water used in irrigated agriculture



Seasonal nitrate variations in shallow sand aquifers(Sri Lanka, areas under intensive fertilized irrigation)Source: Lawrence and Kuruppuarachchi, 1986

dry season crop wet season crop

Intensive use of fertilizers and manures, especially inirrigated areas, has resulted in high nitrateconcentration of water in many parts of the world.Field investigations have shown that less than half thenitrogen applied to the soil may be removed try crops.This means lhal more than half lhe nitrogen applied iseither retained in the soil or leached, contributing towater pollution.

In some irrigated areas of developing countries,higher rates of fertilizer application have alreadycontributed to high concentration of nitrates inground-water, which is often used for drinking. Thefigure on the left shows seasonal variations of nitrateconcentration in groundwater in four wells inSri Lanka.

should not cause crop damage and adversely affect,agricultural yields. The presence of certain con-stituents like soluble salts, and ions like sodium, chlo-ride or boron, in water at above threshold level con-centrations not only reduces total, agricultural produc-tion, but also could significantly reduce the sustain-ability of the agricultural projects. Hence, quality ofwater being used, for agriculture is an important con-sideration.As a general rule, the quality of water required for use-in agro-industry and aquaculture has to be of a muchhigher order than that for agriculture per se.

2. Agricultural activities should not adversely affect thequality of surface and groundwater such that theirsubsequent, use for other purposes has to be cur-tailed. Water quality considerations for agriculturaluses have received considerable attention, but con-comitant: attention has not. been given to the potentialimpacts of agricultural activities on water quality.Viewed from the standpoint of agricultural chemicalsalone, this could perhaps be explained by the lowrates of application of fertilizers and. pesticides indeveloping countries. However, as their applicationrates are increasing, especially for irrigated agricul-

ture, nitrate and pesticide contaminations are increas-ingly becoming areas of concern (see graph above).High levels of salinity and sediment, concentrationshave always been considered to be serious waterquality issues for agriculture.Tn addition to mineral fertilizers, manure and other

organic residues are an important source of nitrogenreaching surface and groundwater in many countries.Farmers require education to promote proper and effi-cient use of fertilizers to avoid over-application.Management of fertilizers use has an important role toplay since current methods of large-scale removal ofnitrates from water are seldom economic.

The main objective of water quality management asrelated to sustainable agricultural development is two-fold, namely:"1. to ensure that human activities do not degrade water

quality so that its potential uses are impaired for agri-cultural purposes; and

2. to ensure that agricultural activities do not. contributeto unacceptable levels of water quality deteriorationso that other uses of water are precluded.In arid, and semi-arid developing countries, where

possibilities for further economic development of tradi-



Proper application of agrochemicals can greatly reducetheir potential to contaminate both ground-water andsurface water, low-volume sprays reducecontamination and increase ¿he efficacy of application.

tional sources of water are limited, alternative measuresshould be undertaken in order to make effective use ofmarginal quality water, e.g. waste-water and drainagewater. With the construction of extensive sewer systemsand. treatment plants in many urban centres of develop-ing countries, treated wastewat.er is increasingly becom-ing a new and important source of water for irrigation.Ways and means must be found for optimal use of thisnutrient-rich water, consistent with necessary environ-mental and health safeguards. Thus, water quality moni-toring for agricultural use of treated wastewater is animportant consideration.

Water quality monitoring networks and associatedrequired facilities are significantly less well developed indeveloping countries, for a variety of reasons. Amongthe main reasons are: technical complexities of establish-ing functional and realistic water quality monitoring net-works; high investment costs required to organize andoperate water quality monitoring systems; lack of ade-quately trained human resources; absence of properlyequipped laboratories; difficulties associated with opera-tion and maintenance of sophisticated equipment; andnon ready availability of spare parts. Because of the com-plexities and high costs, functional national water quality

monitoring systems have generally not been fully estab-lished in many developing countries.

ActionsConcerted and planned actions are necessary toestablish and operate functional and cost-effective monitoring systems, and to ensure that

' water available for agricultural uses is of anacceptable quality. Simultaneously, appropriate

:, . steps must be taken to ensure thai agriculturalactivities do not adversely affect water quality sothat subsequent uses of water for different pur-

. ,•.:„ poses are impaired.

a. Develop cost-effective and functional surface andgroundwater quality monitoring programmes forassessing agricultural water quality, and evaluate theimpact of agricultural activities on water quality:LJ upgrade existing water quality monitoring net-

works by taking a long-term view of future needsand by following as far as possible the recommen-dations of international specialized organizationson standardization, of instruments, techniques andanalytical and sampling procedures;



U standardize, coordinate and organize the process-ing and timely publication of water quality data;

• establish and/or strengthen training programmeson water quality monitoring and assessment;

U consider specific national characteristics andsocio-economic conditions in establishing imple-tnentable water quality regulations and standards;

U cooperate in the coordination, collection andexchange of necessary data in cases of sharedwater resources; and

Q international organizations and bilateral donorsshould, on request, and as appropriate, offer tech-nical assistance and provide funds to implementthe above actions.

b. Develop and implement strategies to minimize themagnitude and extent of water pollution by agricul-tural activities, including agro-industries:U develop appropriate criteria, standards and legisla-

tion for regulating the use of agricultural chemicals,such as fertilizers and pesticides, and manures, tak-ing into consideration relevant national factors,including crop yields, soil and water managementpractices, disposal of farm runoff and. effluents, andsocio-ea >nomic conditions;

Ü encourage more efficient use of fertilizers andpesticides;

• ensure that technology and appropriate financialincentives are available to agro-industries toreduce the impact of products and processes onwater quality; and.

• introduce effective legislation and regulatorymechanisms to minimize pollution of surface andgroundwater bodies.

c. Prepare national strategies and plans for rational use oftreated wastewaler and drainage water for agriculture:U develop appropriate procedures for reuse of water

of marginal quality for specific uses, includingnecessary health and environmental monitoringon a regular basis;

• improve inter-institutional cooperation amongwater, health, agriculture and other appropriateministries in order to ensure continued safe reuseof wastewaler and drainage water;

U identify institutional and socio-cultural constraintsto the reuse of wastewater for agriculture, anddevise programmes to overcome such constraints;

• develop pilot projects as needed to evaluate anddemonstrate effective practices for safe reuse ofmarginal quality water; and

U international organizations and bilateral donors

should, as appropriate, assist countries in thereview of experiences and the exchange and dis-semination of information on the use of wastewa-ter and drainage water for agriculture and providerequired technical assistance in developingnational pilot projects.

d. Review the extent of current, and potential salt waterintrusion due to over-extraction for agriculturalactivities:• establish pilot salt water intrusion control projects

in areas where salt water intrusion has alreadyoccurred, and/or implement action to reduce theexisting magnitude and extent of such encroach-ment; and

• identify areas where salt water intrusion couldoccur in the future due to agricultural develop-ment and. lake necessary preventive measures.

