2Strategies to sustain and enhance Asia-A.docx

8/20/2019 2Strategies to sustain and enhance Asia-A.docx

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201241057 KOSMIA ZULIANTI

Strategies to sustain and enhance Asia-Pacific rice

production - R.B. Singh,a

T. Woodheadb

and M.K.Papademetriouc

a Assistant Director-General, b Consultant and c Senior Plant Production and Protection Officer Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, FAO, Bangkok, Thailand

INTRODUCTION

The goal of the orld Food Su!!it is to hal"e the nu!ber of undernourished #eo#le in the

$orld in the #eriod %&&'-()%'* To achie"e this goal, it is essential to enhance and sustain rice #roducti"it+ and #roduction* About nine-tenths of the $orlds rice is #roduced and consu!ed$ithin FAOs Asia and the Pacific region* For the billion #eo#le li"ing in Asia, rice

#ro"ides one-third or !ore of the dietar+ energ+ re.uire!ent* And for se"eral South andSoutheast Asian countries $ithin that region, rice accounts for bet$een t$o-fifths and four-fifths of the food energ+ and #rotein re.uire!ents* Global food securit+ thus de#endsstrongl+ on rice securit+ in Asia and the Pacific*

So!e /ast and Southeast Asian countries are on schedule for reaching this goal $ithin the setti!e fra!e* Other countries - notabl+ in South Asia - are behind schedule, the reasons for$hich need to be anal+sed and re!edies a##lied through countr+- and eco0one-s#ecific

#olicies and strategies*

Such strategies should be based on #re"ious successes and best-#ractice e1#eriences, takinginto consideration ne$ o##ortunities rele"ant to the #re"ailing challenges, as $ell as thelessons learned fro! #re"ious unsuccessful endea"ours and fro! the li!itations of the greenre"olution* Strategies !ust also recogni0e and acco!!odate the indi"idual characteristics ofthe "arious rice-based #roduction and li"elihood s+ste!s, as e1#ressed through theiragrobiological, technological and socio-econo!ic features*

Figures for the #eriod %&&2-())) re"eal that the Asian ricelands ha"e an annual har"est areaof %' !illion ha 34ha56 the+ nurture ()) !illion bo"ine li"estock and rather fe$er s!all

ru!inants6 the+ are tended b+ nearl+ )) !illion #eo#le, accounting for a large #ro#ortion ofthe $orlds far!-fa!il+ households* 7n se"eral countries, rice has a cultural and a #oliticaldi!ension*

FAO 3())%b5 re#orts that global 3and Asian5 rice #roduction in ())) $as #ercent less thanin %&&& 3and ())) #roduction $as also less than consu!#tion in the sa!e +ear5, and ())%

#roduction $as % #ercent less than in ()))* This decreased #roduction $as a conse.uence ofslackening consu!er de!and, so!e cro# failures and, in #articular, declining rice #rices*7ndeed, bet$een %&&8-&& and ())), the FAO rice-#rice inde1 declined fro! %( to &2 3itslo$est "alue since %&285, and subse.uentl+ to 22 in 4a+ ())%, $ith a slight reco"er+ to &) inAugust ())% 3Figure %5* The global rice reser"es $ere sufficient to satisf+ de!and*


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F7G9R/ %Comparison of prices and rice padd production

The region accounted for about 8' #ercent 3%2 !illion tonnes :4t;5 of $orld rice e1#orts andfor !ore than half 3nearl+ % 4t5 of $orld rice i!#orts in %&&&-())%* During the last decade,rice trade 3both e1#orts and i!#orts5 in the region has been increasing 3Figure (5*

F7G9R/ (A!erage annua" rice trade in Asia-Pacific region

During the last four decades, rice hel#ed to lessen hunger and #o"ert+ and to sustain

li"elihoods6 the unit cost of rice #roduction decreased b+ ) #ercent, $hile rice #ricesdecreased b+


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nu!ber of non-#oor increased fro! %*2) to (*8 billion, and the nu!ber of ade.uatel+-nourished #ersons fro! %*%( to (*'= billion*

>e"ertheless, hunger and #o"ert+ #ersist in Asian rice-gro$ing countries? in /ast and SouthAsia in %&&8 there $ere 2)) !illion #oor and '() !illion undernourished #eo#le 3including

%(' !illion #reschool children5 - in both cases, t$o-thirds of the $orld total* %@


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201241021 SAPTA WIDYA HUSADA

Asias contiguous sub!erged-soil ricelands are agro-ecologicall+ uni.ue* Rice has ada#ted tothe #articular soil-che!ical and !icrobiological conditions that result fro! #rolonged soil

sub!ergence* The bunded, terraced rice fields ha"e su##orted Asian ci"ili0ations for ' )))+ears, #er!itting the sustainable use of land and encouraging biodi"ersit+* 7rrigation-sub!erged ricelands account for ust o"er half the rice har"est area and three-.uarters of theregions rice #roduction* The non-irrigated ricelands are ho!e to a large #ro#ortion of theregions hungr+ and #oor*

Onl+ during the last three decades ha"e the "arious ricelands co!e under threat fro! hu!anacti"ities* o$e"er, des#ite dietar+ #references for higher-"alue foods, #roduction !ustincrease to '


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- biodi"ersit+- ecoregional as#ects


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201241042 TULUS ARY ANSYAH MARDANI

