8/20/2019 29. Conscience http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/29-conscience 1/53 Conscience Vincent van Gogh, 1890. Kröller-Müller Museum. The Good Samaritan (after elacroi!". #or other uses, see $onscience (%isam&iguation". 'cru)les' re%irects here. #or other uses, see scru)le (%isam&iguation". *ot to &e confuse% +ith consciousness . Conscience is an a)titu%e, facult, intuition or u%gment that assists in %istinguishing right from +rong. Moral u%gment ma %erive from values or norms ()rinci)les an% rules". n )schological terms conscience is often %escri&e% as lea%ing to feelings of remorse +hen a human commits actions that go against his/her moral values an% to feelings of rectitu%e or integrit +hen actions conform to such norms.1 2he e!tent to +hich conscience informs moral u%gment &efore an action an% +hether such moral u%gments are or shoul% &e &ase% in reason has occasione% %e&ate through much of the histor of 3estern )hiloso)h.4 5eligious vie+s of conscience usuall see it as lin6e% to a moralit inherent in all humans, to a &eneficent universe an%/or to %ivinit. 2he %iverse ritualistic, mthical, %octrinal, legal, institutional an% material features of religion ma not necessaril cohere +ith e!)eriential, emotive, s)iritual or contem)lative consi%erations a&out the origin an% o)eration of conscience. 7 $ommon secular or scientific vie+s regar% the ca)acit for conscience as )ro&a&l geneticall %etermine%, +ith its su&ect )ro&a&l learne% or im)rinte% (li6e language" as )art of a culture.$ommonl use% meta)hors for conscience inclu%e the voice +ithin an% the inner light. : $onscience, as is %etaile% in sections &elo+, is a conce)t in national an% international la+, ; is increasingl conceive% of as a))ling to the +orl% as a +hole,< has motivate% numerous nota&le acts for the )u&lic goo%8 an% &een the su&ect of man )rominent e!am)les of literature, music an% film. 9 Contents • 1 5eligious, secular an% )hiloso)hical vie+s a&out conscience • 4 5eligious vie+s • 7 ecular vie+s • 7.1 $onscience as societ-forming instincts
Vincent van Gogh, 1890. Kröller-Müller Museum. The Good Samaritan (after elacroi!".#or other uses, see $onscience (%isam&iguation". 'cru)les' re%irects here. #or other uses, see scru)le
(%isam&iguation". *ot to &e confuse% +ith consciousness.
Conscience is an a)titu%e, facult, intuition or u%gment that assists in %istinguishing right from +rong.Moral u%gment ma %erive from values or norms ()rinci)les an% rules". n )schological termsconscience is often %escri&e% as lea%ing to feelings of remorse +hen a human commits actions that goagainst his/her moral values an% to feelings of rectitu%e or integrit +hen actions conform to suchnorms.1 2he e!tent to +hich conscience informs moral u%gment &efore an action an% +hether suchmoral u%gments are or shoul% &e &ase% in reason has occasione% %e&ate through much of the histor of 3estern )hiloso)h.4
5eligious vie+s of conscience usuall see it as lin6e% to a moralit inherent in all humans, to a
&eneficent universe an%/or to %ivinit. 2he %iverse ritualistic, mthical, %octrinal, legal, institutionalan% material features of religion ma not necessaril cohere +ith e!)eriential, emotive, s)iritual orcontem)lative consi%erations a&out the origin an% o)eration of conscience.7 $ommon secular orscientific vie+s regar% the ca)acit for conscience as )ro&a&l geneticall %etermine%, +ith its su&ect )ro&a&l learne% or im)rinte% (li6e language" as )art of a culture.
$ommonl use% meta)hors for conscience inclu%e the voice +ithin an% the inner light.: $onscience, as is %etaile% in sections &elo+, is a conce)t in national an% international la+,; isincreasingl conceive% of as a))ling to the +orl% as a +hole,< has motivate% numerous nota&le actsfor the )u&lic goo%8 an% &een the su&ect of man )rominent e!am)les of literature, music an% film.9
• : $onscientious acts an% the la+ • ; 3orl% conscience • < *ota&le e!am)les of mo%ern acts &ase% on conscience • 8 $onscience in literature, art, film, an% music • 9 ee also • 10 5eferences • 11 =!ternal lin6s
Religious, secular and philosophical views about conscience
#urther information? @rigins of moralit an% Moralit
Although humanit has no generall acce)te% %efinition of conscience or universal agreement a&out itsrole in ethical %ecision-ma6ing, three a))roaches have a%%resse% it?4
#urther information? 5eligious &elief , >hiloso)h of religion an% )iritualit
eate% Bu%%ha, Gan%hara, 4n% centur $=. 2he Bu%%ha lin6e% conscience +ith com)assion for those+ho must en%ure cravings an% suffering in the +orl% until right con%uct culminates in rightmin%fulness an% right contem)lation.
Marcus Aurelius &ronCe fragment, Douvre, >aris? 2o move from one unselfish action to another +ithGo% in min%. @nl there, %elight an% stillness.
n the literar tra%itions of the E)anisha%s, Brahma utras an% the Bhagava% Gita, conscience is thela&el given to attri&utes com)osing 6no+le%ge a&out goo% an% evil, that a soul acFuires from thecom)letion of acts an% conseFuent accretion of 6arma over man lifetimes.10 Accor%ing to A%ihan6ara in his Vekachudamani morall right action (characterise% as hum&l an% com)assionatel )erforming the )rimar %ut of goo% to others +ithout e!)ectation of material or s)iritual re+ar%",hel)s )urif the heart an% )rovi%e mental tranFuilit &ut it alone %oes not give us %irect )erce)tionof the 5ealit.11 2his 6no+le%ge reFuires %iscrimination &et+een the eternal an% non-eternal an%eventuall a realiCation in contem)lation that the true self merges in a universe of )ure consciousness.14
n the oroastrian faith, after %eath a soul must face u%gment at the Bridge of the Separator H there, evil )eo)leare tormente% & )rior %enial of their o+n higher nature, or conscience, an% to all time +ill the &e guests for
the House of the Lie.17 2he $hinese conce)t of 5en, in%icates that conscience, along +ith social etiFuette an%correct relationshi)s, assist humans to follo+ The Way (2ao" a mo%e of life reflecting the im)licit humanca)acit for goo%ness an% harmon.1
$onscience also features )rominentl in Bu%%hism.1: n the >ali scri)tures, for e!am)le, Bu%%ha lin6s the )ositive as)ect of conscience to a )ure heart an% a calm, +ell-%irecte% min%? +hen the min%is face to face +ith the 2ruth, a self-luminous spark of thought is reveale% at the inner core of ourselvesan%, & analog, all realit.1; 2he Bu%%ha also associate% conscience +ith com)assion for those+ho must en%ure cravings an% suffering in the +orl% until right con%uct culminates in rightmin%fulness an% right contem)lation.1< anti%eva (;8:I<;7 $=" +rote in the Bo%hicaravatara (+hich he com)ose% an% %elivere% in the great northern n%ian Bu%%hist universit of *alan%a" of thes)iritual im)ortance of )erfecting virtues such as generosit, for&earance an% training the a+areness to
&e li6e a &loc6 of +oo% +hen attracte% & vices such as )ri%e or lustH so one can continue a%vancingto+ar%s right un%erstan%ing in me%itative a&sor)tion.18 Conscience thus manifests in Bu%%hism asunselfish love for all living &eings +hich gra%uall intensifies an% a+a6ens to a )urer a+areness 19 +here the min% +ith%ra+s from sensor interests an% &ecomes a+are of itself as a single +hole. 40
2he 5oman =m)eror Marcus Aurelius +rote in his Meditations that conscience +as the human ca)acitto live & rational )rinci)les that +ere congruent +ith the true, tranFuil an% harmonious nature of ourmin% an% there& that of the Eniverse? "To move from one unselfish action to another with God in
mind. Only there, delight and stillness ... the only rewards of our existence here are an unstained
Dast )age of GhaCali's auto&iogra)h in M stan&ul, hehi% Ali >asha 1<14, %ate% A.J. :09 111:I 111;. GhaCali's crisis of e)istemological s6e)ticism +as resolve% & a light +hich Go% Most Jigh
cast into m &reast ... the 6e to most 6no+le%ge.2he slamic conce)t of Taqwa is closel relate% to conscience. n the LurNn verses 4?19< O 44?7<2aF+a refers to right con%uct or )iet, guar%ing of oneself or guar%ing against evil.44 LurNnverse <?1< sas that Go% is the ultimate source of the &eliever's taF+N +hich is not sim)l the )ro%uctof in%ivi%ual +ill &ut reFuires ins)iration from Go%.47 n LurNn verses 91?<I8, Go% the Almighttal6s a&out ho+ Je has )erfecte% the soul, the conscience an% has taught it the +rong (fuPr" an% right(taF+N". Jence, the a+areness of vice an% virtue is inherent in the soul, allo+ing it to &e teste% fairl inthe life of this +orl% an% trie%, hel% accounta&le on the %a of u%gment for res)onsi&ilities to Go% an%all humans.4
LurNn ura 9. urah al-Juurat, 9?17 %eclares? come to 6no+ each other, the no&lest of ou, in thesight of Go%, are the ones )ossessing taF+Q.
LurNn verse 9?17 states? @ human6in%R 3e have create% ou out of male an% female an% constitute%ou into %ifferent grou)s an% societies, so that ou ma come to 6no+ each other-the no&lest of ou, inthe sight of Go%, are the ones )ossessing taF+N. n slam, accor%ing to eminent theologians such asAl-GhaCali, although events are or%aine% (an% +ritten & Go% in al-Da+h al-MahfPC, the reser!ed
Ta"#et ", humans )ossess free +ill to choose &et+een +rong an% right, an% are thus res)onsi&le for their
actionsH the conscience &eing a %namic )ersonal connection to Go% enhance% & 6no+le%ge an% )ractise of the #ive >illars of slam, %ee%s of )iet, re)entance, self-%isci)line an% )raerH an%%isintegrate% an% meta)horicall covere% in &lac6ness through sinful acts. 4: Marshall Jo%gson +rotethe three-volume +or6? The Venture of $s#am% Conscience and History in a Wor#d Ci!i#i&ation.4;
n the >rotestant $hristian tra%ition, Sohn $alvin sa+ conscience as a &attlegroun%? ... the enemies+ho rise u) in our conscience against his King%om an% hin%er his %ecrees )rove that Go%'s throne is
not firml esta&lishe% therein.4< Man $hristians regar% follo+ing one's conscience as im)ortant as,or even more im)ortant than, o&eing human authorit.48 A fun%amentalist $hristian vie+ ofconscience might &e? 'Go% gave us our conscience so +e +oul% 6no+ +hen +e &rea6 Jis Da+H theguilt +e feel +hen +e %o something +rong tells us that +e nee% to re)ent.'49 2his can sometimes (as+ith the conflict &et+een 3illiam 2n%ale an% 2homas More over the translation of the Bi&le into=nglish" lea% to moral Fuan%aries? o unreserve%l o&e m $hurch/)riest/militar/)olitical lea%eror %o follo+ m o+n inner feeling of right an% +rong as instructe% & )raer an% a )ersonal rea%ingof scri)tureT70 ome contem)orar $hristian churches an% religious grou)s hol% the moralteachings of the 2en $omman%ments or of Sesus as the highest authorit in an situation, regar%less ofthe e!tent to +hich it involves res)onsi&ilities in la+.71 n the Gos)el of Sohn (<?:7I8?11" (KingSames Version" Sesus challenges those accusing a +oman of a%ulter stating? 'Je that is +ithout sin
among ou, let him first cast a stone at her.' An% again he stoo)e% %o+n, an% +rote on the groun%. An%the +hich hear% it, &eing convicte% & their o+n conscience, +ent out one & one (see Sesus an% the+oman ta6en in a%ulter". n the Gos)el of Du6e (10? 4:I7<" Sesus tells the stor of ho+ a %es)ise%an% heretical amaritan (see >ara&le of the Goo% amaritan" +ho (out of com)assion an% conscience"hel)s an inure% stranger &esi%e a roa%, Fualifies &etter for eternal life & loving his neigh&or, than a )riest +ho )asses & on the other si%e.74
*i6iforos Dtras, 'ntigone in front of the dead o#ynices (18;:", oil on canvas, *ational Galler ofGreece-Ale!an%ros outCos Museum.