Small-scale Water Programmes

IssuesSmall-scale water programmes can fulfil many localwater needs and have considerable global potential forthe achievement of sustainable agricultural development.The purpose of such programmes includes developmentof small-scale irrigation, water supply for humans and.livestock, improved infiltration to groundwater, soil con-servation, flood spreading and flood control. These ini-tiatives can often integrate development and conserva-tion, and enhance local involvement in environmentalmanagement. The programmes, when properly imple-mented, can generate employment, promote equity,improve health standards and help to slow or preventmigration to urban areas.

Definitions of 'small-scale' based on size or cost areculturally or site specific, and could vary from one coun-try to another. However, the concept of small-scaleapplies where communities or individuals develop andoperate most activities of the projects themselves,although technical assistance is often necessary duringsurvey, design, construction and maintenance. Small-scale programmes include a diversity of technologiessuch as water harvesting, well development, river off-takes and use of wetlands.

Small-scale irrigation development is a major activityof small-scale water programmes, and affects sustainableagricultural development in several ways. Firstly, well-designed projects lessen the vulnerability of agriculturalactivities, and the risk of soil and water degradation.Secondly, small-scale irrigation enables the use of renew-


Priority Action Programmas

On-farm water storage has multiple benefits. In additionto meeting the supplementary irrigation needs of thefarm, farm reservoirs can be used for fish culture anddomestic water use.

able energy sources where suitable. Finally, the rates ofexpansion of small-scale irrigation can be controlledconsistent, with locally available water resources.

Small-scale irrigation schemes can complement, thedevelopment, of larger projects. Small-scale programmescan be efficient and amenable to cost recovery and thuscan operate reliably with private as well as public opera-tion and maintenance services. Such schemes provideinexpensive and cost-effective extensions to irrigatedproduction by small-scale producers, whose aggregatedoutput is a key factor in the economic development ofmany developing countries.

Various approaches have been adopted to expandsmall-scale water programmes. In some countries, manytypes of state organizations have been involved, as haveprogrammes of public works. Elsewhere, non-govern-

mental organizations (NGOs) and private sector organi-zations have also provided technical advice and support.There have been many successes where a participatoryapproach that involved local people was combined withsound technical design and siting. However, many pro-grammes have tailed as they have not been properlyintegrated with local farming activities and patterns ofwater use. Other programmes have been planned butnever implemented, as many countries fell victim to the'blueprint' approach of targets that were never fulfilleddue to financial and staffing problems, or because theydepended too heavily for implementation on inappropri-ate central institutions. Other initiatives have failedbecause of conflicts or poor integration between devel-opment agencies and resource management bodies.Future programmes need to be based on better design,



and far better institutional coordination, with a key focuson participation at the local level in all stages of design,itnpletnentation and management.

ActionsSmall-scale water programmes can assist sus-tainable agricultural development but furtherexpansion must be founded on adequate techni-cal advice and support, improved institutionalcollaboration and greater involvement of localcommunities.

a. Formulate national policies and develop programmesfor implementing small-scale water projects for ruraldevelopment:• develop fora to plan and promote coordinated

activities in small-scale water programmes involv-ing donors and national organizations, and cen-tral, regional and local organizations;

Ü develop the role of local institutions and agenciesin planning, advising and implementing small-scale water projects;

U increase the role of small-scale water projects inspecial public works programmes, where theseare consistent with local priorities and promotedwith full participation from the local community;

LI enhance data collection and monitoring capacityto ensure the efficient expansion of small-scalewater programmes; and

• focus promotion of small-scale water programmesin areas where local expertise exists in agriculturalwater management, and cooperative management,and use pilot projects to investigate the adaptationof small-scale water programmes in areas withoutthese traditions.

b. Develop more effective institutional coordination tointegrate the development of agricultural and ruralwater supplies and soil and water conservation:Q promote greater investigation, adaptation and dis-

semination of successes and failures to integratewater control and water supply; and

• increase local capability for integrated waterplanning and documentation, with specialemphasis on linking technical executive agencieswith agencies for resource management, publicadministration and rural development adminis-tration.

c. Enhance the capability of farmers in the implementa-tion, operation and maintenance of small-scale waterprogrammes:

• enlarge local capabilities in design, constructionand maintenance through more flexible designapproaches, training and appropriate funding;

U improve technical advisory services for watermanagement and crop production, particularly inareas where water quantity and quality may fluc-tuate over time;

• formulate mies and responsibilities for operation,management and use of small-scale water pro-jects, which are consistent with existing traditionsand with local financial and labour capabilities;

• increase opportunities for dialogue between waterusers and technical services;

Q develop the role of small-scale community waterprojects, such as water harvesting, spring protec-tion or well developments, in local council budgetand expenditure programmes; and

U ensure collection of data which show the diversityof water use, and disseminate these in formswhich can be used by local people.

d. Provide stronger representation and support tosmall-scale producers including development of amore effective production and marketing environ-ment:U ensure effective programmes for credit and other

agricultural inputs required for small-scale waterprogrammes; and

U assure reliable and economical sources of energyfor small water pumps and other mechanicaldevices.

e. Adapt and disseminate appropriate technologies forsmall-scale water projects:U promote exchange of information and experience

on technologies that are suited to small-scalewater projects;

• ensure that adaptation and dissemination of tech-nologies fully address gender divisions of labourin rural communities; and

• disseminate irrigation technologies appropriate tosmall-scale water sources and suitable for smallplots of land, and including assistance in the useof poor quality water where necessary; adaptlow-cost irrigation technologies for small andmarginal farmers.

f. Enhance the role of NGOs and the private sector inpromoting small-scale water programmes:• encourage NGOs to improve coordination and

increase their support, to small-scale waterprojects;


Priority Action I'rogrammes

Ü assist. NGOs to enhance managerial and technicalskills of field officers through appropriate trainingprogrammes;

• expand opportunities and improve the perfor-mance of the private sector in small-scale waterprojects; and