PRESERVE AND REALIZE THE ACHIEVED GAINS

7ntegrated Cro# 4anage!ent

Se"eral rice far!ers integrate the !anage!ent of a rice cro# and its incor#oration $ithin therice-based cro##ing s+ste! and far!ing s+ste!* The+ also integrate the !anage!ent $ith thetargets of? !a1i!u! #roduction at !ini!al risk 3for ho!e consu!#tion56 or !a1i!u! #rofit3for sale of .ualit+ grain or of #roducts and b+-#roducts for "alue-adding #rocessing and!arketing5* ithin-season cro# husbandr+ thus integrates? seed and #lant #o#ulation6 cro#establish!ent6 land, soil, $ater, nutrient and #est !anage!ent 3the latter for $eeds, insects,diseases, rodents and !olluscs56 and effecti"e de#lo+!ent of hu!an and financial resources*4an+ of these as#ects are addressed in one or !ore of the se"eral strateg+ co!#onents6 !ostof the! ha"e been incor#orated $ithin the "arious rice-#roduction #ackages for!ulated b+

national research and e1tension s+ste!s* Such #ackages include the ESe"en-Techni.uesProcedure ado#ted in China, E4asagana-&& and its successors in the Phili##ines, andE7nsus and its successors in 7ndonesia* These #ackages feature technologicalreco!!endations, su##orted b+ !icro-finance and e1tension ser"ices*

A recent co!#le!ent to these technological and financial #ackages is re#resented b+ theAustralian E Ricecheck s+ste!* This #artici#ator+ s+ste! s#ecifies $ithin-season target"alues for the ke+ technological "ariables affecting rice #roducti"it+ and #rofit* The no"elas#ect is the indi"idual far!ers regular !onitoring of the cro# in relation to the target "alues,ado#ting the dictu!? Observe, Measure, Record, Interpret, Act * B+ follo$ing this dictu!,each far!er generates crucial in#uts for the regular, #artici#ator+, e1tension-guided grou#discussions and e"aluations of their o$n rice !anage!ent achie"e!ents6 and hence for theirdeter!ination of i!#ro"ed !anage!ent for future seasons* The Ricecheck a##roach is beingada#ted and de"elo#ed b+ 7ndonesian agencies and far!ers as #art of an FAO-assisted

#roduction-s+ste! oriented #riorit+-area interdisci#linar+ action 3PA7A5*

7ntegrated Pest 4anage!ent 37P45

Successful rice cro# !anage!ent re.uires the effecti"e and integrati"e !anage!ent of"arious $ithin-season and #ost-har"est #ests* The nu!erous $ithin-season #ests include?$eeds, insect #ests, diseases 3bacterial, fungal and "iral5, rodents and !olluscs* 7ntegrated

!anage!ent i!#lies a co!bination of cultural !anage!ent and insecticide a##lications,guided b+ field !onitoring of #est-insect #o#ulations and b+ decision-su##ort strategies*

7ntegrated insect #est !anage!ent for rice in Asia goes back to the %&=)-%&8)s, $hen there$as a cro# #rotection crisis resulting fro!? re#etiti"e !onoculture of the ne$ high-+ielding"arieties6 increased a##lications of fertili0ers 3#articularl+ nitrogen5 !odif+ing cro#!icrocli!ates6 and !isuse of #esticides*

The crisis had both ecological and hu!an di!ensions* There $as insufficient a$areness ofthe ne$ "arieties #ros#ecti"e susce#tibilit+ to #est insects* hen "arieties did indeed

beco!e susce#tible, ne$ "arieties $ere bred or selected $ith resistance to the #articular

#ests, and s+nthetic #esticides $ere a##lied !ore fre.uentl+* 9nfortunatel+, the ne$resistance $as o"erco!e as ne$ #est bio-t+#es resistant to the #esticides e!erged 3as $as the


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case of bro$n #lantho##er5* Further!ore, the s+nthetic #esticides caused a drastic decrease inthe #o#ulations of beneficial insects and s#iders that e1erted so!e biological control on the

#est insects* At hu!an le"el, far!ers $ere #assi"e reci#ients of the technolog+ #ackages3incor#orating insect-control co!#onents5 and hu!an resource de"elo#!ent for far!fa!ilies $as neglected*

The t$o di!ensions 3ecological and hu!an5 $ere successfull+ addressed in the %&2)sthrough the FAO-facilitated Rice 7P4 Progra!!e* 7n #articular, the role of beneficialorganis!s $as .uantified, as $as the disru#ti"e effect of #esticides on the biological #estcontrol of those organis!s* These insights $ere incor#orated as #art of #artici#ator+ far!ertraining 3far!er field schools5 $hereb+ the far!ers beca!e effecti"e 7P4 #ractitioners* Thefar!er field school #rocedure no$ has o"er ( !illion graduates and is $idel+ ado#ted andco!!ended* The continuing challenges 3and relati"e strateg+5 are? to su##ort the !an+!illions of rice far!ers $ho are not +et a$are of 7P4 #rocedures6 and to strengthen nationalcro# #rotection #olicies conduci"e to 7P4* @


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201241025 ANIF FARIZ ASROFI

ield-ga# bridging

The !ethodolog+ of +ield ga# and constraints anal+sis #ro"ides an o##ortunit+ to !a1i!i0e

the rice #roducti"it+ benefits gained $ith the current and ne$l+-e!erging rice culti"ars andcro# !anage!ent #rocedures* The #art of the rice +ield ga# $hich !a+ be bridged b+ far!ers- and $hich is e1#ressed as the difference bet$een the realisticall+ 3and econo!icall+5achie"able on-far! +ield and the actual on-far! +ield - has "arious causes and co!#onents*7n #articular, it !a+ result fro! far!ers lack of technical kno$ledge, or fro! inade.uateinstitutional su##orts for #ro"ision of technical kno$ledge and the re.uisiteagrotechnological and !icrofinancial in#uts*