2his %ilemma of o&e%ience in conscience to %ivine or state la+, +as %emonstrate% %ramaticall inAntigone's %efiance of King $reon's or%er against &uring her &rother an allege% traitor, a))ealing tothe un+ritten la+ an% to a longer allegiance to the %ea% than to the living.77
$atholic theolog sees conscience as the last )ractical u%gment of reason +hich at the a))ro)riatemoment enoins a )erson to %o goo% an% to avoi% evil.7 2hus, conscience is not li6e the +ill, nora ha&it li6e )ru%ence, &ut the interior s)ace in +hich +e can listen to an% hear the truth, the goo%, the
voice of Go%. t is the inner )lace of our relationshi) +ith Jim, +ho s)ea6s to our heart an% hel)s us to%iscern, to un%erstan% the )ath +e ought to ta6e, an% once the %ecision is ma%e, to move for+ar%, toremain faithful7: n terms of logic, conscience can &e vie+e% as the )ractical conclusion of a moralsllogism +hose maor )remise is an o&ective norm an% +hose minor )remise is a )articular case orsituation to +hich the norm is a))lie%. 2hus, $atholics are taught to carefull e%ucate themselves as toreveale% norms an% norms %erive% therefrom, so as to form a correct conscience. $atholics are also toe!amine their conscience %ail an% +ith s)ecial care &efore confession. $atholic teaching hol%s that,Man has the right to act accor%ing to his conscience an% in free%om so as )ersonall to ma6e moral%ecisions. Je must not &e force% to act contrar to his conscience. *or must he &e )revente% from
acting accor%ing to his conscience, es)eciall in religious matters.7; 2his right of conscience %oesnot allo+ one to ar&itraril %isagree +ith $hurch teaching an% claim that one is acting in accor%ance+ith conscience. A sincere conscience )resumes one is %iligentl see6ing moral truth from authenticsources, that is, see6ing to conform oneself to that moral truth & listening to the authorit esta&lishe% & $hrist to teach it. *evertheless, %es)ite one's &est effort, it can ha))en that moral conscienceremains in ignorance an% ma6es erroneous u%gments a&out acts to &e )erforme% or alrea%
committe% ... 2his ignorance can often &e im)ute% to )ersonal res)onsi&ilit ... n such cases, the )erson is cul)a&le for the +rong he commits.7< ome $atholics a))eal to conscience in or%er to ustif %issent, not on the level of conscience )ro)erl un%erstoo%, &ut on the level of the )rinci)les an%norms +hich are su))ose% to inform conscience. #or e!am)le, some )riests ma6e on the use of the so-calle% internal forum solution (+hich is not sanctione% & the Magisterium" to ustif actions orlifestles incom)ati&le +ith $hurch teaching, such as $hrist's )rohi&ition of remarriage after %ivorce or se!ual activit outsi%e marriage. 2he $atholic $hurch has +arne% that reection of the $hurch'sauthorit an% her teaching ... can &e at the source of errors in u%gment in moral con%uct.78
Su%aism argua&l %oes not reFuire uncom)romising o&e%ience to religious authoritH the case has &eenma%e that throughout Se+ish histor ra&&is have circumvente% la+s the foun% unconsciona&le, suchas ca)ital )unishment.79 imilarl, although an occu)ation +ith national %estin has &een central to
the Se+ish faith (see ionism" man scholars (inclu%ing Moses Men%elssohn" state% that conscience asa )ersonal revelation of scri)tural truth +as an im)ortant a%unct to the 2almu%ic tra%ition.0 1 2heconce)t of inner light in the 5eligious ociet of #rien%s or Lua6ers is associate% +ith conscience.: #reemasonr %escri&es itself as )rovi%ing an a%unct to religion an% 6e sm&ols foun% in a #reemasonDo%ge are the square an% compasses e!)laine% as )rovi%ing lessons that Masons shoul% sFuare theiractions & the sFuare of conscience, learn to circumscri&e their %esires an% 6ee) their )assions +ithin%ue &oun%s to+ar% all man6in%.4 2he historian Manning $lar6 vie+e% conscience as one of thecomforters that religion )lace% &et+een man an% %eath &ut also a crucial )art of the Fuest for graceencourage% & the Boo6 of So& an% the Boo6 of =cclesiastes, lea%ing us to &e )ara%o!icall closest tothe truth +hen +e sus)ect that +hat matters most in life (&eing there +hen everone su%%enlun%erstan%s +hat it has all &een for" .7 Deo 2olsto, after a %eca%e stu%ing the issue (18<<I188<",
hel% that the onl )o+er ca)a&le of resisting the evil associate% +ith materialism an% the %rive forsocial )o+er of religious institutions, +as the ca)acit of humans to reach an in%ivi%ual s)iritual truththrough reason an% conscience. Man )rominent religious +or6s a&out conscience also have asignificant )hiloso)hical com)onent? e!am)les are the +or6s of Al-GhaCali,: Avicenna,; AFuinas,< Sose)h Butler8 an% ietrich Bonhoeffer9 (all %iscusse% in the )hiloso)hical vie+ssection".
llustration of #ranUois $hifflart (184:I1901" for La Conscience (& Victor Jugo"
$harles ar+in thought that an animal en%o+e% +ith +ell-mar6e% social instincts +oul% inevita&lacFuire a moral sense or conscience, as its intellectual )o+ers a))ro!imate% man's.
2he secular a))roach to conscience inclu%es )schological, )hsiological, sociological, humanitarian an% authoritarian vie+s.1 Da+rence Kohl&erg consi%ere% critica# conscience to &e an im)ortant )schological stage in the )ro)er moral %evelo)ment of humans, associate% +ith the ca)acit torationall +eigh )rinci)les of res)onsi&ilit, &eing &est encourage% in the ver oung & lin6age +ithhumorous )ersonifications (such as Simin $ric6et" an% later in a%olescents & %e&ates a&outin%ivi%uall )ertinent moral %ilemmas.:0 =ri6 =ri6son )lace% the %evelo)ment of conscience in the')re-schooler' )hase of his eight stages of normal human )ersonalit %evelo)ment.:1 2he )schologist Martha tout terms conscience an intervening sense of o&ligation &ase% in our emotionalattachments.:4 2hus a goo% conscience is associate% +ith feelings of integrit, )schological+holeness an% )eacefulness an% is often %escri&e% using a%ectives such as Fuiet, clear an% eas.:7
igmun% #reu% regar%e% conscience as originating )schologicall from the gro+th of civilisation,+hich )erio%icall frustrate% the e!ternal e!)ression of aggression? this %estructive im)ulse &eingforce% to see6 an alternative, health outlet, %irecte% its energ as a su)erego against the )erson's o+nego or selfishness (often ta6ing its cue in this regar% from )arents %uring chil%hoo%". : Accor%ingto #reu%, the conseFuence of not o&eing our conscience is guilt, +hich can &e a factor in the%evelo)ment of neurosisH #reu% claime% that &oth the cultural an% in%ivi%ual su)er-ego set u) stricti%eal %eman%s +ith regar% to the moral as)ects of certain %ecisions, %iso&e%ience to +hich )rovo6es a'fear of conscience'.::
Antonio amasio consi%ers conscience an as)ect of e!ten%e% consciousness &eon% survival-relate%%is)ositions an% incor)orating the search for truth an% %esire to &uil% norms an% i%eals for &ehavior.:;
Conscience as society!forming instincts
Serem Bentham? #anaticism has )resse% conscience into its service.
Michel Glautier argues that conscience is one of the instincts an% %rives +hich ena&le )eo)le to formsocieties? grou)s of humans +ithout these %rives or in +hom the are insufficient cannot form societiesan% %o not re)ro%uce their 6in% as successfull as those that %o.:<
3ar criminal A%olf =ichmann in )ass)ort use% to enter Argentina? his conscience s)o6e +ith the
res)ecta&le voice of the in%octrinate% +artime German societ that surroun%e% him.
$harles ar+in consi%ere% that conscience evolve% in humans to resolve conflicts &et+een com)etingnatural im)ulses-some a&out self-)reservation &ut others a&out safet of a famil or communitH theclaim of conscience to moral authorit emerge% from the greater %uration of im)ression of socialinstincts in the struggle for survival.:8 n such a vie+, &ehavior %estructive to a )erson's societ (either to its structures or to the )ersons it com)rises" is &a% or evil.:9 2hus, conscience can &evie+e% as an outcome of those &iological %rives that )rom)t humans to avoi% )rovo6ing fear orcontem)t in othersH &eing e!)erience% as guilt an% shame in %iffering +as from societ to societ an%
)erson to )erson.;0 A reFuirement of conscience in this vie+ is the ca)acit to see ourselves from the )oint of vie+ of another )erson.;1 >ersons una&le to %o this ( )scho)aths, socio)aths, narcissists"therefore often act in +as +hich are evil.;4
#un%amental in this vie+ of conscience is that humans consi%er some other as &eing in a socia#re#ationship. 2hus, nationalism is invo6e% in conscience to Fuell tri&al conflict an% the notion of aBrotherhoo% of Man is invo6e% to Fuell national conflicts. et such cro+% %rives ma not onl
over+helm &ut re%efine in%ivi%ual conscience. #rie%rich *ietCsche state%? communal soli%arit isannihilate% & the highest an% strongest %rives that, +hen the &rea6 out )assionatel, +hi) thein%ivi%ual far )ast the average lo+ level of the 'her%-conscience.';7 Serem Bentham note% that?fanaticism never slee)s ... it is never sto))e% & conscienceH for it has )resse% conscience into itsservice.; Jannah Aren%t in her stu% of the trial of A%olf =ichmann in Serusalem, notes that theaccuse%, as +ith almost all his fello+ Germans, ha% lost trac6 of his conscience to the )oint +here thehar%l remem&ere% itH this +asn't cause% & familiarit +ith atrocities or & )schologicall re%irectingan resultant natural )it to themselves for having to &ear such an un)leasant %ut, so much as & thefact that anone +hose conscience %i% %evelo) %ou&ts coul% see no one +ho share% them? =ichmann%i% not nee% to close his ears to the voice of conscience ... not &ecause he ha% none, &ut &ecause hisconscience s)o6e +ith a res)ecta&le voice, +ith the voice of the res)ecta&le societ aroun% him. ;:
An interesting area of research in this conte!t concerns the similarities &et+een our relationshi)s an%those of animals, +hether animals in human societ ( )ets, +or6ing animals, even animals gro+n forfoo%" or in the +il%.;; @ne i%ea is that as )eo)le or animals )erceive a social relationshi) asim)ortant to )reserve, their conscience &egins to res)ect that former other, an% urge actions that )rotect it.;< ;8 imilarl, in com)le! territorial an% coo)erative &ree%ing &ir% communities (such asthe Australian mag)ie" that have a high %egree of etiFuettes, rules, hierarchies, )la, songs an%negotiations, rule-&rea6ing seems tolerate% on occasions not o&viousl relate% to survival of thein%ivi%ual or grou)H &ehaviour often a))earing to e!hi&it a touching gentleness an% ten%erness .;9
volutionary biology and physics
$ontem)orar scientists in etholog an% evolutionar )scholog see6 to e!)lain conscience as afunction of the &rain that evolve% to facilitate altruism +ithin societies.<0
n his &oo6 The God (e#usion, 5ichar% a+6ins states that he agrees +ith 5o&ert Jin%e's Why Good is
Good , Michael hermer 's The Science of Good and )!i# , 5o&ert Buc6man's Can We Be Good Without
God* an% Marc Jauser 's Mora# Minds, that our sense of right an% +rong can &e %erive% from ourar+inian )ast.<1 $hristo)her Jitchens in God is +ot Great has argue% that Mo%ern vernacular%escri&es conscience I not too &a%l I as +hatever it is that ma6es us &ehave +ell +hen no&o% isloo6ing ... 2hose +ho &elieve that the e!istence of conscience is a )roof of a go%l %esign area%vancing an argument that sim)l cannot &e %is)rove% &ecause there is no evi%ence for or againstit.<4 $ontroversial &iologist Serem Griffith has %efine% conscience as the voice of our s)ecies'
instinctive moral sense that +as acFuire% &efore the )schologicall trou&le% state of the humancon%ition emerge%.<7 $harles Dine+eaver has argue% that our i%eas of goo% an% evil, an% ourconsciences that +e rel on to hel) us ma6e moral %ecisions (li6e >innochios Simin $ric6et", arefeatures of consciousness that have evolve% un%er selection )ressure, ust li6e s6in color, intestinal )Jan% fingernail gro+th rates.<