• improve collaboration between public and privatesector agencies to ensure standardized pro-grammes in credit and technical assistance, andincrease information on private sector activities.

g. Monitor performance, evaluate successes and failuresand identify constraints in order to provide feedbackand disseminate lessons learned:• develop monitoring and evaluation procedures for

projects by local representatives;Q promote education and media activities to raise

and/or develop the profile of rural achievementsin small-scale water programmes, and highlightthe involvements of resource-poor groups, suchas the landless or women;

• promote the transfer of existing knowledge oncommunity participation into practical expecta-tions and. approaches for small-scale water pro-grammes;

• promote the transfer of techniques for mobilizingcommunity participation among different ruraldevelopment activities for example, betweencommunity health work and community waterprojects, or between rural water supply and small-scale irrigation;

U ensure that, participatory approaches in small-scale water programmes involve all members ofthe community, including marginal farmers, land-less labourers, pastoral groups and women; and

• encourage development of participatoryapproaches by government, departments and theprivate sector involved with small-scale water pro-grammes.

Scarce Water Resources Management

IssuesMany countries of the world face constraints to their eco-nomic and social development as available waterresources are insufficient to meet demand, and condi-tions of water scarcity arise.

Water scarcity is a general condition of countries witharid or semi-arid climates, which necessitates the devel-opment of production strategies appropriate to the vari-able, unpredictable and limited water supplies that char-

acterize such climates (see graph over page). Dry cli-mates in the tropics are characterized by an averageannual rainfall of less than 700 mm, which is usually

- markedly seasonal in character.Such areas support traditional land use practices, but

these often become less sustainable as a result, of social,economic and environmental changes. Land use strate-gies require careful use of water in the soil, or the use ofa very diverse range of water sources. Livestock keepingis an important activity as well as crop production. Thedevelopment of improved production strategies dependsnot only on sound knowledge of water resources, butalso on strategies that, maximize biomass production inrelation to water, and the conversion of biomass by live-stock, Traditional practices are often involved in just, thiskind of production strategy, in relation to prevailinglabour, soil and economic conditions. Strengthening tra-ditional strategies may prove to be as important as mod-ernizing or replacing them, although the latter is anapproach which should also be considered.

Dry climatic zones also need development, pro-grammes which stabilize and improve water regimes andsupport agricultural activities that create more prosper-ous and less vulnerable communities. Poverty andfamine have their roots in unstable and inequitablesocio-economic conditions; agricultural production andrural communities are frequently disrupted anddepressed by droughts and/or floods, and some of theworst, examples of hunger and deprivation occur in thesedry lands. Thus actions must include both long-term pro-grammes—which reduce the general vulnerability ofdrought-prone areas—and short-term programmes, suchas the development of effective warning systems for cropfailures and food shortages, and the provision of emer-gency assistance at times of natural catastrophe.

In arid and semi-arid areas, easy and. economic avail-ability of water is generally an important constraint toeconomic development. Because of water scarcity, ratio-nal and. equitable decisions on water allocations must bemade among various water users and uses. Such deci-sions can only be properly made and implementedwithin the functional and institutional frameworks.

At present, in many arid and semi-arid countries, themost important additional accessible sources of water areinternational and interprovincial rivers, lakes andaquifers. Because of the inherent complexities associatedwith development of international water bodies, many ofthese have not yet. been tapped. There is no questionthat the development and management of internationalwater bodies will become even more important issues inthe 1990s and beyond than they ever were in the past.

The urgent need to develop appropriate land and



Annual Nile flow at Aswan, EgyptSource: Abu Zeid and Biswas, 1990 (personal communication)

170

160

150

140

130

120

S 110

mean (1871-1905}110.49 mean (1920-1965)

96.70

90

80

70

60

50

mean (1905-1920)96.256

1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1988

hi arid and semi-arid countries, severe annualfluctuation of rainfall and river flow is a seriousconstraint to agricultural production. Production fromrainfed agriculture under such conditions could varysignificantly from one year to another. The figure showsannual flows in the Nile at Aswan during 1871-1989.For irrigated agriculture, a succession of drought years,as observed during 1976-88, can create a difficultproblem if water storage capacities are inadequate toprovide carryover supplies.

Another serious problem with such severe fluctuations isthe necessity of having data over a long period in orderto design and operate water resources projects cost-effectively. Note that if a water project had to bedesigned at Aswan on the basis of data over the 1871-1905, 1905-65, 1965-76 or 1976-88periods, thecharacteristics of the designs and the costs would havediffered considerably.

water uses and effective allocation procedures raisesadministrative dilemmas for many countries. There havebeen many initiatives in data collection, land use zoningand control of over-exploited water resources, yet. manyplans remain unimplemenlcd or controls unenforceddue to lack of continuity and expertise. Some plans orcontrols may be inappropriate or unenforceable underthe current socio-economic conditions.

ActionsWater scarcity conditions require long-termstrategies and practical implementation pro-grammes for the development of agriculturalwater use in ways consistent with limited waterresources and competing demands for water.

Formulate an integrated and comprehensive strategyfor the management of land, and water for sustainableagricultural development under water scarcity condi-tions:U develop national planning capacities to formulate

policies and stratégies for management of scarcewater resources and technical and institutionalcapacities, so that long-term goals can beachieved through refinements in short-term poli-cies and their implementation; and

CI promote exchange of information on techniqueswhich assist decision-making under conditions ofwater scarcity and political and. administrativeapproaches to managing land and water useprogrammes.



b. Develop land and water use polieies and plans forareas of scarce and highly variable water supplies,ensuring that they remain compatible with prevailingsocio-economic conditions and the environment:• develop belter analytical techniques for under-

standing the behaviour of the diverse watersources used, in water-scarce areas;

U encourage studies on climatic fluctuations andcycles in order to ensure more reliable water avail-ability for agricultural production;

U consider use of supplementary irrigation to opti-mize agricultural production;

U promote agricultural development strategieswhich maximize biomass potential and conver-sion in relation to water, and which give the bestfood security under extreme scarcity conditionsrather than average conditions;

• consider the possibility of water demandmanagement in addition to supply management;and

Q strengthen adaptive research and dissemination ofirrigation and water supply technology whichminimizes water losses.

c. Design legal frameworks for the regulation of landand water developments and management and pro-cedures for their implementation which take intoaccount customary laws and traditions:• document customary laws and. traditions in land

and water management, review their implicationson new land and water developments and enactnew laws if required.