For irrigated rice, a"erage on-far! +ield is no$ about ' tha* Rice culti"ars $ith a##reciabl+higher +ield #otential could raise this a"erage to = tha b+ ())'* ield-ga#-dri"eninter"entions !ade bet$een ()) and ())= and addressing #h+sico-che!ical 3including soil

and $ater5 and biological-!icrobiological 3including #est5 constraints could further raise thisa"erage b+ ()%)*

7n non-irrigated rainfed lo$land eco0ones, the a"erage rice +ield is about (*' tha* 7!#ro"edculti"ars and +ield-ga#-dri"en inter"entions during ())-())= !ight raise +ield to < tha b+()%)* Do!inant constraints in the rainfed lo$lands include shortage or e1cess of $ater 3as$ell as the shortness of the gro$ing season5, soil deficiencies and to1icities, and #ests anddiseases*

7n the rainfed u#lands and the rainfed flood-#rone s$a!#lands, rice +ields are %* and %*=tha, res#ecti"el+* 9#land +ields are li!ited b+ soil-che!ical constraints, a situation $hich isfurther e1acerbated b+ erosion of surface soil, drought, fungal disease 3blast5 and $eeds* 7nflood-#rone s+ste!s, both $ater e1cess and $ater shortage, as $ell as the difficult+ ofa##l+ing nutrients, are o"er-riding constraints* ield ga# #rocedures are less de"elo#ed forthese resource-#oor eco0ones6 the strongest o#tions for increasing and sustaining +ields insuch en"iron!ents are rice culti"ar i!#ro"e!ent, the ado#tion of current best #ractices forslo#ing u#lands, and the a##lication of e!erging cool season culti"ars and flood-esca#estrategies in flood-#rone areas*

o$e"er, in all non-irrigated eco0ones, rice +ield is also li!ited b+ the econo!ic riskassociated $ith the un#redictabilit+ of the "arious biotic and abiotic constraints and stresses*

>e"ertheless, "arious national and international agencies no$ accord #riorit+ to non-irrigatedricelands $ith the ai! of lessening #o"ert+ and i!#ro"ing food insecurit+*

For irrigated and fa"ourabl+-rainfed lo$lands, the +ield-ga# !ethodolog+ can beincor#orated as #art of a rice-check a##roach*

Rice seed .ualit+ and "igour are i!#ortant factors in an+ a##roach and in all ecos+ste!s*Hualit+ seed increases +ield b+ & to %' #ercent and #roduces grain of higher .ualit+ and

#rice* But onl+ one-fifth of Asian ricelands recei"e high .ualit+ seeds* Seed !anage!ent isoften the #reser"e of the fe!ale fa!il+ !e!bers? training and !icrofinance su##ort $ouldhel# the! increase and sustain rice +ields and #roduction*


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201241001 DIMAS GUSTI RAMADHAN

/nsuring #rogressi"e increase in on-far! +ields

The to#ic of ti!e trends in cro# +ields 3in #articular irrigated rice +ields5 has in recent +ears

been subect to !uch anal+sis, including the conecture that nitrogen !a+ be i!!obili0ed b+ #henols $ithin the lignins that accu!ulate in continuousl+ sub!erged soils* There has also been a certain a!ount of irres#onsible econo!ic anal+sis concerning rice +ield trends*

Recent sur"e+s for rice ha"e re#orted that?

“on 75 Mha of irrigated rice farms there is no evidence of rice-yied decine during !""#-

$###, e%cept in specific instances for &hich causes 'and in some cases, remedies( can be

identified) 37RR7, ())%a5*

Iike$ise, fro! the %&=)s to the %&&)s, there $ere consistent annual +ield increases of about


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increased literac+, nu!erac+ and co!#uter co!#etence of the ne1t generation of far!ers $illfacilitate both the ado#tion of !ore co!#le1 rice s+ste! #rocedures and the recognition ofo##ortunities in rice #roduction and rice s+ste! enter#rise*

7t is, therefore, necessar+ to docu!ent #ast 3%&=)-%&&&5 and recent 3%&&&-())%5 e1#eriences

in on-far! +ields and national and regional rice #roduction* 7n Southeast Asia, rice +ieldssho$ed a t+#ical increase of about


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Thailand ( &) (*2 ( ortheast Asia and SoutheastAsia6 gro$th rate 3+ear5 is for %&&)-()))6 rice 35 in total kcal#erson-da+ relates to %&&(*

/ource. FAO, ()))b, ())%a6 7RR7, %&&8*

orr+ingl+, recent anal+sis of 7ndia and Bangladesh, using =-+ear seg!ents of the ti!e seriesdata for rice +ield and trend, suggests that for 7ndia 3but not Bangladesh5 the rate of increaseof rice +ield and #roduction $ill b+ ()) fall belo$ the #roected rate of gro$th of the hu!an

#o#ulation* For t$o other !aor #roducers and consu!ers of rice - China and 7ndonesia - it is #ossible that near-ter! rice #roduction increases !a+ be less than the #o#ulation increase* '@


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201241008 EKA SUSANTI WIDIA ASTUTIK

Reduce #ost-har"est losses

Iosses during and after rice har"est t+#icall+ consu!e bet$een %) and %' #ercent of the

grain generated b+ the cro#* Iosses are e1#erienced in both .ualit+ and .uantit+, and aretherefore felt in ter!s of? net returns to the seasons endea"ours6 household and national foodsecurit+6 and #oor grain suitabilit+ for "alue-adding #rocessing and e!#lo+!ent* 3>ote thatgrain .ualit+ and !arket "alue are di!inished b+ subo#ti!al colour, cleanliness and!oisture, as $ell as b+ infestations*5