#euroscience and artificial conscience
*umerous case stu%ies of &rain %amage have sho+n that %amage to areas of the &rain (such as theanterior )refrontal corte!" results in the re%uction or elimination of inhi&itions, +ith a corres)on%ing
ra%ical change in &ehaviour.<: 3hen the %amage occurs to a%ults, the ma still &e a&le to )erformmoral reasoningH &ut +hen it occurs to chil%ren, the ma never %evelo) that a&ilit.<; <<
Attem)ts have &een ma%e & neuroscientists to locate the free +ill necessar for +hat is terme% the'veto' of conscience over unconscious mental )rocesses (see *euroscience of free +ill an% BenaminDi&et" in a scientificall measura&le a+areness of an intention to carr out an act occurring 7:0I00microsecon%s after the electrical %ischarge 6no+n as the 'rea%iness )otential.'<8 <9 80
SacFues >itrat claims that some 6in% of artificial conscience is &eneficial in artificial intelligence sstems to im)rove their long-term )erformance an% %irect their intros)ective )rocessing.81
$hilosophical views
#urther information? #ree +ill, $om)ati&ilism an% incom)ati&ilism, eterminism, Di&ertarianism(meta)hsics", 2heor of ustification, Virtue ethics, Metaethics, Moral motivation an% *ormativeethics
2he +or% conscience %erives etmologicall from the Datin conscientia, meaning )rivit of6no+le%ge84 or +ith-6no+le%ge. 2he =nglish +or% im)lies internal a+areness of a moral
stan%ar% in the min% concerning the Fualit of one's motives, as +ell as a consciousness of our o+nactions.87 2hus conscience consi%ere% )hiloso)hicall ma &e first, an% )erha)s most commonl, alargel une!amine% gut feeling or vague sense of guilt a&out +hat ought to &e or shoul% have &een%one. $onscience in this sense is not necessaril the )ro%uct of a )rocess of rational consi%eration ofthe moral features of a situation (or the a))lica&le normative )rinci)les, rules or la+s" an% can arisefrom )arental, )eer grou), religious, state or cor)orate in%octrination, +hich ma or ma not &e )resentl consciousl acce)ta&le to the )erson (tra%itional conscience".8 Conscience ma &e%efine% as the )ractical reason em)loe% +hen a))ling moral convictions to a situation (criticalconscience".8: n )ur)orte%l morall mature mstical )eo)le +ho have %evelo)e% this ca)acitthrough %ail contem)lation or me%itation com&ine% +ith selfless service to others, critica# conscience can &e ai%e% & a s)ar6 of intuitive insight or revelation (calle% marifa in slamic ufi )hiloso)h an%
sn%eresis in me%ieval $hristian scholastic moral )hiloso)h".8; 8< Conscience is accom)anie% ineach case & an internal a+areness of 'inner light' an% a))ro&ation or 'inner %ar6ness' an%con%emnation as +ell as a resulting conviction of right or %ut either follo+e% or %ecline%.88
%edieval philosophical views
2he me%ieval slamic scholar an% mstic Al-GhaCali %ivi%e% the conce)t of +afs (soul or self(s)iritualit"" into three categories: &ase% on the Luran?
1. *afs Ammarah (14?:7" +hich e!horts one to freel in%ulge in gratifing )assions an%instigates to %o evil
4. *afs Da+ammah (<:?4" +hich is the conscience that %irects man to+ar%s right or +rong
7. *afs Mutmainnah (89?4<" +hich is a self that reaches the ultimate )eace2he me%ieval >ersian )hiloso)her an% )hsician Muhamma% i&n a6aria al-5aCi &elieve% in a closerelationshi) &et+een conscience or s)iritual integrit an% )hsical healthH rather than &eing self-in%ulgent, man shoul% )ursue 6no+le%ge, use his intellect an% a))l ustice in his life.89 2heme%ieval slamic )hiloso)her Avicenna, +hilst im)risone% in the castle of #ar%aan near Jama%han,+rote his famous isolate%-&ut-a+a6e #loating Man sensor %e)rivation thought e!)eriment toe!)lore the i%eas of human self-a+areness an% the su&stantialit of the soulH his h)othesis &eing that itis through intelligence, )articularl the active intellect, that Go% communicates truth to the human min%
or conscience.; Accor%ing to the slamic ufis conscience allo+s Allah to gui%e )eo)le to themarifa, the )eace or light u)on light e!)erience% +here a Muslim's )raers lea% to a melting a+a ofthe self in the inner 6no+le%ge of Go%H this foresha%o+ing the eternal >ara%ise %e)icte% in the LurNn.90
2he #lemish mstic San van 5us&roec6 vie+e% a )ure conscience as facilitating an outflo+ing losingof oneself in the a&ss of that eternal o&ect +hich is the highest an% chief &lesse%ness
ome me%ieval $hristian scholastics such as Bonaventure ma%e a %istinction &et+een conscience as arational facult of the min% ( )ractical reason" an% inner a+areness, an intuitive s)ar6 to %o goo%,calle% synderesis arising from a remnant a))reciation of a&solute goo% an% +hen consciousl %enie%(for e!am)le to )erform an evil act", &ecoming a source of inner torment .8< =arl mo%erntheologians such as 3illiam >er6ins an% 3illiam Ames %evelo)e% a sllogistic un%erstan%ing of theconscience, +here Go%'s la+ ma%e the first term, the act to &e u%ge% the secon% an% the action of theconscience (as a rational facult" )ro%uce% the u%gement. B %e&ating test cases a))ling suchun%erstan%ing conscience +as traine% an% refine% (i.e. casuistr".91
2he me%ieval >ersian )hiloso)her &n ina (Avicenna" %evelo)e% a sensor %e)rivation thoughte!)eriment to e!)lore the relationshi) &et+een conscience an% Go%
n the 17th centur, t. 2homas AFuinas regar%e% conscience as the a))lication of moral 6no+le%ge toa )articular case (.2. , F. <9, a. 17". 2hus, conscience +as consi%ere% an act or u%gment of )racticalreason that &egan +ith sn%eresis, the structure% %evelo)ment of our innate remnant a+areness of
a&solute goo% (+hich he categorise% as involving the five )rimar )rece)ts )ro)ose% in his theor of *atural Da+" into an acFuire% ha&it of a))ling moral )rinci)les.< Accor%ing to inger, AFuinashel% that conscience, or conscientia +as an im)erfect )rocess of u%gment a))lie% to activit &ecause6no+le%ge of the natural la+ (an% all acts of natural virtue im)licit therein" +as o&scure% in most )eo)le & e%ucation an% custom that )romote% selfishness rather than fello+-feeling (Summa
Theo#ogiae, I, ".94 AFuinas also %iscusse% conscience in relation to the virtue of )ru%ence to
e!)lain +h some )eo)le a))ear to &e less morall enlightene% than others, their +ea6 +ill &einginca)a&le of a%eFuatel &alancing their o+n nee%s +ith those of others.97
AFuinas reasone% that acting contrar to conscience is an evil action &ut an errant conscience is onl &lame+orth if it is the result of cul)a&le or vinci&le ignorance of factors that one has a %ut to have6no+le%ge of.94 AFuinas also argue% that conscience shoul% &e e%ucate% to act to+ar%s real goo%s(from Go%" +hich encourage% human flourishing, rather than the a))arent goo%s of sensor )leasures.94 n his Commentary on Aristotle's *icomachean =thics AFuinas claime% it +as +ea6 +ill thatallo+e% a non-virtuous man to choose a )rinci)le allo+ing )leasure ahea% of one reFuiring moralconstraint.9
2homas A Kem)is in the me%ieval contem)lative classic The $mitation of Christ (ca 118" state% thatthe glor of a goo% man is the +itness of a goo% conscience. >reserve a Fuiet conscience an% ou +illal+as have o. A Fuiet conscience can en%ure much, an% remains oful in all trou&le, &ut an evilconscience is al+as fearful an% uneas.9: 2he anonmous me%ieval author of the $hristianmstical +or6 2he $lou% of En6no+ing similarl e!)resse% the vie+ that in )rofoun% an% )rolonge%contem)lation a soul %ries u) the root an% groun% of the sin that is al+as there, even after one'sconfession an% ho+ever &us one is in hol things? therefore, +hoever +oul% +or6 at &ecoming acontem)lative must first cleanse his or her conscience.9; 2he me%ieval #lemish mstic Sohn of5us&roec6 li6e+ise hel% that true conscience has four as)ects that are necessar to ren%er a man ustin the active an% contem)lative life? a free s)irit, attracting itself through loveH an intellectenlightene% & grace, a %elight iel%ing )ro)ension or inclination an% an outflo+ing losing ofoneself in the a&ss of ... that eternal o&ect +hich is the highest an% chief &lesse%ness ... those loftamongst men, are a&sor&e% in it, an% immerse% in a certain &oun%less thing.9<
%odern philosophical ideas
cho)enhauer consi%ere% that the goo% conscience +e e!)erience after an unselfish act verifies that our true self e!ists outsi%e our )hsical )erson
(com)assion an% see6ing goo% for another" in conscience (also lin6e% to the aga)e of situationalethics".8 $onscience ten%e% to &e more authoritative in Fuestions of moral u%gment, thought Butler, &ecause it +as more li6el to &e clear an% certain (+hereas calculations of self-interest ten%e% to )ro&a&le an% changing conclusions".10 Sohn el%en in his Ta"#e Ta#k e!)resse% the vie+ that ana+a6e &ut e!cessivel scru)ulous or ill-traine% conscience coul% hin%er resolve an% )ractical actionH it &eing li6e a horse that is not +ell +ae%, he starts at ever &ir% that flies out of the he%ge.10:
As the sacre% te!ts of ancient Jin%u an% Bu%%hist )hiloso)h &ecame availa&le in German translationsin the 18th an% 19th centuries, the influence% )hiloso)hers such as cho)enhauer to hol% that in ahealth min% onl %ee%s o))ress our conscience, not +ishes an% thoughtsH for it is onl our %ee%s thathol% us u) to the mirror of our +illH the good conscience, thought cho)enhauer, +e e!)erience afterever %isintereste% %ee% arises from %irect recognition of our o+n inner &eing in the )henomenon ofanother, it affor%s us the verification that our true self e!ists not onl in our o+n )erson, this )articular manifestation, &ut in everthing that lives. B this the heart feels itself enlarge%, as & egotism it iscontracte%.10;
mmanuel Kant, a central figure of the Age of =nlightenment, li6e+ise claime% that t+o things fille%his min% +ith ever ne+ an% increasing a%miration an% a+e, the oftener an% more stea%il the +erereflecte% on? the starr heavens a&ove me an% the moral la+ +ithin me ... the latter &egins from minvisi&le self, m )ersonalit, an% e!hi&its me in a +orl% +hich has true infinit &ut +hich recognisemself as e!isting in a universal an% necessar (an% not onl, as in the first case, contingent"connection.10< 2he 'universal connection' referre% to here is Kant's categorical im)erative? act onlaccor%ing to that ma!im & +hich ou can at the same time +ill that it shoul% &ecome a universalla+.108 Kant consi%ere% critica# conscience to &e an internal court in +hich our thoughts accuse ore!cuse one anotherH he ac6no+le%ge% that morall mature )eo)le %o often %escri&e contentment or )eace in the soul after follo+ing conscience to )erform a %ut, &ut argue% that for such acts to )ro%ucevirtue their )rimar motivation shoul% sim)l &e %ut, not e!)ectation of an such &liss.109 5ousseaue!)resse% a similar vie+ that conscience someho+ connecte% man to a greater meta)hsical unit. Sohn>lamenatC in his critical e!amination of 5ousseau's +or6 consi%ere% that conscience +as there %efine%as the feeling that urges us, in s)ite of contrar )assions, to+ar%s t+o harmonies? the one +ithin our
min%s an% &et+een our )assions, an% the other +ithin societ an% &et+een its mem&ersH the +ea6estcan a))eal to it in the strongest, an% the a))eal, though often unsuccessful, is al+as %istur&ing.Jo+ever, corru)te% & )o+er or +ealth +e ma &e, either as )ossessors of them or as victims, there issomething in us serving to remin% us that this corru)tion is against nature.110
Sohn Doc6e vie+e% the +i%es)rea% social fact of conscience as a ustification for natural rights.