d. Develop policies and coordinated activities for man-aging groundwater withdrawals for irrigation withinthe safe yield limits of aquifers:• assess groundwater resources, and design and

approve new groundwater projects and plans insuch a manner that they do not withdraw ground-water beyond .safe yield limits;

• strengthen monitoring procedures for all ground-water development projects by state, private andNGO activities;

• based, on these policies, develop licensing andzoning procedures for the development ofgroundwater, and ensure their enforcement;and

U develop direct and indirect methods to controlgroundwater abstractions, such as control throughelectricity tariffs, better water pricing and collec-tion of charges on public tubewell projects, andtaxation and/or pricing strategies.

e. Formulate and implement effective drought pre-paredness measures with special emphasis on envi-ronmental protection and improving communityresilience:• develop government capability to deal with the

effects of drought in the short-term, including:i. procedures for assessment of the impact, of

drought on livelihoods;ii. design and implementation of assistance pro-

grammes to re-establish agricultural activitiesduring and. alter a drought; and

iii. coordination of emergency food and waterneeds, where possible linking these to execu-tion of locally-supported, community develop-ment projects, and. ensuring that all sectors ofthe community, especially women and othervulnerable groups, benefit from assistance.

• assist and improve initiatives to stabilize and aug-ment water resources in the longer term, anddevelop production strategies which are less vul-nerable to drought:

i. fund small-scale water programmes designed,to improve catchment recharge and. providetemporary storage for water use;

ii. promote water harvesting techniques as ameans of coping with water shortage situationsfor drinking, domestic and agricultural uses;

iii. develop water for drinking and irrigationbased on the concept of sustainability;

iv. assist local developments in food storage;v. assist local communities to develop suitable

plans for water allocation and. water rationingto minimize conflict during periods of waterscarcity; and

vi. analyse past projects and/or activities whichhave not produced the desired, results, andidentify the steps that should be taken to rec-tify the shortcomings.

f. Intensify efforts to formulate agreements for the allo-cation and protection of interstate and internationalwaters as an important requirement for sustainableagriculture,



Supporting Actions

The five priority areas of action identified and elaboratedupon earlier constitute the means to optimize water usefor crop production and achieve agricultural develop-ment on a sustainable basis. In order to implement effec-tively the actions proposed in these five priority areas,certain common and complementary actions need to betaken. These common actions include:

• development of adequate data bases;Ü adaptive research;LJ institutional strengthening;• training (human resources development);LJ better socio-economic analysis;• environmental protection and conservation; and• technology transfer and infrastructure.

Development of Data BasesThe absence of adequate and reliable hydro-climatic andother associated natural resources data in developingcountries is a major factor which currently hinders ratio-nal water and sustainable agricultural development. Aslong as adequate and reliable data are notavailable, planning, design and management of waterprogrammes will continue to remain guesswork, use ofnatural resources haphazard and wasteful, and the devel-opment process unsustainable. Water programmes forsustainable agricultural development can only besoundly formulated on the basis of adequate data onsuitable soil and. its production capacity, potentiallyavailable surface and groundwater resources, perfor-mance of existing water projects (including small-scaletraditional systems) and other related, factors that, con-tribute to success under the farmers' economic condi-tions and. aspirations.

In consequence, there is an urgent need to:assess available water and other related naturalresources data as they relate to irrigated andrainfed agriculture; identify gaps, and establishsuitable methodologies for data collection andanalysis; monitor water resources, water andland use and crop production; compile invento-ries of type and extent of agricultural waterdevelopment and their present and future con-tributions to sustainable agricultural develop-ment; and improve the availability and dissemi-nation of data to planners technicians andfarmers. Mobilization of financial resources isessential to ensure lhe continuity of these activi-ties on a long-term basis.

The actions required are as follows:a. Review and evaluate adequacy of existing data on

water and associated natural resources:• review existing data on land and water resources

for rainfed and irrigated agriculture, humanresources and population-supporting capacities atnational, river-basin and regional levels;

LJ evaluate the adequacy of the data available, iden-tify gaps and where appropriate develop and dis-seminate better methodologies for data collectionand analyses, and establish readily accessible databanks;

LJ where appropriate, develop tools to integratedata, such as the Geographic Information System;and

• review the capacity of the relevant, institution incharge of developing and managing proper databases, and rectify any shortcomings.

b. Initiate actions to secure funding to ensure continuityof the data bases, and quality, availability and accessi-bility of data:• develop pilot, projects to establish national and

multinational (especially for international rivers,lakes and aquifers) systems for data collection,monitoring and analysis as well as their storageand retrieval; and

• obtain national and, if required, internationalfunds to support such projects.

Adaptive ResearchResearch and development go hand-in-hand. Since newproblems develop with time, and economic and environ-mental conditions change, it is necessary to update andmodify existing technologies and develop new ones.Applied and adaptive research play veiy important, rolesin attaining these goals. Research programmes in mostdeveloping countries in the area of agricultural water usehave mainly been somewhat limited, in scope, and oftendiscontinuous and fragmented. Furthermore, researchshould not be limited to technical issties only but shouldalso include social, institutional, environmental and eco-nomic aspects of water management in agriculture.Current research efforts in developing countries mostlytend to follow disciplinary lines within narrowly-defined,topics. Adaptive research needs to be reoriented by rec-ognizing the complex role of water in agricultural devel-opment, and by following a broad-based holistic-approach.

3 2 Wetter and Sustainable Agricultural Development


As a result of these situations, adaptive researchprogrammes must be initiated and, supported toinvestigate the real problems associated with theplanning, design, implementation and manage-ment of water in agricultural development pro-jects. It is important that the resulting technologybe technically feasible, environmentally andeconomically viable and socially acceptable.