7na##ro#riate grain !oisture content can cause losses during the "arious stages of !illing?hulling, #olishing, blo$ing, se#arating and grading* Dr+ing large .uantities of grain, usuall+

b+ sun-dr+ing on #a"ed surfaces, can affect .ualit+ and reduce .uantit+ b+ bet$een % and ' #ercent*

ar"esting, handling, threshing, cleaning, trans#ort and s#illage or leakage can account forlosses of bet$een ( and ' #ercent* Storage losses before and after dr+ing 3due to !oulds,insects and rodents5 !a+ consu!e an additional ' to & #ercent of the stored grain* 7t is thus

#ertinent that about four-fifths of the har"ested grain is held in on-far! storage 3icks, %&225,and onl+ one-fifth in $arehouses, bins and controlled-at!os#here silos* 7n a fe$ countries,

#art of the har"ested grain !a+ be #arboiled6 although there !a+ still be deterioration $here #rocedures are subo#ti!al, effecti"e #arboiling generall+ decreases losses and #reser"escracked grains* Ioss-lessening strategies entail the $ider ado#tion of the currentl+-a"ailable

best #ractices and e.ui#!ent, together $ith testing, grading and .ualit+ control of grainstored off-far! 3icks, %&&'5* =@


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201241027 ACHMAD SUSILO

INCREASING YIELD POTENTIALS AND VALUE-ADDING

OPPORTUNITIESGer!#las! i!#ro"e!ent? con"entional #rocedures, and biotechnological and !olecular!ethods

7n !eeting the forecast re.uire!ents for rice #roduction during ())-()), a ke+ strateg+ isthe #rogressi"e i!#ro"e!ent of rice ger!#las!, in ter!s of both +ield #otential 3in bothconstrained and non-constrained en"iron!ents5 and grain 3and b+-#roduct5 .ualitiesa##ro#riate to s#ecific uses and a##lications* ithin that strateg+, con"entional breeding and

biotechnological #rocedures ha"e !utuall+ su##orti"e roles*

7n the near ter! 3())-)25, an i!#ortant contribution $ill be !ade b+ the con"entional

!ethods of h+bridi0ation and selection for the creation of eco0one-s#ecific !aterials* >u!erous ne$ rice #lant t+#es $ith high #roducti"it+ ha"e been concei"ed during the last %)+ears* These ne$ #lant t+#es ha"e fe$er tillers #er #lant, !ore grains #er #anicle and stiffer3less lodging-#rone5 ste!s* 7n tro#ical Asia the+ ha"e a har"est inde1 of )*= and a +ield

#otential of %( tha 3co!#ared to )*' and %) tha for current high-+ielding culti"ars5*

TABI/ ($ie"d potentia"# irrigated rice in tropica" eco%ones, &'()-&'')-*)&)

Period Culti"ar Seed-to-seedduration3days5

ield #otential #er season3kgha5

ield #otential #er da+3kgha5

%&8) 7R 2 %') %) ))) =8

%&&) Larious indica %) %) ))) 88

()%) >e$ #lantt+#e

%) %( ))) &(

Breeding lines for these ne$ #lant t+#es are at "arious stages of e"aluation and testing intro#ical and se!itro#ical eco0ones*

For +ield #otential, the #rogressi"e increase during the


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+brid rices, de"elo#ed and co!!erciali0ed in China during the %&8)s, ha"e a +ieldad"antage of about %' #ercent co!#ared to con"entionall+ selected culti"ars* For thee1tensi"e double-cro##ed angt0e Lalle+ rice area, earl+-!aturing high-+ielding h+bridsha"e been s#ecificall+ de"elo#ed* Throughout China, "arious h+brid rices are gro$n on o"erhalf the riceland, although this #ro#ortion !a+ no$ be declining 3usain et a0, ())%5*

Other rice-gro$ing countries 37ndia, Liet >a!, Phili##ines, Bangladesh and 7ndonesia5 alsoha"e #rogra!!es for the co!!erciali0ation of h+brid rice, but #rogress has been !uchslo$er than in China, for reasons that should #erha#s be in"estigated and re!edied* One

#robable reason is that the lo$ +ields of F% seed in these countries result in h+brid seed #ricesthat are be+ond the !eans of resource-#oor far!ers*

The benefits of heterosis ha"e been further e1#loited in China b+ co!bining the attributes ofh+brid rices $ith those of the ne$ #lant t+#e, thereb+ generating a 3se!i-tro#ical5 +ield

#otential of bet$een %' and %= tha, and an on-far! +ield in ())% of &*( tha on %*( 4ha*Second-generation h+brid rice can reach on-far! +ields of %( tha 3uan, ())(5* Additionall+,

t$o-line h+brids gro$n in ())% on nearl+ ( 4ha 3and the area is increasing5 !a+ further raiseon-far! +ields*

Biotechnological and !olecular breeding a##roaches to raising +ield #otential are #ursued inse"eral national and international #rogra!!es* 7n the de"elo#!ent of Esu#er h+brids inChina, a #ros#ecti"e ' #ercent +ield ad"antage has been de!onstrated 3uan, ())(5 $ith ane$ h+brid created using a restorer line recentl+ de"elo#ed through !olecular a##roaches*