A%am mith? conscience sho+s +hat relates to ourselves in its )ro)er sha)e an% %imensions
amuel Sohnson (1<<:" state% that *o man's conscience can tell him the right of another man.@ther )hiloso)hers e!)resse% a more sce)tical an% )ragmatic vie+ of the o)eration of conscience insociet.111 Sohn Doc6e in his )ssays on the Law of +ature argue% that the +i%es)rea% fact of humanconscience allo+e% a )hiloso)her to infer the necessar e!istence of o&ective moral la+s thatoccasionall might contra%ict those of the state.114 Doc6e highlighte% the metaethics )ro&lem of+hether acce)ting a statement li6e follo+ our conscience su))orts su&ectivist or o&ectivist conce)tions of conscience as a gui%e in concrete moralit, or as a s)ontaneous revelation of eternal an%immuta&le )rinci)les to the in%ivi%ual? if conscience &e a )roof of innate )rinci)les, contraries ma &einnate )rinci)lesH since some men +ith the same &ent of conscience )rosecute +hat others avoi%.117 2homas Jo&&es li6e+ise )ragmaticall note% that o)inions forme% on the &asis of conscience +ith fullan% honest conviction, nevertheless shoul% al+as &e acce)te% +ith humilit as )otentiall erroneous
an% not necessaril in%icating a&solute 6no+le%ge or truth.11 3illiam Go%+in e!)resse% the vie+that conscience +as a memora&le conseFuence of the )erce)tion & men of ever cree% +hen the%escen% into the scene of &us life that the )ossess free +ill.11: A%am mith consi%ere% that it +asonl & %evelo)ing a critica# conscience that +e can ever see +hat relates to ourselves in its )ro)ersha)e an% %imensionsH or that +e can ever ma6e an )ro)er com)arison &et+een our o+n interests an%those of other )eo)le.11; Sohn tuart Mill &elieve% that i%ealism a&out the role of conscience ingovernment shoul% &e tem)ere% +ith a )ractical realisation that fe+ men in societ are ca)a&le of%irecting their min%s or )ur)oses to+ar%s %istant or uno&vious interests, of %isintereste% regar% forothers, an% es)eciall for +hat comes after them, for the i%ea of )osterit, of their countr, or of
humanit, +hether groun%e% on sm)ath or on a conscientious feeling.11< Mill hel% that certainamount of conscience, an% of %isintereste% )u&lic s)irit, ma fairl &e calculate% on in the citiCens ofan communit ri)e for re)resentative government, &ut that it +oul% &e ri%iculous to e!)ect such a%egree of it, com&ine% +ith such intellectual %iscernment, as +oul% &e )roof against an )lausi&lefallac ten%ing to ma6e that +hich +as for their class interest a))ear the %ictate of ustice an% of thegeneral goo%.11<
Sosiah 5oce (18::I191;" &uilt on the transcen%ental i%ealism vie+ of conscience, vie+ing it as thei%eal of life +hich constitutes our moral )ersonalit, our )lan of &eing ourself, of ma6ing commonsense ethical %ecisions. But, he thought, this +as onl true insofar as our conscience also reFuire%loalt to a msterious higher or %ee)er self.118 n the mo%ern $hristian tra%ition this a))roachachieve% e!)ression +ith ietrich Bonhoeffer +ho state% %uring his im)risonment & the *aCis in3orl% 3ar that conscience for him +as more than )ractical reason, in%ee% it came from a %e)th+hich lies &eon% a man's o+n +ill an% his o+n reason an% it ma6es itself hear% as the call of humane!istence to unit +ith itself.119 #or Bonhoeffer a gui#ty conscience arose as an in%ictment of theloss of this unit an% as a +arning against the loss of one's selfH )rimaril, he thought, it is %irecte% notto+ar%s a )articular 6in% of %oing &ut to+ar%s a )articular mo%e of &eing. t )rotests against a %oing+hich im)erils the unit of this &eing +ith itself.9 Conscience for Bonhoeffer %i% not, li6e shame,
em&race or )ass u%gment on the moralit of the +hole of its o+ner's lifeH it reacte% onl to certain%efinite actions? it recalls +hat is long )ast an% re)resents this %isunion as something +hich is alrea%accom)lishe% an% irre)ara&le.140 2he man +ith a conscience, he &elieve%, fights a lonel &attleagainst the over+helming forces of inesca)a&le situations +hich %eman% moral %ecisions %es)ite theli6elihoo% of a%verse conseFuences.140 imon olovechi6 has similarl claime% that the truth %istri&ute% in the +orl%, as the statement a&out human %ignit, as the affirmation of the line &et+eengoo% an% evil, lives in )eo)le as conscience.141
ietrich Bonhoeffer (1974"
Jannah Aren%t? a &a% conscience %oes not necessaril signif a &a% character
As Jannah Aren%t )ointe% out, ho+ever, (follo+ing the utilitarian Sohn tuart Mill on this )oint"? a &a%conscience %oes not necessaril signif a &a% characterH in fact onl those +ho affirm a commitment toa))ling moral stan%ar%s +ill &e trou&le% +ith remorse, guilt or shame & a &a% conscience an% their
nee% to regain integrit an% +holeness of the self .144 147 5e)resenting our soul or true self &analog as our house, Aren%t +rote that conscience is the antici)ation of the fello+ +ho a+aits ou ifan% +hen ou come home.14 Aren%t &elieve% that )eo)le +ho are unfamiliar +ith the )rocess ofsilent critical reflection a&out +hat the sa an% %o +ill not min% contra%icting themselves & animmoral act or crime, since the can count on its &eing forgotten the ne!t momentH &a% )eo)le are notfull of regrets.14 Aren%t also +rote eloFuentl on the )ro&lem of languages %istinguishing the +or%
consciousness from conscience. @ne reason, she hel%, +as that conscience, as +e un%erstan% it inmoral or legal matters, is su))ose%l al+as )resent +ithin us, ust li6e consciousness? an% thisconscience is also su))ose% to tell us +hat to %o an% +hat to re)entH &efore it &ecame the #umen
natura#e or Kant's )ractical reason, it +as the voice of Go%.14:
Al&ert =instein, as a self-)rofesse% a%herent of humanism an% rationalism, li6e+ise vie+e% anenlightene% religious )erson as one +hose conscience reflects that he has, to the &est of his a&ilit,li&erate% himself from the fetters of his selfish %esires an% is )reoccu)ie% +ith thoughts, feelings an%as)irations to +hich he clings &ecause of their su)er-)ersonal value.14; =instein often referre% tothe inner voice as a source of &oth moral an% )hsical 6no+le%ge? Luantum mechanics is verim)ressive. But an inner voice tells me that it is not the real thing. 2he theor )ro%uces a goo% %eal &uthar%l &rings one closer to the secrets of the @l% @ne. am at all events convince% that Je %oes not )la %ice.14<
imone 3eil +ho fought for the #rench resistance (the MaFuis" argue% in her final &oo6 The +eed for
,oots% re#ude to a (ec#aration of (uties Towards Mankind that for societ to &ecome more ust an% )rotective of li&ert, o&ligations shoul% ta6e )rece%ence over rights in moral an% )olitical )hiloso)han% a s)iritual a+a6ening shoul% occur in the conscience of most citiCens, so that social o&ligations arevie+e% as fun%amentall having a transcen%ent origin an% a &eneficent im)act on human character+hen fulfille%.148 149 imone 3eil also in that +or6 )rovi%e% a )schological e!)lanation for themental )eace associate% +ith a good conscience? the li&ert of men of goo%+ill, though limite% in the
s)here of action, is com)lete in that of conscience. #or, having incor)orate% the rules into their o+n &eing, the )rohi&ite% )ossi&ilities no longer )resent themselves to the min%, an% have not to &ereecte%.170
Alternatives to such meta)hsical an% i%ealist o)inions a&out conscience arose from realist an%materialist )ers)ectives such as those of $harles ar+in. ar+in suggeste% that an animal +hatever,en%o+e% +ith +ell-mar6e% social instincts, the )arental an% filial affections &eing here inclu%e%, +oul%inevita&l acFuire a moral sense or conscience, as soon as its intellectual )o+ers ha% &ecome as +ell,or as nearl as +ell %evelo)e%, as in man.171 Wmile ur6heim hel% that the soul an% conscience+ere )articular forms of an im)ersonal )rinci)le %iffuse% in the relevant grou) an% communicate% &
totemic ceremonies.174 AS Aer +as a more recent realist +ho hel% that the e!istence of conscience +as an em)irical Fuestion to &e ans+ere% & sociological research into the moral ha&its of a given )erson or grou) of )eo)le, an% +hat causes them to have )recisel those ha&its an% feelings. uch aninFuir, he &elieve%, fell +holl +ithin the sco)e of the e!isting social sciences.177 George =%+ar%Moore &ri%ge% the i%ealistic an% sociological vie+s of 'critical' an% 'tra%itional' conscience in statingthat the i%ea of a&stract 'rightness' an% the various %egrees of the s)ecific emotion e!cite% & it are +hat
constitute, for man )ersons, the s)ecificall 'moral sentiment' or conscience. #or others, ho+ever, anaction seems to &e )ro)erl terme% 'internall right', merel &ecause the have )reviousl regar%e% it asright, the i%ea of 'rightness' &eing )resent in some +a to his or her min%, &ut not necessaril among hisor her %eli&eratel constructe% motives.17
2he #rench )hiloso)her imone %e Beauvoir in ' Very )asy (eath (-ne mort tr.s douce, 19;"reflects +ithin her o+n conscience a&out her mother's attem)ts to %evelo) such a moral sm)ath an%un%erstan%ing of others.17:
2he sight of her tears grieve% meH &ut soon realise% that she +as +ee)ing over her failure, +ithoutcaring a&out +hat +as ha))ening insi%e me ... 3e might still have come to an un%erstan%ing if,instea% of as6ing ever&o% to )ra for m soul, she ha% given me a little confi%ence an% sm)ath.
6no+ no+ +hat )revente% her from %oing so? she ha% too much to )a &ac6, too man +oun%s tosalve, to )ut herself in another's )lace. n actual %oing she ma%e ever sacrifice, &ut her feelings %i%not ta6e her out of herself. Besi%es, ho+ coul% she have trie% to un%erstan% me since she avoi%e%loo6ing into her o+n heartT As for %iscovering an attitu%e that +oul% not have set us a)art, nothing inher life ha% ever )re)are% her for such a thing? the une!)ecte% sent her into a )anic, &ecause she ha% &een taught never to thin6, act or feel e!ce)t in a rea%-ma%e frame+or6.
X imone %e Beauvoir. ' Very )asy (eath. >enguin Boo6s. Don%on. 1984. ). ;0.