The priority requirements arc as follows:a. Identify priority areas for water-related adaptive

research:LJ review and evaluate adaptive research pro-

grammes that, deal with water development andmanagement, crop, soil management and hus-bandry practices and social, environmental, insti-tutional and economic: aspects which are relevantto sustainable agricultural development; and

• identify appropriate research 'packages' com-posed of a number of these components that areapplicable under a wide range of geographical,farming and socio-economic conditions.

b. Strengthen the adaptive research capacities of institu-tions in developing countries:• evaluate specific technical assistance, training and

material needs of research institutions in order tostrengthen their capacities;

• mobilize national and international funds tostrengthen research institutions; and

• enhance opportunities for exchange of researchideas and findings among developing countriesand. between developing and developed countries.

c. Enhance translation of water-related and farming sys-tems research results into practical and accessibletechnologies and provide the support needed fortheir quick adoption at the field level:U conduct verification research at the farm level

with full involvement of the farmers; andÜ produce easily understandable and simplified

'how-lo-do' manuals in local languages in order tointroduce the new and proven technologies, andensure their wide distribution among potential

Institutional StrengtheningThe importance of a functional and coherent, institutionalframework at the national level to promote water andsustainable agricultural development has been generallyfully recognized at present. The solution may not always

require the creation of new and enlarged institutions andestablishment of larger government, services. Since it isthe farmers who grow crops and not the civil servants, animportant, criterion in reorganizing and/or establishingnew institutions should be the ability of such institutionsto address successfully the multi-dimensional problemsthat are generally faced, by the farmers at. local andnational levels. Such institutions should be capable ofundertaking, regulating, stimulating and facilitating roles.The importance of inter-ministerial and interdepartmentallinkages cannot be over-emphasized to perform thesefunctions. Institutional strengthening should thus bebased on these types of functional requirements and link-ages. The roles of local communities and NGOs, particu-larly with regard to small-scale water programmes, shouldnot be under-estimated. Strengthening these organiza-tions in many cases may prove to be the most cost-effec-tive and thus attractive alternative.

In addition, an adequate legal framework of rules andregulations should be in place to facilitate actions on agri-cultural water use, drainage, water quality management,small-scale water programmes and the functioning ofwater users' associations. Legislation specific to the needsof the agricultural water sector should be consistent with,and stem from, general legislation for the management ofwater resources.

In particular, institutions that deal with agricul-ture and water development need to be strength-ened or restructured to meet efficiently therequirements of the farmers and to promote sus-tainable agricultural development. Principalinstitutions should have effective linkages withall other related institutions so as to optimize theuse of physical, financial and human resources.

The necessary actions are as follows:a. Review, strengthen and restructure, if required, exist-

ing institutions in order to enhance their capacities inwater-related activities:• organizational structure, functional relationships

and linkages among ministries and departmentswithin a ministry should be reviewed and, ifneeded, revised and strengthened. In this regard,research, extension and planning, implementa-tion, operation, monitoring and evaluation func-tions deserve special attention; and

• specific measures that, require support for institu-tional strengthening include long-term pro-gramme budgeting, staff training, incentives,mobility, equipment and coordinationmechanisms.


I'riorily Action Programmes

Manpower planning methodology source-, FAO

supply

Visit and evaluate alleducational institutions

and training todiesinvolved in irrigationmanpower provision

existing educationand training

Quantify existingmanpower numbers inthe irrigation sector.

Evaluate performance ofthe various activities

of the sector

existing manpowernumbers, quality and

institutional constraints

i r demand

Visit and evaluateirrigation development

planning. Assess financial,social, manpower, andinstitutional constraints

to achievement

irrigation projections

By examination ofexisting irrigation activities

and from first principleswhere necessary, draw up

staffing norms for thevarious activities of the

irrigation sector

manpower models

needsmanpower quality

requirements

educationalinstitutions andtraining bodies

institutionalrequirements

1

numerical projections ofmanpower requirements

Strategy: general recommendationsfor achievement of manpower needs.

Specific training project proposals.

projected andgovernment

organizations

training project proposals

The principles of human resources planning areconceptually straightforward. An analysis of both thepresent and future demand for trained humanresources is carried out together with an evaluation ofthe existing supply. Demand and supply are then

reconciled and a detailed human resources strategy isproduced. The aims of the strategy are to producesufficient numbers of personnel of the appropriatequality.

h. Review, assess and revise, if required, existing legisla-tion on lhe management of water for sustainable agri-cultural production within the broader framework oflegislation for the development, use and conservationof water resources.

Human Resources DevelopmentShortage of educated, trained and experienced staff at: alllevels is a major constraint to rainfed and irrigationdevelopment, in most developing countries. So far onlyvery few developing countries have undertaken system-atic human resources studies in the agricultural water use

sector. Education and training programmes are essentialto ensure that adequate numbers of properly trained staffare available to deal with relevant managerial and techni-cal issues involved in agricultural water use. The trainingprogrammes should be compatible with an overallnational policy of human resource development for theagricultural water use sector. Establishing this nationalpolicy is an essential precondition to developing aneffective education and training programme. Humanresources planning should include identification of areasfor which education and training are needed and thesubsequent manpower needs (see chart above).

Opportunities should be provided for career develop-



nient for professionals and technicians in service alongwith a rewards system that, is based on performance.

The importance of education and training of farmers,especially for irrigated agriculture, should not be under-estimated. Farmers must understand Lhe technology thatis being introduced to them. There is thus a strong casefor increasing farmers' training utilizing demonstrationplots and other innovative means when new technolo-gies are introduced which are expected to be adopted byfarmers.

Particularly, training and human resourcesdevelopment should be actively pursuedthrough: assessment of current and long-termhuman resources requirements and trainingneeds; establishment, of a national policy forhuman resources development; and initiationand implementation of training programmes forstaff at all levels as well as for farmers.

The necessary actions are as follows:a. Assess training needs for agricultural water manage-

ment.b. Increase formal and informal training activities.c. Develop practical training courses for improving the

ability of extension services to disseminate technolo-gies and strengthen farmers' capabilities with specialreference to small-scale producers.

d. Increase the opportunities for career development toenhance the capabilities of administrators and officersat. all levels involved in land and water management,programmes.

Better Socio-economic AnalysisSustainable development, as defined earlier, should meettwo basic considerations, namely economic viability andsocial acceptability. A great many water developmentprojects in the past have failed due to inadequate atten-tion given to social and economic aspects in their plan-ning and implementation. The application of strict eco-nomic principles in certain cases has resulted in the so-called, economic non-feasibility of potentially beneficialand. sustainable projects. This was mainly due to theinability to quantify the social and economic benefits inmonetary terms. At the same time, many social benefitsand environmental goods are at present either under-priced, or unpriced. This has led to over-exploitation andinefficient use of natural resources. Application of appro-priate socio-economic analysis in all phases of projectplanning and evaluation is urgently required in waterresources development projects.

Efforts should be made to incorporate economicand social analyses in national water develop-ment planning and evaluation, methodologies.Multinational and bilateral donors should useappropriate socio-economic analytical tools inproject evaluation and appraisal for funding.