Larious abiotic and biotic stresses constrain far!ers abilit+ to reali0e the a"ailable +ield #otentials* For abiotic stresses 3notabl+ soil salinit+5, #rogress in con"entional culti"arde"elo#!ent has been slo$, des#ite so!e success in de"elo#ing culti"ars $ith tolerance to%)-da+ sub!ergence, $ater shortage, cool te!#eratures and so!e soil-che!ical constraints*The "arious constraints 3e*g* shortage or e1cess of $ater, aberrant te!#erature, soil-che!icaldeficiencies and to1icities :including salinit+; and #ests5 !ight in #art be addressed throughgenetic fortification of rices $ith high +ield #otential* /"aluations are currentl+ under$a+ inthe coastal $etlands of Bangladesh of "arious lines identified through !olecular assistedselection*

Genetic fortification can be "ertical or hori0ontal, in"ol"ing oligogenes and #ol+genes, $ithgene #+ra!iding through reco!bination 3#ossibl+ !utation5 breeding* Khush and Brar3())(5 transferred fro! $ild rices into Ory*a sativa "arious genes conferring resistance to

diseases 3in #articular sheath blight and so!e "iruses5 and #ests 3notabl+ ste! borer5 andtolerance of so!e soil to1icities* These transferred genes included to1in-coding genes fro!

1acius thuringiensis, chitinase genes and genes that facilitate coat-#rotein-!ediated #rotection* This biotechnological !ethodolog+, $hich $ill be strengthened as additionalgenes conferring other resistances or tolerances are identified and stocked, is a #o$erfulsu##le!ent to the con"entional breeding #rocedures that hitherto ha"e had li!ited success inco!bating biotic and abiotic stresses*

The increase in non-agricultural needs for Asias rene$able $ater resources re.uires that!ore rice be #roduced $ith less $ater* Therefore, des#ite the fact that current $etland riceculti"ars deri"e ad"antage fro! their ada#tation to sub!erged soil and its che!ical and

!icrobiological conditions, !ultidisci#linar+ culti"ar de"elo#!ent #rogra!!es are no$


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selecting high-+ielding, fertili0er- and irrigation-res#onsi"e lines for soils that are notcontinuousl+ sub!erged*

The incor#oration of the C


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20124108 KHOIRUL ANNAM

Grain .ualit+ and #roduct "alue enhance!ent

EGrain .ualit+ describes the e1tent to $hich a #articular sa!#le of grain is suited to its

intended function - $hether for table rice for identified consu!ers, or for "alue-adding #rocessing into s#ecific #roducts $ith #ro#erties kno$n to be acce#table to the targeted #urchasers* Hualit+ thus de#ends both on the inherent characteristics of the ger!#las!,including its concentrations of #roteins, "ita!ins, !icronutrients and li#ids, and on the e1tentto $hich $ithin-season and #ost-har"est !anage!ent achie"es and #reser"es these inherent

#ro#erties to the satisfaction of consu!ers and #urchasers* Of these #ro#erties, the a##arenta!+lose content 3AC5, i*e* the $ithin-starch ratio of a!+lose to a!+lo#ectin, is of #ara!ounti!#ortance* 7t .uantifies both the eating acce#tabilit+ for geogra#hicall+ identifiableconsu!er grou#s, and the suitabilit+ for #rocessing into #articular #roducts* Grain .ualit+ and!arket "alue !a+ be affected b+ a series of factors? grain colour and cleanliness, intensit+ ofinfestations, grain da!age occurring during #rocessing at ina##ro#riate !oisture content, and

substandard storage or trans#ort*

Throughout the region, #references "ar+? lo$ AC 3 2aponica5 rice in the northeastern countries3northern China, Na#an, Korea DPR, Re#ublic of Korea and Tai$an Pro"ince of China56e1tre!el+ lo$ AC 3$a1+5 rice in $estern 7ndochina6 lo$-inter!ediate AC throughouttro#ical Southeast Asia 3fro! southern China and eastern 7ndochina to 7ndonesia56 and higherAC and Bas!ati rices in South Asia 3notabl+, 7ndia and Pakistan, and #arboiled rice inBangladesh5* Bro$n rice, $ith the o#tion for #re!illing #ressuri0ed !oisture-conditioning

#er!itting high reco"er+ of "ita!ins, !inerals, and #roteins, is likel+ to beco!e increasingl+ #o#ular as #o#ulations beco!e !ore health conscious*

De#ending on the AC, the use of rice in added-"alue #rocessing "aries? lo$est AC grains areused for desserts, cakes, crackers and sauces6 lo$ AC for bab+ foods and breakfast cereals3#o##ed, #uffed or flaked56 inter!ediate AC for sou#s, crackling and fer!ented cake6 andhigh AC grain for noodles* Additionall+, rice !a+ be #rocessed into flours, starches, battersand thickeners, #re-cooked or .uick-cooking con"enience foods, and s+ru#s, $ines ands#irits* The "ertical di"ersification of rice #roducts $ill greatl+ increase the econo!icco!#etiti"eness of rice*

Of the "arious rice b+-#roducts, rice bran has the greatest usage and #otential, #articularl+ 3as$ith bro$n rice5 as an ingredient in health-enhancing dietar+-fibre foods and in #roducts that

can lo$er blood cholesterol le"els* Bran is also used as a feed su##le!ent for shee#, #igs and #oultr+, and in the !anufacture of $a1 and cooking oil* Broken rice !a+ be used as non- broken !illed rice - in flours, starches, s+ru#s, beers, $ines and s#irits, as $ell as #oultr+feed*