Michael 3alCer claime% that the gro+th of religious toleration in 3estern nations arose amongst otherthings, from the general recognition that )rivate conscience signifie% some inner %ivine )resenceregar%less of the religious faith )rofesse% an% from the general res)ecta&ilit, )iet, self-limitation, an%
sectarian %isci)line +hich mar6e% most of the men +ho claime% the rights of conscience.17; 3alCeralso argue% that attem)ts & courts to %efine conscience as a merel )ersonal moral co%e or as sincere &elief, ris6e% encouraging an anarch of moral egotisms, unless such a co%e an% motive +asnecessaril tem)ere% +ith share% moral 6no+le%ge? %erive% either from the connection of thein%ivi%ual to a universal s)iritual or%er, or from the common )rinci)les an% mutual engagements ofunselfish )eo)le.17< 5onal% +or6in maintains that constitutional )rotection of free%om ofconscience is central to %emocrac &ut creates )ersonal %uties to live u) to it? #ree%om of conscience )resu))oses a )ersonal res)onsi&ilit of reflection, an% it loses much of its meaning +hen thatres)onsi&ilit is ignore%. A goo% life nee% not &e an es)eciall reflective oneH most of the &est lives are ust live% rather than stu%ie%. But there are moments that cr out for self-assertion, +hen a )assive &o+ing to fate or a mechanical %ecision out of %eference or convenience is treacher, &ecause it forfeits
%ignit for ease.178 =%+ar% $onCe state% it is im)ortant for in%ivi%ual an% collective moral gro+ththat +e recognise the illusion of our conscience &eing +holl locate% in our &o%H in%ee% &oth ourconscience an% +is%om e!)an% +hen +e act in an unselfish +a an% conversel re)resse%com)assion results in an unconscious sense of guilt.179
2he )hiloso)her >eter inger consi%ers that usuall +hen +e %escri&e an action as conscientious in thecritical sense +e %o so in or%er to %en either that the relevant agent +as motivate% & selfish %esires,li6e gree% or am&ition, or that he acte% on +him or im)ulse.10
Moral anti-realists %e&ate +hether the moral facts necessar to activate conscience su)ervene onnatural facts +ith a posteriori necessitH or arise a priori &ecause moral facts have a )rimar intensionan% naturall i%entical +orl%s ma &e )resume% morall i%entical.11 t has also &een argue% that
there is a measure of moral luc6 in ho+ circumstances create the o&stacles +hich conscience mustovercome to a))l moral )rinci)les or human rights an% that +ith the &enefit of enforcea&le )ro)ertrights an% the rule of la+, access to universal health care )lus the a&sence of high a%ult an% infantmortalit from con%itions such as malaria, tu&erculosis, JV/A an% famine, )eo)le in relativel )ros)erous %evelo)e% countries have &een s)are% )angs of conscience associate% +ith the )hsicalnecessit to steal scra)s of foo%, &ri&e ta! ins)ectors or )olice officers, an% commit mur%er in guerrilla +ars against corru)t government forces or re&el armies.14 crutton has claime% that trueun%erstan%ing of conscience an% its relationshi) +ith mora#ity has &een ham)ere% & an im)etuous &elief that )hiloso)hical Fuestions are solve% through the analsis of language in an area +here claritthreatens veste% interests.17 usan ontag similarl argue% that it +as a sm)tom of )schological immaturit not to recognise that man morall immature )eo)le +illingl e!)erience a form of %elight,
in some an erotic &rea6ing of ta&oo, +hen +itnessing violence, suffering an% )ain &eing inflicte% onothers.1 Sonathan Glover +rote that most of us %o not s)en% our lives on en%less lan%sca)egar%ening of our self an% our conscience is li6el sha)e% not so much & heroic struggles, as &choice of )artner, frien%s an% o&, as +ell as +here +e choose to live.1: Garrett Jar%in in a famousarticle calle% trage% of the commons argue% that an instance in +hich societ a))eals to anin%ivi%ual e!)loiting a commons to restrain himself or herself for the general goo%-& means of his orher conscience- merel sets u) a sstem +hich, & selectivel %iverting societal )o+er an% )hsicalresources to those lac6ing in conscience, +hile fostering guilt (inclu%ing an!iet a&out his or herin%ivi%ual contri&ution to over-)o)ulation" in )eo)le acting u)on it, actuall +or6s to+ar% theelimination of conscience from the race.1; 1<
Sohn 5alston aul? consumers ris6 turning over their conscience to technical e!)erts an% to thei%eolog of free mar6ets
Sohn 5alston aul e!)resse% the vie+ in The -nconscious Ci!i#i&ation that in contem)orar %evelo)e%nations man )eo)le have acFuiesce% in turning over their sense of right an% +rong, their critica#
conscience, to technical e!)ertsH +illingl restricting their moral free%om of choice to limite% consumer actions rule% & the i%eolog of the free mar6et, +hile citiCen )artici)ation in )u&lic affairs is limite% tothe isolate% act of voting an% )rivate-interest lo&&ing turns even electe% re)resentatives against the )u&lic interest.18
ome argue on religious or )hiloso)hical groun%s that it is &lame+orth to act against conscience, evenif the u%gement of conscience is li6el to &e erroneous (sa &ecause it is ina%eFuatel informe% a&outthe facts, or )revailing moral (humanist or religious", )rofessional ethical, legal an% human rightsnorms".19 #ailure to ac6no+le%ge an% acce)t that conscientious u%gements can &e seriouslmista6en, ma onl )romote situations +here one's conscience is mani)ulate% & others to )rovi%e
un+arrante% ustifications for non-virtuous an% selfish actsH in%ee%, insofar as it is a))eale% to asglorifing i%eological content, an% an associate% e!treme level of %evotion, +ithout a%eFuate constraintof e!ternal, altruistic, normative ustification, conscience ma &e consi%ere% morall &lin% an%%angerous &oth to the in%ivi%ual concerne% an% humanit as a +hole.1:0 Dangston argues that )hiloso)hers of virtue ethics have unnecessaril neglecte% conscience for, once conscience is traine% sothat the )rinci)les an% rules it a))lies are those one +oul% +ant all others to live &, its )ractisecultivates an% sustains the virtuesH in%ee%, amongst )eo)le in +hat each societ consi%ers to &e thehighest state of moral %evelo)ment there is little %isagreement a&out ho+ to act.4 =mmanuel Devinas vie+e% conscience as a revelator encountering of resistance to our selfish )o+ers, %evelo)ing moralit & calling into Fuestion our naive sense of free%om of +ill to use such )o+ers ar&itraril, or +ithviolence, this )rocess &eing more severe the more rigorousl the goal of our self +as to o&tain control.
1:1 n other +or%s, the +elcoming of the /ther , to Devinas, +as the ver essence of conscience )ro)erl conceive%H it encourage% our ego to acce)t the falli&ilit of assuming things a&out other )eo)le, that selfish free%om of +ill %oes not have the last +or% an% that realising this has atranscen%ent )ur)ose? am not alone ... in conscience have an e!)erience that is not commensurate+ith an a )riori see a )riori an% a )osteriori frame+or6-a conce)tless e!)erience.1:1
Jenr avi% 2horeau? Must the citiCen ever for a moment, or in the least %egree, resign his conscienceto the legislatorT
Enust la+s e!istH shall +e &e content to o&e them, or shall +e en%eavour to amen% them, an% oðem until +e have succee%e%, or shall +e transgress them at onceT ... A man has not everthing to %o &ut somethingH an% &ecause he cannot %o e!erything , it is not necessar that he shoul% %o something
+rong ... t is for no )articular item in the ta! &ill that refuse to )a it. sim)l +ish to refuseallegiance to the tate, to +ith%ra+ an% stan% aloof from it effectuall. %o not care to trace thecourse of m %ollar if coul%, till it &us a man, or a mus6et to shoot one +ithXthe %ollar is innocent X&ut am concerne% to trace the effects of m allegiance ... Must the citiCen ever for a moment, or inthe least %egree, resign his conscience to the legislatorT 3h has ever man a conscience, thenT
n the econ% 3orl% 3ar , Great Britain grante% conscientious-o&ection status not ust to com)lete )acifists, &ut to those +ho o&ecte% to fighting in that )articular +arH this +as %one )artl out ofgenuine res)ect, &ut also to avoi% the %isgraceful an% futile )ersecutions of conscientious o&ectors that
occurre% %uring the #irst 3orl% 3ar .1;7Amnest nternational organises cam)aigns to )rotect those arreste% an% or incarcerate% as a )risonerof conscience &ecause of their conscientious &eliefs, )articularl concerning intellectual, )olitical an%artistic free%om of e!)ression an% association.1; Aung an uu Ki of Burma, +as the +inner ofthe 4009 Amnest nternational Am&assa%or of $onscience A+ar%. n legislation, a conscience clause is a )rovision in a statute that e!cuses a health )rofessional from com)ling +ith the la+ (for e!am)lelegalising surgical or )harmaceutical a&ortion" if it is incom)ati&le +ith religious or conscientious &eliefs.1;: =!)resse% ustifications for refusing to o&e la+s &ecause of conscience var. Manconscientious o&ectors are so for religious reasonsXnota&l, mem&ers of the historic )eace churches are )acifist & %octrine. @ther o&ections can stem from a %ee) sense of res)onsi&ilit to+ar% humanitas a +hole, or from the conviction that even acce)tance of +or6 un%er militar or%ers ac6no+le%gesthe )rinci)le of conscri)tion that shoul% &e ever+here con%emne% &efore the +orl% can ever &ecomesafe for real %emocrac.1;; A conscientious o&ector, ho+ever, %oes not have a )rimar aim ofchanging the la+.1:< Sohn e+e consi%ere% that conscientious o&ectors +ere often the victims ofmoral innocenc an% ine!)ertness in moral training? the moving force of events is al+as too muchfor conscience.1;< 2he reme% +as not to %e)lore the +ic6e%ness of those +ho mani)ulate +orl% )o+er, &ut to connect conscience +ith forces moving in another %irection- to &uil% institutions an%social environments )re%icate% on the rule of la+, for e!am)le, then +ill conscience itself havecom)ulsive )o+er instea% of &eing forever the martre% an% the coerce%. 1;< As an e!am)le, Al&ert=instein +ho ha% a%vocate% conscientious o"4ection %uring the #irst 3orl% 3ar an% ha% &een a
longterm su))orter of 3ar 5esisters' nternational reasone% that ra%ical )acifism coul% not &e ustifie% in the face of *aCi rearmament an% a%vocate% a +orl% fe%eralist organiCation +ith its o+n )rofessional arm.1;8 amuel Sohnson )ointe% out that an a))eal to conscience shoul% not allo+ thela+ to &ring unust suffering u)on another. Conscience, accor%ing to Sohnson, +as nothing more than aconviction felt & ourselves of something to &e %one or something to &e avoi%e%H in Fuestions of sim)leun)er)le!e% moralit, conscience is ver often a gui%e that ma &e truste%.1;9 But &efore conscience