Tn this regard, it is recommended that:a. efforts should be made to develop appropriate socio-

economic analytical tools in project planning,appraisal and evaluation;

b. multilateral and bilateral donor agencies should, adoptappropriate socio-economic methodologies in theiroverall economic and financial appraisal of projects;

c. governments and. relevant international agenciesshould ensure that socio-economic analyses are ade-quately applied in formulation and the selection ofprojects for implementation.

Environmental ProtectionThe importance of environmental protection and conser-vation measures has been increasingly recognized dur-ing the past three decades. Tt is now generally acceptedthat environmental protection will not take place withoutdevelopment, and development cannot, be sustainablewithout environmental protection. Thus, environment,and development are two sides of the same coin.

Much agricultural land is deteriorating due to inap-propriate soil and water management. Soil erosion, nutri-ent, depletion, salinization and waterlogging all reduceproductivity and jeopardize long-term sustainability.Agricultural expansion programmes have often encom-passed marginal land in many parts of the world. Wisemanagement of the environment requires an ability toforecast, monitor, measure and analyse environmentaltrends and assess the capabilities of land and water atdifferent levels, ranging from a small irrigated plot, to awatershed. Adopting environmental impact assessmentswill enable countries to plan water and land use withoutirreversible environmental damage and allow sustainableresource use. Knvironmental impact assessments shouldbe followed by monitoring and implementing necessaryactions. Appropriate action is needed in upper catch-ment areas, not only to conserve them, but also to ensureavailable water downstream, groundwater recharge,water quality protection and overall sustainabilily ofwater development projects. A number of environmentalprotection measures need to be implemented throughoutwatersheds in order to preserve their environmentalquality, maximize positive impacts of development andminimize potential environmental hazards.



In particular, environmental protection andconservation of natural resources must be madean integral part of development. Objective envi-ronmental impact assessments must be consid-ered as prerequisites for approval of develop-ment plans and projects. All environmental fac-tors should be considered from the beginning ofany project cycle. Integrated environmentalmonitoring, evaluation and feedback are essen-tial to ensure sustainable development. Emphasisneeds to be placed on the management of upperwatersheds and implementation of environmen-tal protection measures across the watershed.

The necessary actions are as follows:a. For water-related projects and programmes, countries

should:• carry out objective environmental impact assess-

ments in order to ensure their sustainability andenvironmental acceptability;

Ü take appropriate measures and actions to maxi-mize positive environmental impacts and mini-mize adverse environmental impacts;

• ensure amelioration measures, recommended toreduce environmental problems, are imple-mented; and

Q institute environmental monitoring, evaluationand feedback systems on a long-term basis.

b. Develop and implement appropriate land use andenvironmental programmes in upper catchments toensure continued availability and suitability of waterfor agriculture.

c. Identify and implement environmental protectionmeasures across entire watersheds.

d. Expand, improve and coordinate international assis-tance to improve the capabilities of developing coun-tries to assess, manage and protect their environmentand natural resources.

e. Provide necessary investments to ensure control ofwater-borne human disease vectors in irrigated andrainfed agriculture.

Technology Transfer and InfrastructureTransfer of experience and technology and enhancementof feedback among scientists, technicians and farmers(horizontal) and between them (vertical) continues toremain a major constraint in most developing countries.

On the basis of past experiences, it is evident that thesuccess of a project on water development for agricul-ture during all its phases—planning, design, constructionand operation—is strongly influenced by the availabilityof technology and whether or not the appropriatechoices have been made to suit the local conditions. Ascheme for information transfer which includes storing,disseminating, receiving feedback and updating informa-tion is urgently needed to support water activities forsustainable agricultural development. An importantfunction of the transfer system is to enhance the capacityof human resources of nations through disseminationand feedback of information. Transfer of experiencesamong developing countries through an already estab-lished UN mechanism, namely, Technical Cooperationamong Developing Countries (TCDC), could be made animportant element of information transfer.

As in all economic activities, agricultural develop-ment, particularly involving the water sector, has infras-tructural requirements to ensure its success. Farmersmust have enough funds; good quality supplies must bedelivered in time and in adequate quantities; and propermarketing facilities and pricing structures should beassured. In addition to physical infrastructure, servicessuch as education and health are also necessary.

Specifically, transfer of technology, both hori-zontal and vertical, needs to be strengthened. Inplanning, design, implementation, operation,maintenance and adoption of improved tech-nologies and practices, there is a need to exam-ine a range of technology options and select andadapt the optimum package for a given set oflocal conditions. Strengthening of physical, eco-nomic and social infrastructures should proceedsimultaneously with other related developmentalactivities. Mechanisms to provide credit, inputsupplies, markets, appropriate pricing and trans-portation must be developed. Provision of healthfacilities and basic education as part of thesocial infrastructure is important.

The necessary actions are as follows:a. Establish effective methods to facilitate the transfer of

new and proven techniques and practices, includinggreater use of demonstration plots, training at all lev-els and dissemination of relevant information in locallanguages.

b. Encourage and provide required facilities for transferof knowledge and experiences among developingcountries in the area of water and sustainable agricul-tural development.



c. Expand integrated rural water supply infrastructurefor multiple uses and assist in developing the ruraleconomy including facilities for water-related educa-tion and training and support services for agriculture(farmers' involvement/commitment).

d. Provide stronger representation and support to small-scale producers, including development of a moreeffective production environment.


Implementing the Action Programme

T he main objective of the International ActionProgramme on Water and SustainableAgricultural Development (1AP-WASAD) is to

assist developing countries in planning, developing andmanaging water resources at national and internationallevels on an integrated basis to meet the present and.future needs for agricultural production. In meeting thisobjective, the TAP-WASAD will assist national govern-ments and regional institutions in setting priorities con-cerning the use. of water and land resources for agricul-tural development, in updating their current policies andstrategies, and. developing and implementing pro-grammes to translate their policies and plans into action.

The UN system will play a catalytic role in the imple-mentation of the Action Programme by creating greaterawareness of the importance of integrated water andland development, responding to specific requests ofmember governments for technical cooperation andassisting in mobilizing bilateral and multilateral donorsupport for technical assistance and investment fordevelopment.