Rice stra$ has !an+ #otential and #ro"en uses, but there are often !ore con"enientalternati"es6 stra$ therefore re!ains underutili0ed and often burnt* ithin rice co!!unities,stra$ !a+ be rendered #alatable to li"estock through treat!ent $ith urea or a##ro#riate!icrobiological inoculants* Rice hull 3or husk5 is, like stra$, !uch #roduced and little used*There is so!e !inor usage as shee#-feed su##le!ent, and it can also be used in the

#roduction of cera!ics, fibreboard and silica* Technologies and #rotot+#es are a"ailable for

using rice hull as fuel, either in direct co!bustion 3bri.uette5 or b+ gasification to #roducefuel for internal co!bustion engines that generate electricit+ 3FAO, %&&%5* Additionall+, there


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!a+ be o#tions 3hori0ontal di"ersification5 for rice co!!unities to undertake large-scalecoordinated culti"ation of high ther!al-efficienc+ biofuel cro#s for $hich there alread+ e1istsuccessful #rotot+#es for !ediu!-scale electricit+ generators* Such energ+ generation could

be #ercei"ed $ithin an Agenda (%K+oto Protocol scenario, #articularl+ for rice-gro$ingcountries that are not #etroleu! #roducers 3oodhead and Singh, ())(5* 2@


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20124104! TEGUH WIYONO

Rice-s+ste! di"ersification

Rice-based far!ing s+ste!s are crucial for strengthening li"elihoods and alle"iating hunger

and #o"ert+ in rural Asia-Pacific 3oodhead and Singh, ())(5* The+ also #ro"ide a range of #o"ert+-esca#e !echanis!s for #oor s!allholder fa!ilies and for rural landless-labourerfa!ilies 3Di1on et a0, ())%5* Di"ersification of far!ing s+ste!s - b+ increasing the

#ro#ortion of land and other resources de"oted to non-rice cro#s, li"estock, fish and their"alue-adding #rocessing - can hel# generate the additional inco!e and e!#lo+!ent needed toco!bat hunger and esca#e #o"ert+* Part of the additional inco!e can be used to financein"est!ent and i!#ro"ed !anage!ent to enhance and sustain the rice #roducti"it+ and

#roduction re.uired during ())-())* 4oreo"er, an a##reciable enhance!ent of rice #roducti"it+ $ould #er!it the release of resources 3land, $ater, finance, skills and ti!e5, thusfacilitating the desired di"ersification of cro##ing s+ste!s, far!ing s+ste!s and associated!icro-enter#rises*

There is a $ide "ariet+ of rice-based cro##ing s+ste!s, both irrigated and non-irrigated* 7nal!ost all eco0ones 3$ith the e1ce#tion of so!e flood-#rone areas5, the !onsoon cro# is riceand the !ain subse.uent cro#s 3$here conditions and circu!stances allo$5 are rice or $heat*The rice-rice se.uence is thus #ractised on about (2 4ha 3in China, 7ndia, 7ndonesia and Liet

>a!5 and rice-$heat on about (' 4ha 3in the 7ndo-Gangetic Plains and in central andsouthern China5* Other se.uences co!!on throughout Asia and the Pacific are rice-fallo$3#articularl+ in non-irrigated eco0ones5, rice-oilseed, rice-rice-legu!e, and !ulti-+ear rice-oilcro#-sugar cane-sugar cane-$heat* Pro!inent #ost-rice cro#s are? rice, $heat, oilseed andgreen !anure in China6 rice, $heat, #ulse, oilseed, groundnut and sorghu! in 7ndia6 andchilli, onion and groundnut in Sri Ianka* Rice-fallo$-ute is co!!on in Bangladesh, andrice-$heat-!ai0e and rice-#otato-!ai0e in >e#al* 7n Southeast Asia, do!inant #ost-rice cro#sare? !ai0e, garlic and tobacco in the Phili##ines6 so+bean, !ung bean and #eanut inThailand6 and #otato, "egetable, !ai0e, #eanut, groundnut and so+bean in Liet >a!*

7n addition to the abo"e-!entioned cro# se.uences, there are niche-s#ecific o#tions for riceand non-rice intercro##ings, !i1ed cro##ings and rela+ cro##ings* igh-#roducti"it+, coolseason, #ost-!onsoon rice is increasingl+ and #rofitabl+ ado#ted in a##ro#riate eco0ones*

Rice-fish s+ste!s are #ractised on onl+ % #ercent of ricelands* This lo$ figure reflects the #ressure on the li"ing a.uatic resource 3$hether indigenous or anthro#ogenic5 fro! intensi"e

use of agroche!icals*

Ii"estock, on the other hand, features #ro!inentl+ and increasingl+ in !an+ rice-far!ings+ste!s* Poultr+ 3chickens and ducks, indigenous and i!#ro"ed5 is i!#ortant, as areru!inants, $hich are a source of sa"ings, inco!e, !eat, !ilk, hides and draught #o$er*Poultr+ and ru!inants both generate !anure and co!#ost, $hich tend, ho$e"er, to beallocated to high-"alue "egetable and horticultural cro#s rather than to rice, des#ite the factthat the+ $ould substantiall+ decrease the .uantit+ of !anufactured fertili0ers re.uired b+high-+ielding rice cro#s*

As each generation of rice far!ers is increasingl+ educated and therefore able to ado#t and

!anage !ore co!#le1 s+ste!s and to recogni0e entre#reneurial o##ortunities, the s+nerg+ of


19/40

rice-cro# intensification and rice-s+ste! di"ersification $ill be #rogressi"el+ a##reciated andado#ted b+ s!allholder rice-far! fa!ilies* &@


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201241051 "ATI WIDNU CHARANTIKA