can conclusivel %etermine +hat morall shoul% &e %one, he thought that the state of the Fuestionshoul% &e thoroughl 6no+n.1;9 *o man's conscience, sai% Sohnson can tell him the right ofanother man ... it is a conscience ver ill informe% that violates the rights of one man, for theconvenience of another.1;9
Gan%hi in *oa6hali, 19;? civil resistance or satagraha
Glo&al +arming )rotestors in $hicago 4008
$hiune ugihara )ractise% conscientious noncomp#iance in issuing visas to fleeing Se+s in Dithuania in
*AA climate scientist Sames Jansen arreste% in 4011 for civil %iso&e%ience against la+s allo+ing atar san%s oil )i)eline
$ivil %iso&e%ience as non-violent )rotest or civil resistance are also acts of conscience, &ut are%esigne% & those +ho un%erta6e them chiefl to change, & a))ealing to the maorit an% %emocratic )rocesses, la+s or government )olicies )erceive% to &e incoherent +ith fun%amental social virtues an% )rinci)les (such as ustice, eFualit or res)ect for intrinsic human %ignit".1<0 $ivil %iso&e%ience, ina )ro)erl functioning %emocrac, allo+s a minorit +ho feel strongl that a la+ infringes their senseof ustice (&ut have no ca)acit to o&tain legislative amen%ments or a referen%um on the issue" to ma6ea )otentiall a)athetic or uninforme% maorit ta6e account of the intensit of o))osing vie+s.1<1 Anota&le e!am)le of civil resistance or satagraha (sata in sans6rit means truth an% com)assion,agraha means firmness of +ill" involve% Mahatma Gan%hi ma6ing salt in n%ia +hen that act +as )rohi&ite% & a British statute, in or%er to create moral )ressure for la+ reform.1<4 5osa >ar6s similarl acte% on conscience in 19:: in Montgomer, Ala&ama refusing a legal or%er to give u) herseat to ma6e room for a +hite )assengerH her action (an% the similar earlier act of 1:-ear-ol% $lau%ette$olvin" lea%ing to the Montgomer Bus Bocott.1<7 5achel $orrie +as a E citiCen allege%l 6ille% & a &ull%oCer o)erate% & the srael efense #orces (#" +hile involve% in %irect action (&ase% onthe non-violent )rinci)les of Martin Duther King an% Mahatma Gan%hi" to )revent %emolition of thehome of local >alestinian )harmacist amir *asrallah.1< Al Gore has argue% f ou're a oung )erson loo6ing at the future of this )lanet an% loo6ing at +hat is &eing %one right no+, an% not %one, &elieve +e have reache% the stage +here it is time for civil %iso&e%ience to )revent the construction ofne+ coal )lants that %o not have car&on ca)ture an% seFuestration.1<: n 4011, *AA climatescientist Sames =. Jansen, environmental lea%er >hil 5a%for% an% >rofessor Bill McKi&&en +erearreste% for o))osing a tar san%s oil )i)eline1<; 1<< an% $ana%ian rene+a&le energ )rofessor Mar6 Saccar% +as arreste% for o))osing mountain-to) coal miningH1<8 in his &oo6 torms of mGran%chil%ren Jansen calls for similar civil resistance on a glo&al scale to hel) re)lace the '&usiness-as-usual' Koto >rotocol ca) an% tra%e sstem, +ith a )rogressive car&on ta! at emission source on theoil, gas an% coal in%ustries I revenue &eing )ai% as %ivi%en%s to lo+ car&on foot)rint families.1<9180 181
*ota&le historical e!am)les of conscientious noncomp#iance in a %ifferent )rofessional conte!tinclu%e% the mani)ulation of the visa )rocess in 1979 & Sa)anese $onsul-General $hiune ugihara inKaunas (the tem)orar ca)ital of Dithuania &et+een German an% the oviet Enion" an% & 5aoul3allen&erg in Jungar 1n 19184 to allo+ Se+s to esca)e almost certain %eath.187 Jo #eng-hanthe $hinese $onsul-General in Vienna in 1979, %efie% or%ers from the $hinese am&assa%or in Berlin to
issue Se+s +ith visas for hanghai.18 Sohn 5a&e a German mem&er of the *aCi >art li6e+isesave% thousan%s of $hinese from massacre & the Sa)anese militar at *an6ing.18: 2he 3hite 5ose German stu%ent movement against the *aCis %eclare% in their th leaflet? 3e +ill not &e silent. 3e areour &a% conscience. 2he 3hite 5ose +ill not leave ou in )eaceR18; Conscientious noncomp#iance ma &e the onl )ractical o)tion for citiCens +ishing to affirm the e!istence of an international moralor%er or 'core' historical rights (such as the right to life, right to a fair trial an% free%om of o)inion" in
states +here non-violent )rotest or civil %iso&e%ience are met +ith )rolonge% ar&itrar %etention, torture, force% %isa))earance, mur%er or )ersecution.18< 2he controversial Milgram e!)eriment intoo&e%ience & tanle Milgram sho+e% that man )eo)le lac6 the )schological resources to o)enlresist authorit, even +hen the are %irecte% to act callousl an% inhumanel against an innocent victim.188
=%en >roect I large-scale environmental com)le!. t Austell, $orn+all EK.
3orl% conscience is the universalist i%ea that +ith rea% glo&al communication, all )eo)le on earth +illno longer &e morall estrange% from one another, +hether it &e culturall, ethnicall, or geogra)hicallHinstea% the +ill conceive ethics from the uto)ian )oint of vie+ of the universe, eternit or infinit,rather than have their %uties an% o&ligations %efine% & forces arising solel +ithin the restrictive &oun%aries of '&loo% an% territor.'<
@ften this %erives from a s)iritual or natural la+ )ers)ective, that for +orl% )eace to &e achieve%,conscience, )ro)erl un%erstoo%, shoul% &e generall consi%ere% as not necessaril lin6e% (often%estructivel" to fun%amentalist religious i%eologies, &ut as an as)ect of universal consciousness, access to +hich is the common heritage of humanit.189 2hin6ing )re%icate% on the %evelo)ment ofwor#d conscience is common to mem&ers of the Glo&al =covillage *et+or6 such as the #in%horn#oun%ation, international conservation organisations li6e #auna an% #lora nternational, as +ell as )erformers of +orl% music such as Alan tivell.190 *on-government organiCations, )articularlthrough their +or6 in agen%a-setting, )olic-ma6ing an% im)lementation of human rights-relate% )olic, have &een referre% to as the conscience of the +orl%191
=%+ar% @ 3ilson has %evelo)e% the i%ea of consilience to encourage coherence of glo&al moral an%scientific 6no+le%ge su))orting the )remise that onl unifie% learning, universall share%, ma6es
accurate foresight an% +ise choice )ossi&le.194 2hus, wor#d conscience is a conce)t that overla)s+ith the Gaia h)othesis in a%vocating a &alance of moral, legal, scientific an% economic solutions tomo%ern transnational )ro&lems such as glo&al )overt an% climate change, through strategies such asenvironmental ethics, climate ethics, natural conservation, ecolog, cosmo)olitanism, sustaina&ilit an%sustaina&le %evelo)ment, &ioseFuestration an% legal )rotection of the &ios)here an% &io%iversit.19719 19: 19; 19< 2he *G@ 7:0.org, for e!am)le, see6s to attract +orl% conscience to the
)ro&lems associate% +ith elevation in atmos)heric greenhouse gas concentrations.198 1992he microcre%it initiatives of *o&el >eace >riCe +inner Muhamma% unus have &een %escri&e% asins)iring a +ar on )overt that &len%s social conscience an% &usiness savv. 400
2he Green )art )olitician Bo& Bro+n (+ho +as arreste% & the 2asmanian state )olice for aconscientious act of civil %iso&e%ience %uring the #ran6lin am )rotest" e!)resses wor#d conscience inthese terms? the universe, through us, is evolving to+ar%s e!)eriencing, un%erstan%ing an% ma6ingchoices a&out its future'H one e!am)le of )olic outcomes from such thin6ing &eing a glo&al ta! (see2o&in ta!" to alleviate glo&al )overt an% )rotect the &ios)here, amounting to 1/10 of 1Y )lace% on the+orl%+i%e s)eculative currenc mar6et.401 uch an a))roach sees wor#d conscience &est e!)ressingitself through )olitical reforms )romoting %emocraticall &ase% glo&alisation or p#anetary democracy (for e!am)le internet voting for glo&al governance organisations (see +orl% government" &ase% on themo%el of one )erson, one vote, one value" +hich gra%uall +ill re)lace contem)orar mar6et-&ase%glo&alisation.404
nternet Ma). *inian mart )re%icts glo&al communication +ill facilitate wor#d conscience.
En%er+ater American nuclear test in the >acific. 3orl%+i%e e!)ressions of 'conscience' against suche!)losions cause% the #rench Government to cease atmos)heric tests at Mururoa for )olitical reasons.
2he American car%iologist Bernar% Do+n an% the 5ussian car%iologist evgeni $haCov +ere
motivate% in conscience through stu%ing the catastro)hic )u&lic health conseFuences of nuclear +ar inesta&lishing nternational >hsicians for the >revention of *uclear 3ar (>>*3" +hich +as a+ar%e%the *o&el >eace >riCe in 198: an% continues to +or6 to heal an ailing )lanet.4073orl% +i%e e!)ressions of conscience contri&ute% to the %ecision of the #rench government to haltatmos)heric nuclear tests at Mururoa in the >acific in 19< after 1 such e!)losions (although &elo+-groun% nuclear tests continue% there into the 1990s".40
A challenge to wor#d conscience +as )rovi%e% & an influential 19;8 article & Garrett Jar%in thatcriticall analCe% the %ilemma in +hich multi)le in%ivi%uals, acting in%e)en%entl after rationallconsulting self-interest (an%, he claime%, the a))arentl lo+ 'survival-of-the-fittest' value of
conscience-le% actions" ultimatel %estro a share% limite% resource, even though each ac6no+le%gessuch an outcome is not in anone's long-term interest.1; Jar%in's conclusion that commons areas are )ractica&l achieva&le onl in con%itions of lo+ )o)ulation %ensit (an% so their continuance reFuiresstate restriction on the free%om to &ree%", create% controvers a%%itionall through his %irect%e)recation of the role of conscience in achieving in%ivi%ual %ecisions, )olicies an% la+s that facilitateglo&al ustice an% )eace, as +ell as sustaina&ilit an% sustaina&le %evelo)ment of +orl% commons
areas, for e!am)le inclu%ing those officiall %esignate% such un%er Enite% *ations treaties (seecommon heritage of humanit".40: Areas %esignate% common heritage of humanit un%erinternational la+ inclu%e the Moon, @uter )ace, %ee) sea &e%, Antarctica, the +orl% cultural an%natural heritage (see 3orl% Jeritage $onvention" an% the human genome.40; t +ill &e a significantchallenge for wor#d conscience that as +orl% oil, coal, mineral, tim&er, agricultural an% +ater reservesare %e)lete%, there +ill &e increasing )ressure to commerciall e!)loit common heritage of man6in% areas.40<
arfur refugee cam) in $ha%? a challenge to the +orl%'s conscience.