The success of the TAP-WASAD will depend on:• commitment of the national governments and

their continued support to the objectives andgoals of the Action Programme;

• coordination of activities in relation to water useand agricultural development among countrieswithin a region and between these countries andregional and international institutions;

U adoption of a holistic approach in utilising waterfor agricultural development taking into consider-ation technical aspects as well as economic,social, political and cultural factors;

LJ full involvement of farmers during all stages ofwater planning, development and management;

LJ effective involvement, of local NGOs and the pri-vate sector; and

• support of the multilateral and bilateral organiza-tions, particularly in terms of technical coopera-tion, funding and improved coordination of exter-nal assistance.

In its present form, IAP-WASAD is designed to beimplemented, within the framework of 'Arrangements forInter-organizational Cooperation of the UN System at theGlobal, Regional and Sectoral Levels', as well as withinthe mandate and. policy, programme and operationalguidelines of FAO—the lead, agency of the programme.Full participation of bilateral and multilateral develop-ment agencies is foreseen in every phase of the ActionProgramme. The requirement for flexibility of approachcompatible with the policies and needs of national gov-ernments, regional institutions, United Nations Systemorganizations and bilateral and multilateral development,agencies is fully recognized.

Resources Mobilization

The importance of human and financial resources in theimplementation of the Action Programme needs noemphasis. This has direct implications for:

U national governments,U NGOs ancl the private sector,Ü UN organizations andQ bilateral and multilateral organizations.The most important, condition for success is a strong

commitment and sustained support to the InternationalAction Programme at all the foregoing levels.

National Government LevelThe importance of implementing the activities of theAction Programme must be realized by national policymakers and planners. This means that the acceptance ofthe Action Programme at the country level shouldinvolve not. only the Ministries of Agriculture and Water,but also the Ministries of Planning, Environment, andother relevant ministries. To achieve a high level of com-mitment, a preliminary dialogue with all concerned,national authorities is highly desirable.

It. is also important, that when governments maketheir commitment to the Action Programme, they shouldcommit appropriate financial support and manpower


Implementing lhe Action Programme

required for the implementation of the programme.Availability of local manpower to implement, the pro-gramme is imperative. While it is recognized that manydeveloping countries are faced with extremely difficulteconomic situations, it is urged that national govern-ments take into consideration the possibility of reallocat-ing committed funds or allocating extra-budgetarysources of funds to support the programme, if and whenrequired. Tt should be borne in mind that the ActionProgramme deals with a most important sector ofnational economy, namely agricultural development on asustainable basis, and hence the need to give priority tothe proposed action should be well recognized bynational governments.

NGOs and the Private SectorLocal and national NGOs have an important role to playin ensuring the participation of farmers and the localcommunity in the implementation of agricultural watermanagement programmes. Inputs from internationalNGOs will further strengthen the participation of localcommunities. The important role of the private sector inpromoting appropriate technologies, facilitating market-ing and input supplies and direct participation in thedevelopment itself is self-evident. The support and directinvolvement of NGOs and the private sector need to beconsolidated through an appropriate institutional frame-work.

UN OrganizationsBasically the IAP-WASAD is a programme to promoteand strengthen activities by developing countries toachieve sustainable agricultural development throughmore effective management of their water resources. Therole of UN organizations in this regard is to provide tech-nical cooperation and to mobilize international supportfor investment and development of the agricultural watersector. Often several UN organizations are involved in agiven area of activity, and some overlapping is present inthe UN System's responses to the needs of governments.During the implementation of lhe Action Programme,this overlapping will be minimized in order to optimizethe use of financial and human resources of the UNSystem, governments and multilateral and bilateraldonors. Such optimization can be achieved since theprogramme will be implemented under the umbrella ofthe UN Administrative Committee on Coordination-lntersecretariat Group on Water Resources (see box,above right)-

The participating UN Agencies are expected to pro-vide an appropriate level of support to the programmethrough commitments in their regular programme and

Administrative Committee on Coordinationand thelntersecretariat Group on Water Resources

Following the United Nations Water Conference, theEconomic and Social Council requested the AdministrativeCommittee on Coordination (ACC), the organizationsundertaking water related activities and, whereappropriate, the regional commissions, to make thenecessary arrangements for intensifyinginterorganizational cooperation and to elaborateappropriate procedures so as to provide support for theperiodic intergovernmental review of the Mar del PlataAction Plan.

Pursuant to this request, the ACC, at its third session in1979, established an lntersecretariat Group on WaterResources (ISGWR) involving all the organizations of theUnited Nations System active in the water field.

Following are the terms of reference of the ACC-ISGWR:

1. cooperation in the monitoring of progress being made inthe implementation by governments of the Action Planadopted by the United Nations Water Conference;

2. promotion of cooperation and joint planning of the waterrelated programmes of the United Nations System andreview of their implementation;

3. assistance in coordinating the water related activities ofthe United Nations System at country and regionallevels.

The Group receives continuous secretariat supportservices from a nucleus of staff within the Office forProgramme Planning and Coordination of the Departmentof International Economic and Social Affairs. Additionalstaff support is provided, as needed, from the otherorganizations. The Group holds regular meetings at yearlyintervals supplemented by informal meetings organized asand when required.

Source. f-W, 19$0

participation in joint formulation missions and throughthe exchange of information and technology by meansof journals, special publications, seminars and work-shops.

Active participation in and support to the ACC-1SGWR Working Group on Water and SustainableAgricultural Development and support to the Secretariatis also anticipated from the participating UN Agencies.



Mechanism of coordination for implementing the Action Programme

Country level

sectoral ministries

international aidcoordinating unit

(Ministry of Planning)

local NGOs

internationalNGOs

multi andbilateral donors

nationalcoordinating unit

for¡mptementation

ofMOPAPforthe 1990s

UNDP resident

countryrepresentativesfrom specialized

(FAO, WHO,ILQetc)

UN Sytem level

GA

; Acet

ËCOSOC

11

ACC^SGWB

imeragencymobilization

: unit

;:•;•; F A Q : ^secretariat ofIÀP-WASAD

donorsUN

organizationsinternationalorganizations

Bilateral and Multilateral Donor CommunitiesThe bilateral and multilateral donor communities haveplayed and will continue to play a very significant andimportant role in water and agricultural development.Their share in water development activities, particularlyin financial terms, is prominent especially when com-pared with other inputs in the agricultural sector. Despitethe fact that different donor communities have differingcriteria in selecting programmes and projects for support,all have the same goals in the agricultural sector, namelyto promote accelerated agricultural development of thehost country, and conservation and optimum use of nat-ural resources, thus enhancing employment, equity andimproved standards of living. Recently, most donorshave promoted the concept of 'sustainable development'as another basic criterion in providing assistance todeveloping nations.