INTEGRATED AND ENVIRONMENT-FRIENDLY MANAGEMENT OF

NATURAL RESOURCESater

Des#ite rural Asia and the Pacifics substantial resources of annual internall+ rene$able fresh$ater, the dense #o#ulation !eans that $ater a"ailabilit+ #er inhabitant is little !ore than half the global a"erage* 7ndeed, $ater #er inhabitant in Asia declined b+ about half bet$een %&''and %&&), and it is forecast to decline b+ one-third of its %&&) "alue during the #eriod %&&)-()(' 3Guerra et a0, %&&25* 7n areas of China, 7ndia and Pakistan, #er ca#ut $ater a"ailabilit+$ill be so lo$ b+ ()(' that these areas $ill be dee!ed Eabsolutel+ $ater-scarce* >otabl+,agriculture 3in #articular irrigated rice agriculture5 consu!es about 2< #ercent of Asiasdi"erted $ater 3FAO, ()))c5, about half of $hich is for rice6 in Southeast Asia, rice

co!#rises !ore than &) #ercent of the irrigated cro# area* /sti!ates for irrigated rice area aregi"en in Table 3oodhead and Singh, ())(5*

TABI/ +ndicators for irrigation and p"ant nutrient resources# Asian rice-producing countries

Countr+3b+ regionalgrou#5a

7rrigatedriceland

3esti!ate5

3 Mha5

b

Fertili0eragric* land%&&=-&&

3kghayear 5 bc

>-fertili0erriceland%&&=-&2

3 hayear 5 bd

Rice +ield3rainfed or irrigated5

3tha5

be

China (&*' (=' ('' =*

DPR Korea M)*< M2) M M*2

Korea Re#* %*%


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4+an!ar %*) %= ) *(

Phili##ines (*% 8' &) *)

Thailand )*8 2' 2' (*

Liet >a! M


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>on-agricultural uses of $ater are destined to de!and an e"er greater share of the di"erted$ater su##l+* 4an+ rice-gro$ing countries $ill therefore need to in"est substantiall+ in$ater-resource de"elo#!ent 3including increased i!#ound!ent of high-intensit+ !onsoonrainfall and run-off5 if the+ are to a"oid $ater constraints on their econo!ies and rice

#roduction* Of Asias total har"ested rice area, the irrigated sector constitutes about '=

#ercent, generating !ore than 8' #ercent of rice #roduction*

Current and future +ields of irrigated rice are substantiall+ higher than non-irrigated rice+ields* 4oreo"er, irrigated #roduction is !ore stable on a +ear-to-+ear basis than rainfed

#roduction, $ith a corres#onding greater benefit for food securit+* 7t is, therefore, irrigatedrice s+ste!s $hich $ill contribute !ost of the increased food #roduction re.uired to ensurenational food securit+* The irrigation facilities for such s+ste!s usuall+ co!#rise a ri"er-di"ersion structure that facilitates the gra"it+-induced $ater flo$ along lined or unlinedcanals to s!allholders bunded fields* 7n so!e eco0ones there is increasing use of #o$eredlifting of ri"er $ater and ground$ater, "ia dee# or shallo$ tube$ells, to ser"ice a largefraction of the irrigated rice area? about half in China and 7ndia, and about fi"e-si1ths in

Bangladesh 3FAO, ()))c5* There is concern, ho$e"er, that e1cessi"e e1traction ofground$ater in so!e eco0ones 3e*g* north$est 7ndia and China5 is lo$ering ground$aterle"els to such an e1tent 3%* !+ear5 that #u!#ing costs ha"e increased considerabl+*

Des#ite the food securit+ benefits fro! irrigated #roduction, go"ern!ents and ci"il societiesare turning to non-irrigated lands $ith the ai! of obtaining returns in ter!s of enhancedli"elihood, #roduction and national $ealth, !ore sustainable resource !anage!ent and lo$er

#o"ert+ #er unit in"est!ent* 7n such lands, relati"el+ s!all a!ounts of su##le!entar+ $ater,deri"ed fro! on-far! or co!!unit+-scale i!#ound!ents and #ossibl+ aug!ented b+ electricor diesel-#o$ered #u!#s enabling u#hill $ater trans#ort, can bring substantial increases in+ield and #roducti"it+6 like$ise, #u!#ed tube$ells in non-irrigated areas $ith slo$l+receding ground$ater*

Gi"en the co!#eting de!ands for $ater, increases in? efficienc+ of irrigation $aterdistribution and allocation6 field-le"el $ater #roducti"it+6 econo!ic efficienc+ of $ater use6and irrigations interacti"e contributions to fertili0er-use efficienc+, are re.uired for riceirrigation 3ADB, ())%a6 7FAD, ())%5* Since $ater #roducti"it+ .uantifies the a!ount of

#roduce generated #er unit of $ater 3including rainfall5 in the far!ers field, such #roducti"it+ can be increased b+ "arious co!#onents of field-le"el !anage!ent* Suchco!#onents include? higher-+ielding culti"ars established at o#ti!al #lanting date6 increasein fertili0er a##lication and efficienc+6 i!#ro"e!ent in #est control6 lessening of $ater

a##lications for #re-season land #re#aration 3#erha#s $ith dr+ seeding56 effecti"e retention of rain$ater6 conuncti"e use of s$eet and brackish $aters6 and non-continuous soilsub!ergence, !aintaining soil saturation 3rather than sub!erged conditions5 after #anicleinitiation, or b+ inter!ittent sub!ergence and dr+ing 3as #ro!oted in China5* The increase in$ater-use efficienc+ achie"ed b+ inter!ittent sub!ergence and dr+ing is due to? the s!aller

#ro#ortion of non#roducti"e tillers6 the increase in root acti"it+ and in leaf area and !ass #erste!6 and dela+ed leaf senescence* 7nter!ittent irrigation can also lessen !ethane e!ission inrice fields* For the successful ado#tion b+ far!ers of these #rocedures?