2he )hiloso)her >eter inger has argue% that the Enite% *ations Millennium evelo)ment Goals re)resent the emergence of an ethics &ase% not on national &oun%aries &ut on the i%ea of one +orl%.408 *inian mart has similarl )re%icte% that the increase in glo&al travel an% communication +illgra%uall %ra+ the +orl%'s religions to+ar%s a )luralistic an% transcen%ental humanism characteriCe% & an o)en s)irit of em)ath an% com)assion.409
om&rero Gala!? A Enite% *ations treat %eclares @uter )ace the common heritage of humanit.Garrett Jar%in %ou&te% the ca)acit of conscience to )rotect such commons areas
*oam $homs6 has argue% that forces o))osing the %evelo)ment of such a +orl% conscience inclu%efree mar6et i%eologies that valorise cor)orate gree% in nominal electoral %emocracies +herea%vertising, sho))ing malls an% in%e&te%ness, sha)e citiCens into a)athetic consumers in relation toinformation an% access necessar for %emocratic )artici)ation.410 Sohn >assmore has argue% that
mstical consi%erations a&out the glo&al e!)ansion of all human consciousness, shoul% ta6e intoaccount that if as a s)ecies +e %o &ecome something much su)erior to +hat +e are no+, it +ill &e as aconseFuence of conscience not onl im)lanting a goal of moral )erfecti&ilit, &ut assisting us to remain )erio%icall an!ious, )assionate an% %iscontente%, for these are necessar com)onents of care an%com)assion.411 2he Committee on Conscience of the E Jolocaust Memorial Museum has targete%genoci%es such as those in 5+an%a, Bosnia, arfur , the $ongo an% $hechna as challenges to the+orl%'s conscience.414 @scar Arias ancheC has criticise% glo&al arms in%ustr s)en%ing as a failureof conscience & nation states? 3hen a countr %eci%es to invest in arms, rather than in e%ucation,housing, the environment, an% health services for its )eo)le, it is %e)riving a +hole generation of its
right to )ros)erit an% ha))iness. 3e have )ro%uce% one firearm for ever ten inha&itants of this )lanet, an% et +e have not &othere% to en% hunger +hen such a feat is +ell +ithin our reach. 2his isnot a necessar or inevita&le state of affairs. t is a %eli&erate choice (see $am)aign Against Arms2ra%e".417 E Jouse of 5e)resentatives )ea6er *anc >elosi, after meeting +ith the 1th alaiDama %uring the 4008 violent )rotests in 2i&et an% aftermath sai%? 2he situation in 2i&et is a challengeto the conscience of the +orl%.41 *elson Man%ela, through his e!am)le an% +or%s, has &een
%escri&e% as having sha)e% the conscience of the +orl%.41:2he 5ight Divelihoo% A+ar% is a+ar%e% earl in +e%en to those )eo)le, mostl strongl motivate% & conscience, +ho have ma%e e!em)lar )ractical contri&utions to resolving the great challengesfacing our )lanet an% its )eo)le.41; n 4009, for e!am)le, along +ith $atherine Jamlin (o&stetricfistula an% see fistula foun%ation"", avi% uCu6i ()romoting a+areness of climate change" an% Aln3are (nuclear %isarmament", 5enZ *gongo share% the 5ight Divelihoo% A+ar% for his courage inconfronting the forces that are %estroing the $ongo Basin's rainforests an% &uil%ing )olitical su))ortfor their conservation an% sustaina&le use.41< 418 AvaaC is one of the largest glo&al on-lineorganiCations launche% in Sanuar 400< to )romote conscience-%riven activism on issues such asclimate change, human rights, animal rights, corru)tion, )overt, an% conflict, thus closing the ga) &et+een the +orl% +e have an% the +orl% most )eo)le ever+here +ant.419
#otable examples of modern acts based on conscience
#urther information? Dist of nonviolence scholars an% lea%ers an% Dist of +histle&lo+ers
Graffiti )ortrait in 5amallah of mur%ere% Ara& cartoon artist *ai al-Ali
n a nota&le contem)orar act of conscience, $hristian &ush+al6er Bren%a Jean )roteste% against thefloo%ing of Da6e >e%%er %es)ite threats an% that ultimatel lea% to her %eath.440 Another +as thecam)aign & Ken aro-3i+a against oil e!traction & multinational cor)orations in *igeria that le% tohis e!ecution.441 o too +as the act & the 2an6 Man, or the En6no+n 5e&el )hotogra)he% hol%inghis sho))ing &ag in the )ath of tan6s %uring the )rotests at Beiing's 2iananmen Fuare on : Sune 1989.444 2he actions of Enite% *ations ecretar General ag Jammars6öl% to tr an% achieve )eace inthe $ongo %es)ite the (eventuating" threat to his life, +ere strongl motivate% & conscience as isreflecte% in his %iar, V[gm[r6en ( Markings".447 Another e!am)le involve% the actions of 3arrant@fficer Jugh 2hom)son, Sr to tr an% )revent the M Dai Massacre in the Vietnam 3ar .44 =van>e%eric6 voluntaril confesse% an% +as convicte% of the %ne Jilton &om&ing stating that his
conscience coul% not tolerate the guilt an% that guess +as Fuite uniFue in the )rison sstem in that ha% to 6ee) )roving m guilt, +hereas everone else sai% the +ere innocent. 44: Vasili Ar6hi)ov +as a 5ussian naval officer on out-of-ra%io-contact oviet su&marine B-:9 &eing %e)th-charge% & E+arshi)s %uring the $u&an Missile $risis +hose %issent +hen t+o other officers %eci%e% to launch anuclear tor)e%o (unanimous agreement to launch +as reFuire%" ma have averte% a nuclear +ar. 44; n 19;7 Bu%%hist mon6 2hich Luang uc )erforme% a famous act of self-immolation to )rotest againstallege% )ersecution of his faith & the Vietnamese *go inh iem regime.44<
$onscience )lae% a maor role in the actions & anaesthetist te)hen Bolsin to +histle&lo+ (see list of+histle&lo+ers" on incom)etent )ae%iatric car%iac surgeons at the Bristol 5oal nfirmar.448 Seffre3igan% +as motivate% & conscience to e!)ose the Big 2o&acco scan%al, revealing that e!ecutives of
the com)anies 6ne+ that cigarettes +ere a%%ictive an% a))rove% the a%%ition of carcinogenicingre%ients to the cigarettes.449 avi% Graham, a #oo% an% rug A%ministration em)loee, +asmotivate% & conscience to +histle&lo+ that the arthritis )ain-reliever Vio!! increase% the ris6 ofcar%iovascular %eaths although the manufacturer su))resse% this information.470 5ic6 >iltC from theE.. $limate $hange cience >rogram, &le+ the +histle on a 3hite Jouse official +ho ignore%maorit scientific o)inion to e%it a climate change re)ort (@ur $hanging >lanet" to reflect the Busha%ministration's vie+ that the )ro&lem +as unli6el to e!ist.471 Munta%har al-ai%i, an raFi ournalist, +as im)risone% an% allege%l torture% for his act of conscience in thro+ing his shoes atGeorge 3. Bush.474 Mor%echai Vanunu an sraeli former nuclear technician, acte% on conscience toreveal %etails of srael's nuclear +ea)ons )rogram to the British )ress in 198;H +as 6i%na))e% &sraeli agents, trans)orte% to srael, convicte% of treason an% s)ent 18 ears in )rison, inclu%ing more
Gravesite of *e%a Agha-oltan in Behesht-e ahra cemeter in ran
>rotests in n%ia against the 4014 elhi gang ra)e case
At the a+ar%s ceremon for the 400 metres at the 19;8 ummer @lm)ics in Me!ico $it Sohn $arlos,2ommie mith an% >eter *orman ignore% %eath threats an% official +arnings to ta6e )art in an anti-racism )rotest47 that %estroe% their res)ective careers.47: 3. Mar6 #elt an agent of the Enite%
tates #e%eral Bureau of nvestigation +ho retire% in 19<7 as the Bureau's Associate irector, acte% onconscience to )rovi%e re)orters Bo& 3oo%+ar% an% $arl Bernstein +ith information that resulte% in the
3atergate scan%al.47; $onscience +as a maor factor in E >u&lic Jealth ervice officer >eter Bu!tun revealing the 2us6egee s)hilis e!)eriment to the )u&lic.47< 2he 4008 attac6 & the sraeli
militar on civilian areas of >alestinian GaCa +as %escri&e% as a stain on the +orl%'s conscience.478$onscience +as a maor factor in the refusal of Aung an uu Ki to leave Burma %es)ite house arrest
an% )ersecution & the militar %ictatorshi) in that countr.479 Conscience +as a factor in >eter Gal&raith's criticism of frau% in the 4009 Afghanistan election %es)ite it costing him his Enite% *ations o&.40 $onscience motivate% Bunnatine Greenhouse to e!)ose irregularities in the contracting of the
Jalli&urton com)an for +or6 in raF.41 *ai al-Ali a )o)ular cartoon artist in the Ara& +orl%,love% for his %efense of the or%inar )eo)le, an% for his criticism of re)ression an% %es)otism & &oth
the sraeli militar an% asser Arafat's >D@, +as mur%ere% for refusing to com)romise +ith hisconscience.44 2he ournalist Anna >olit6ovs6aa )rovi%e% ()rior to her mur%er" an e!am)le of
conscience in her o))osition to the econ% $hechen 3ar an% then-5ussian >resi%ent Vla%imir >utin.47 $onscience motivate% the 5ussian human-rights activist *atalia =stemirova, +ho +as a&%ucte%
an% mur%ere% in GroCn, $hechna in 4009.4 2he eath of *e%a Agha-oltan arose fromconscience-%riven )rotests against the 4009 ranian )resi%ential election.4: #emale Muslim la+er
hirin =&a%i (+inner of the 4007 *o&el >eace >riCe" has &een %escri&e% as the 'conscience of theslamic 5e)u&lic' for her +or6 in )rotecting the human rights of +omen an% chil%ren in ran.4; 2he
human rights la+er Gao hisheng, often referre% to as the 'conscience of $hina' an% +ho ha% )reviousl &een arreste% an% allege%l torture% & the $hinese regime for %efen%ing mem&ers of the
#alun Gong, +as a&%ucte% & $hinese securit agents on #e&ruar 4009 an% has not &een seen since.4< 4010 *o&el >eace >riCe +inner Diu \iao&o in his final statement &efore &eing sentence% & a
close% $hinese court to over a %eca%e in ail as a )olitical )risoner of conscience state%? #or hatre% iscorrosive of a )ersons +is%om an% conscienceH the mentalit of enmit can )oison a nations
s)irit.48 ergei Magnits6, a la+er in 5ussia, +as arreste%, hel% +ithout trial for almost a ear an% %ie% in custo%, as a result of e!)osing corru)tion.49 @n ; @cto&er 4001 Daura 3hittle +as anaval gunner on JMA A%elai%e (##G 01" un%er or%ers to im)lement a ne+ &or%er )rotection )olic
+hen the encountere% the =V- (us)ecte% llegal =ntr Vessel-" refugee &oat in cho)) seas.After &eing or%ere% to fire +arning shots from her :0 cali&re machinegun to ma6e the &oat turn &ac6 she sa+ it &eginning to &rea6 u) an% sin6 +ith a father on &oar% hol%ing out his oung %aughter that
she might &e save% (see $hil%ren @ver&oar% Affair ". 3hittle um)e% +ithout a life vest 14 metres intothe sea to hel) save the refugees from %ro+ning thin6ing this isn't rightH this isn't ho+ things shoul%
&e.4:0 n #e&ruar 4014 ournalist Marie $olvin +as %eli&eratel targete% an% 6ille% & the rianArm in Joms %uring the 4011I4014 rian u)rising an% iege of Joms, after she %eci%e% to sta atthe e)icentre of the storm in or%er to e!)ose +hat is ha))ening.4:1 n @cto&er 4014 the 2ali&anorganise% the attem)te% mur%er of Malala ousafCai a teenage girl +ho ha% &een cam)aigning, %es)ite
their threats, for female e%ucation in >a6istan.4:4 n ecem&er 4014 the 4014 elhi gang ra)e case+as sai% to have stirre% the collective conscience of n%ia to civil %iso&e%ience an% )u&lic )rotest at thelac6 of legal action against ra)ists in that countr (see 5a)e in n%ia"4:7 4: n Sune 4017 =%+ar%no+%en reveale% %etails of a E *ational ecurit Agenc internet an% electronic communication>5M (surveillance )rogram" &ecause of a conscience-felt o&ligation to the free%om of humanit
greater than o&e%ience to the la+s that &oun% his em)loment.4:: 4:;
Conscience in literature, art, film, and music
#urther information? >hiloso)h an% literature
Anton >avlovich $he6hov. 2reta6ov Galler.