The commitment of bilateral and multilateral donorsto support the programme is necessary if the interna-tional programme is to make a tangible and lasting con-tribution to the developing nations.

Commitment to the programme may be of variousforms. In many cases, there are ongoing programmes ofthe bilateral and multilateral organizations in water andagricultural development which should be intensified ormodified as needed. The UN Agencies' role will be tofacilitate the activities of the donor communities, toensure minimum overlap among donors and optimal useof financial and human resources.

Operational ArrangementsIn implementing the IAP-WASAD, the important roles ofthe main participating groups—the national govern-ments, the UN System and the bilateral and multilateraldonors—will need to be defined and effectively inte-grated. Flexibility will be required to allow changes asthe programme develops over the envisaged 10 yearperiod. A proposed mechanism of coordination amongthe three groups is presented in the diagram above.Revisions to this coordinating mechanism may have tobe made as the programme develops.



The programme cycle of IAP-WASAD

evaluationmonitoring

and reviewing

(1991-MOO'

1 I

7

irriplerr-f:n:;itio>~o' !hc

Action Programme(1991-2000)

i phase

launching oí " I BIAP-WASAD

Jú:n-J> by the UNand FAO

(October 1991)

endorsement ofa proposal on,

IAP-WASAD byACC-ISGWR

(October 1989)

developing nation/UN system/ donorconsultation on

projectimplementation

and funding(May 1991)

regionalassessmentmissions andpreparatorymeeting of

IAP-WASAD(Jan-Feb. 1990)

tese

joint countrymissions of UN

organizations anddonors and

preparation ofportfolio ofprojects

(Nov. 90 to Mar, 91)

technicalconsultation

of IAP-WASADand adoption ofIAP-WASAD by

ACC-IGWR(May-Oct. 1990)

A national coordinating unit (NCU) for implementingthe Action Programme under the umbrella of the Strategyfor the Implementation of the Mar del Plata Action Planfor the 1990s is recommended. The major role of this unitis to serve as a national focal point to coordinate theAction Programme activities with relevant national andinternational organizations at the country level.

At the UN System level, the establishment of an inter-agency mobilization unit (IMU) is recommended. Themajor role of this unit is to assist UN agencies, nationalgovernments and donors in the implementation of multi-disciplinary water sector programming missions, identifi-cation of projects, developing project documents, seek-ing donor support, implementation of projects and theirmonitoring. This Unit will work directly with the ACC-ISGWR and will serve as the international counterpart tothe national coordinating unit.

A national government's request for assistance inimplementing these actions and activities through theNCU will be a first step in the implementation of theAction Programme.

It is proposed that when the Action Programme isadopted by the ACC-ISGWR, it will be distributed to allmember governments through the 'UN System channel'namely, through FAO Representatives, UNDP ResidentRepresentatives and other UN System focal points. Thus,the programme will be available to relevant governmentinstitutions for use in initiating requests for action and forperiodic updating by the UN System.

It is also foreseen that UN organizations, and multi-lateral and bilateral donors can initiate action by identify-ing the need for assistance to appropriate member coun-tries based on their past and ongoing activities in thefield of water and agricultural development. Suchactions, which are within the framework of the ActionProgramme, should be fully discussed with relevant insti-tutions of the national governments, before they are initi-ated to develop projects for implementation.

The UN System naturally has a critical role to play,since the programme is being promoted as an UN intera-gency initiative. Basically the following three major func-tions should be fulfilled through the IMU:



LI respond to requests of countries channelledthrough the NCU for technical and investmentassistance, within the framework of the ActionProgramme;

• coordinate the responses within the UN System, inorder to provide the most appropriate and effec-tive assistance and service;

• consult with multilateral and bilateral donor com-munities on provision of the necessary support tomeet, the governments' requests.

Development Stages of the Programme

The proposed ten-year TAP-WASAD must be imple-mented with flexibility, yet the development must bedirected. Tn order to achieve its goals, a sequence ofimportant stages of development of the programme or'programme cycle' is suggested (.see diagram on previouspage). The programme cycle is divided into three phases,namely, planning, implementation and follow-upphases.

As can be seen in the Programme Cycle, a majoractivity in the planning phase is 'the joint country mis-sions' of the UN organizations and donors. Tt is foreseenthat these missions which will be undertaken as 'water-sector' programming missions involving various TINorganizations, will identify projects in the context, of mul-tipurpose water development and use and in relation tonational water use master plans. The missions arc-expected to result in a portfolio of projects in the watersector, of which this Action Programme will act uponthose which fall within the five identified priority actions.

Following the preparation of a portfolio of projects, itis intended to convene a donor meeting to seek fundingsupport from multinational and bilateral agencies. Thismeeting will be convened under the auspices of theACC-ISGWR at which projects that would fall under thevarious action programmes of the Mar del Plata ActionPlan Strategy will be reviewed jointly by the nationalgovernments, donors and UN organizations. A successfulconclusion of this meeting will lead to the launching ofthe action programmes of the Mar del Plata Action Planfor the 1990s.


REFERENCESFAO 1989a Sustainable Development and Natural Resources. FAO confer-

ence, 25th Session, Document C89/2, FAO, Rome.

FAO 1989b FAO Production Yearbook. Vol. 43, FAO Rome.

FAO 1988 World Agriculture Toward 2000: an FAO study. N. Alexandratos

(éd.). Bellhaven Press, London.

Smedema L. K. 1990 Proceedings of the Symposium on Land Drainageand Salinity Control in Arid and Semi-arid Regions. Vol 1, Cairo.

Lawrence A. D. and Kuruppuarachchi K. 1986 Impact of Agriculture onGroundwater Quality in Kalpitiya. Sri Lanka. Brit. Geol. Survey, Open FileReport, WD/OS/86.

FA01986 Consultation on irrigation in Africa. Irrigation and Drainage Paper42, FAO, Rome.

UN 1980 United Nations Organizations and Water. UN, New York

PHOTOGRAPHSpage 16: The late J. G. Thirion, FAOpage 19: S. F. Scott, FAOpage 22: FAO Photo Librarypage 25: FAO Photo Librarypage 27: FAO Photo Library

77i/s publication was designed and produced by Words and Publications, Oxford, UK.

• ' •™S3f Í : ' "

A Strategy for the implementation of theMar dei Plata Action Plan for the 1990s

M/U1108/E/7.91/2/2000

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