#o%or ostoevs6, author of Crime and unishment
2he ancient e)ic of the n%ian su&continent, the Maha&harata of Vasa, contains t+o )ivotal momentsof conscience. 2he first occurs +hen the +arrior Aruna &eing overcome +ith com)assion against6illing his o))osing relatives in +ar, receives counsel (see Bhagava%-Gita" from Krishna a&out hiss)iritual %ut (+or6 as though ou are )erforming a sacrifice for the general goo%". 4:< 2he secon%,at the en% of the saga, is +hen 6ing u%hishthira having alone survive% the moral tests of life, isoffere% eternal &liss, onl to refuse it &ecause a faithful %og is )revente% from coming +ith him &
)ur)orte% %ivine rules an% la+s.4:8 2he #rench author Montaigne (1:77I1:94" in one of the mostcele&rate% of his essas (@n e!)erience" e!)resse% the &enefits of living +ith a clear conscience?@ur %ut is to com)ose our character, not to com)ose &oo6s, to +in not &attles an% )rovinces, &utor%er an% tranFuillit in our con%uct. @ur great an% glorious master)iece is to live )ro)erl. 4:9 nhis famous Sa)anese travel ournal /ku no Hosomichi ( +arrow ,oad to the (eep +orth" com)ose% ofmi!e% hai6u )oetr an% )rose, Matsuo Basho (1;I9" in attem)ting to %escri&e the eternal in this
)erisha&le +orl% is often move% in conscienceH for e!am)le & a thic6et of summer grass &eing all thatremains of the %reams an% am&itions of ancient +arriors.4;0 $haucer 's #ran6lin's 2ale in The
Canter"ury Ta#es recounts ho+ a oung suitor releases a +ife from a rash )romise &ecause of theres)ect in his conscience for the free%om to &e truthful, gentle an% generous.4;1
=ug]ne elacroi!, Ham#et and Horatio in the Gra!eyard (1879, oil on canvas"
2he critic A. $. Bra%le %iscusses the central )ro&lem of ha6es)eare's tragic character Jamlet as one+here conscience in the form of moral scru)les %eters the oung >rince +ith his great an!iet to %oright from o&eing his father's hell-&oun% ghost an% mur%ering the usur)ing King (is't not )erfectconscience to Fuit him +ith this armT (v.ii.;<"".4;4
Bra%le %evelo)s a theor a&out Jamlet's moral agon relating to a conflict &et+een tra%itional an%critical conscience? 2he conventional moral i%eas of his time, +hich he share% +ith the Ghost, tol%him )lainl that he ought to avenge his fatherH &ut a %ee)er conscience in him, +hich +as in a%vance of his time, conten%e% +ith these e!)licit conventional i%eas. t is &ecause this %ee)er conscience remains &elo+ the surface that he fails to recognise it, an% fancies he is hin%ere% & co+ar%ice or sloth or )assion or +hat notH &ut it emerges into light in that s)eech to Joratio. An% it is ust &ecause he has thisno&ler moral nature in him that +e a%mire an% love him.4;7 2he o)ening +or%s of ha6es)eare'sonnet 9 (2he that have )o+'r to hurt, an% +ill %o none" have &een a%mire% as a %escri)tion ofconscience.4; o has Sohn onne's commencement of his )oem s%Goodfriday5 06072 ,iding
Westward ? Det man's soul &e a s)here, an% then, in this, 2h' intelligence that moves, %evotion isH4;:
Anton $he6hov in his )las The Seagu## , -nc#e Vanya an% Three Sisters %escri&es the torture%emotional states of %octors +ho at some )oint in their careers have turne% their &ac6 on conscience.4;; n his short stories, $he6hov also e!)lore% ho+ )eo)le misun%erstoo% the voice of a torture%conscience. A )romiscuous stu%ent, for e!am)le, in The 8it %escri&es it as a %ull )ain, in%efinite,vagueH it +as li6e anguish an% the most acute fear an% %es)air ... in his &reast, un%er the heart an% theoung %octor e!amining the misun%erstoo% agon of com)assion e!)erience% & the factor o+ner's%aughter in 8rom a Case Book calls it an un6no+n, msterious )o+er ... in fact close at han% an%+atching him.4;< $haracteristicall, $he6hov's o+n conscience %rove him on the long ourne toa6halin to recor% an% alleviate the harsh con%itions of the )risoners at that remote out)ost. As rina
5atushins6aa +rites in the intro%uction to that +or6? A&an%oning everthing, he travelle% to the%istant islan% of a6halin, the most feare% )lace of e!ile an% force% la&our in 5ussia at that time. @necannot hel) &ut +on%er +hT im)l, &ecause the lot of the )eo)le there +as a &itter one, &ecauseno&o% reall 6ne+ a&out the lives an% %eaths of the e!iles, &ecause he felt that the stoo% in greaternee% of hel) that anone else. A strange reason, ma&e, &ut not for a +riter +ho +as the e)itome of allthe &est tra%itions of a 5ussian man of letters. 5ussian literature has al+as focuse% on Fuestions of
conscience an% +as, therefore, a )o+erful force in the moul%ing of )u&lic o)inion.4;8=. J. $arr +rites of ostoevs6's character the oung stu%ent 5as6olni6ov in the novel Crime and unishment +ho %eci%es to mur%er a 'vile an% loathsome' ol% +oman mone len%er on the )rinci)le oftranscen%ing conventional morals? the seFuel reveals to us not the )angs of a stric6en conscience (+hich a less su&tle +riter +oul% have given us" &ut the tragic an% fruitless struggle of a )o+erfulintellect to maintain a conviction +hich is incom)ati&le +ith the essential nature of man.4;9
Jermann Jesse, author of Siddhartha.
Jermann Jesse +rote his Siddhartha to %escri&e ho+ a oung man in the time of the Bu%%ha follo+s
his conscience on a ourne to %iscover a transcen%ent inner s)ace +here all things coul% &e unifie%an% sim)l un%erstoo%, en%ing u) %iscovering that )ersonal truth through selfless service as aferrman.4<0 S. 5. 5. 2ol6ien in his e)ic The Lord of the ,ings %escri&es ho+ onl the ho&&it #ro%o is )ure enough in conscience to carr the ring of )o+er through +ar-torn Mi%%le-earth to %estruction inthe $rac6s of oom, #ro%o %etermining at the en% to ourne +ithout +ea)ons, an% &eing save% fromfailure & his earlier %ecision to s)are the life of the creature Gollum.4<1 $onor $ruise @'Brien +rotethat Al&ert $amus +as the +riter most re)resentative of the 3estern consciousness an% conscience inits relation to the non-3estern +orl%.4<4 Jar)er Dee's 2o Kill a Moc6ing&ir% )ortras Atticus #inch ()lae% & Gregor >ec6 in the classic film from the &oo6 (see 2o Kill a Moc6ing&ir% (film""" as ala+er true to his conscience +ho sets an e!am)le to his chil%ren an% communit.4<7
2he 5o&ert Bolt )la ' Man 8or '## Seasons focuses on the conscience of $atholic la+er 2homasMore in his struggle +ith King Jenr V (the loal su&ect is more &oun%en to &e loal to hisconscience than to an other thing".4< George @r+ell +rote his novel +ineteen )ighty98our on theisolate% islan% of Sura, cotlan% to %escri&e ho+ a man (3inston mith" attem)ts to %evelo) critica#conscience in a totalitarian state +hich +atches ever action of the )eo)le an% mani)ulates theirthin6ing +ith a mi!ture of )ro)agan%a, en%less +ar an% thought control through language control(dou"#e think an% newsspeak " to the )oint +here )risoners loo6 u) to an% even love their torturers. 4<:n the Ministr of Dove, 3inston's torturer (@'Brien" states? ou are imagining that there is somethingcalle% human nature +hich +ill &e outrage% & +hat +e %o an% +ill turn against us. But +e createhuman nature. Men are infinitel mallea&le.4<;
A ta)estr co) of >icasso's Guernica %e)icting a massacre of innocent +omen an% chil%ren %uring the)anish civil +ar is %is)lae% on the +all of the Enite% *ations &uil%ing in *e+ or6 $it, at theentrance to the ecurit $ouncil room, %emonstra&l as a s)ur to the conscience of re)resentativesfrom the nation states.4<< Al&ert 2uc6er )ainte% Man:s Head to ca)ture the moral %isintegration, an%lac6 of conscience, of a man convicte% of 6ic6ing a %og to %eath.4<8
Vincent van Gogh, 1890. Kröller-Müller Museum. /n the Thresho#d of )ternity.
2he im)ressionist )ainter Vincent van Gogh +rote in a letter to his &rother 2heo in 18<8 that one mustnever let the fire in one's soul %ie, for the time +ill inevita&l come +hen it +ill &e nee%e%. An% he +hochooses )overt for himself an% loves it )ossesses a great treasure an% +ill hear the voice of hisconscience a%%ress him ever more clearl. Je +ho hears that voice, +hich is Go%'s greatest gift, in hisinnermost &eing an% follo+s it, fin%s in it a frien% at last, an% he is never aloneR ... 2hat is +hat all greatmen have ac6no+le%ge% in their +or6s, all those +ho have thought a little more %ee)l an% searche%an% +or6e% an% love% a little more than the rest, +ho have )lum&e% the %e)ths of the sea of life. 4<9
2he 19:< ngmar Bergman film Se!enth Sea# )ortras the ourne of a me%ieval 6night (Ma! von%o+" returning %isillusione% from the crusa%es (+hat is going to ha))en to those of us +ho +ant to
&elieve, &ut aren't a&le toT" across a )lague-ri%%en lan%sca)e, un%erta6ing a game of chess +ith the )ersonification of eath until he can )erform one meaningful altruistic act of conscience (overturningthe chess &oar% to %istract eath long enough for a famil of ugglers to esca)e in their +agon" .4802he 194 Casa"#anca centers on the %evelo)ment of conscience in the cnical American 5ic6 Blaine(Jum)hre Bogart" in the face of o))ression & the *aCis an% the e!am)le of the resistance lea%erVictor DasClo.4812he avi% Dean an% 5o&ert Bolt screen)la for (octor ;hi!ago (an a%a)tation of Boris >asterna6 'snovel" focuses strongl on the conscience of a %octor-)oet in the mi%st of the 5ussian 5evolution (inthe en% the +alls of his heart +ere li6e )a)er".4842he 1984 5i%le cott film B#ade ,unner focuses on the struggles of conscience &et+een an% +ithin a &ount hunter (5ic6 ec6ar% (Jarrison #or%"" an% a renega%e re)licant an%roi% (5o Batt (5utger
Jauer "" in a future societ +hich refuses to acce)t that forms of artificial intelligence can have as)ectsof &eing such as conscience.487
S.. Bach. @riginal )age from $re%o (m&olum *icenum" section of Mass in B minor
Sohann e&astian Bach +rote his last great choral com)osition the Mass in B minor (B3V 474" to
e!)ress the alternating emotions of loneliness, %es)air, o an% ra)ture that arise as conscience reflectson a %e)arte% human life.48 Jere S Bach's use of counter)oint an% contra)untal settings, his%namic %iscourse of melo%icall an% rhthmicall %istinct voices see6ing forgiveness of sins (<ui
to##is peccata mundi5 miserere no"is" evo6es a s)iraling moral conversation of all humanit e!)ressinghis &elief that +ith %evotional music, Go% is al+as )resent in his grace.48:
Du%+ig van Beethoven's me%itations on illness, conscience an% mortalit in the Date tring Luartets le% to his %e%icating the thir% movement of tring Luartet in A Minor (184:" @). 174 (see tringLuartet *o. 1:" as a Jmn of 2han6sgiving to Go% of a convalescent.48; 48< Sohn Dennon's+or6 magine o+es much of its )o)ular a))eal to its evocation of conscience against the atrocitiescreate% & +ar , religious fun%amentalism an% )olitics.488 2he Beatles George Jarrison-+ritten trac62he nner Dight sets to n%ian raga music a verse from the Tao Te Ching that +ithout going out of
our %oor ou can 6no+ the +as of heaven'.489 n the 198; movie The Mission the guiltconscience an% )enance of the slave tra%er Men%oCa is ma%e more )oignant & the haunting o&oemusic of =nnio Morricone (@n =arth as it is in Jeaven"490 2he song +eet Dulla& & ee)#orest is &ase% on a tra%itional Baegu lulla& from the olomon slan%s calle% 5orog+ela in +hich aoung or)han is comforte% as an act of conscience & his ol%er &rother.491 2he ream Aca%em song '#orest #ire' )rovi%e% an earl +arning of the moral %angers of our '&lac6 clou%' '&ringing %o+n a%ifferent 6in% of +eather ... letting the sunshine in, that's ho+ the en% &egins.494
2he American ociet of Sournalists an% Authors (ASA" )resents the $onscience-in-Me%ia A+ar% to ournalists +hom the societ %eems +orth of recognition for %emonstrating singular commitment tothe highest )rinci)les of ournalism at nota&le )ersonal cost or sacrifice.497
2he Am&assa%or of $onscience A+ar%, Amnest nternational's most )restigious human rights a+ar%,ta6es its ins)iration from a )oem +ritten & rish *o&el )riCe-+inning )oet eamus Jeane calle%2he 5e)u&lic of $onscience.8 3inners of the a+ar% have inclu%e%? Malala ousafCai, singer an%social ustice activist Jarr Belafonte,49 musician >eter Ga&riel (4008", *elson Man%ela (400;", therish roc6 &an% E4 (400:", Mar 5o&inson an% Jil%a Morales 2ruillo (a Guatemalan +omen's rightsactivist" (400" an% the author an% )u&lic intellectual VQclav Javel (4007".8
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