• s+ste!-le"el irrigation $ater control and !anage!ent !ust be acce#table6

• the ter!s of trade of rice #roduction and co!!unit+-le"el agricultural and !arketingsu##ort !ust #ro"ide econo!ic re$ards to far!ers6 and


23/40

• irrigation !anage!ent !ust be strengthened*

Thus, for $ater and irrigation resources on a national scale, there is a$areness of the need for short- and long-ter! strategies and #olicies, including those concerning in"est!ent in $aterand irrigation s+ste!s* Rice irrigation s+ste!s ) to


24/40

rehabilitation 3$ith or $ithout !oderni0ation5 is necessar+ #rior to transfer and essentialtraining* %)@


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201041022 KHOIRUS SOMI#

Soil health and 7ntegrated Plant >utrition

Soils for sub!erged rice culture ha"e an en"iable record of ' ))) +ears of sustained usage*

Onl+ recentl+, in historic ter!s, and as a result of irrigation-facilitated rice-rice cro##ing,ha"e #re"iousl+ #roducti"e rice soils co!e under #ressures leading to degradation -

#h+sicall+, che!icall+ or !icrobiologicall+* A##ro#riate integrated nutrient !anage!ent inrice-based se.uences and s+ste!s !ust therefore? #ro"ide or re#lenish the nutrients re!o"ed

b+ the cro#s6 increase the soil bio!ass6 i!#ro"e Esoil health6 and facilitate ado#tion of high-+ielding cro# culti"ars 3FAO, ()))a5* Table lists the annual rate of !ineral fertili0era##lications for all cro#s 3food and industrial5 in %&&=-&& 3FAO, ()))b and ())%a5, together$ith esti!ates for the a##lication of nitrogen to rice, regardless of $hether to one, t$o orthree rice cro#s #er +ear* These totals relate to !anufactured or #rocessed fertili0ers onl+6nutrients fro! co!#osts and !anures $ould gi"e higher nu!bers*

The >PK aggregate 3!ineral5 a##lication rate e1ceeds ()) kgha+ear 3not #er cro#5 ofnutrients in China, Re#ublic of Korea and Liet >a!6 these rates are sufficientl+ high to createrisk of ad"erse en"iron!ental i!#acts* 4oreo"er, #re"ious national-scale anal+sis of riceculti"ation in Bangladesh, 7ndia, 4+an!ar and Pakistan 3oodhead et a0, %&&PKa##lication #er hectare in !ost of the listed countries* This > rate e1ceeds %=) kgha #er +ear3not cro# season5 in China, 7ndonesia, 7ran, Re#ublic of Korea, 4ala+sia and Liet >a!* 7t is) kgha or less in Ca!bodia, Iao Peoles De!ocratic Re#ublic, 4+an!ar and >e#al? thislo$ rate of > fertili0ation is to so!e e1tent reflected in these countrieslo$ rice +ields3indicati"e for %&&8-())), and aggregated for rainfed and irrigated rice5 3Table 5*

For all rice-s+ste! cro#s, $hether lo$land or u#land, en"iron!ental and econo!icconsiderations dictate that there !ust in future be? an increase in fertili0er-use efficienc+6 an

a##ro#riate balance of >PK su##lies 3indigenous and a##lied56 and a decrease in nutrientlosses* For #otassiu!, in #articular, there is e"idence of ra#id de#letion in intensi"e rice


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s+ste!s 3Dober!ann et a *, %&&=a56 a##ro#riatel+ a##lied #otassiu! can bring econo!ic benefits* Since the onset of the green re"olution, there has been a #rogressi"e de"elo#!ent of !icronutrient deficiencies in intensi"el+ cro##ed Asian soils, in #articular $ith regard to?0inc6 0inc and boron6 0inc, boron, iron and !anganese6 and currentl+ 0inc, boron, iron,!anganese and sul#hur*

Throughout the Asian rice s+ste!s, "igorous #rogra!!es of strategic and a##lied researchand e1tension ha"e e1#lored the #rocesses of sub!erged-soil che!istr+ and !icrobiolog+,.uantif+ing fertili0er-use efficienc+ in agrono!ic and econo!ic ter!s* ell-foundedreco!!endations ha"e subse.uentl+ been !ade for on-far! #ractices and go"ern!ent

#olicies a##ro#riate to these sub!erged-soil regi!es* 7nitiall+, these research and e1tension #rogra!!es deter!ined, usuall+ for irrigated rice, the nutrient efficienc+ and +ield res#onsefor indi"idual !ineral-nutrient for!ulations, for indi"idual #lant- and ani!al-deri"ed!aterials and residues, and for bioche!icall+ fi1ed nitrogen, deter!ining also the influenceof the !ethod and ti!ing of a##lication, the #lant #o#ulation densit+ and geo!etr+, and therice culti"ar 3a critical factor5* Progra!!es of integrated #lant nutrition !anage!ent ha"e

sought to identif+ and e1#loit, #articularl+ for nitrogen, beneficial co!binations of these"arious nutrient !aterials and !anage!ent #rocedures and also of rice and non-rice se.uenceinteractions* 4ore recentl+, #rocedures of integrated cro# !anage!ent are atte!#ting toassist far!ers to co!bine the #rocedures of integrated #lant nutrition !anage!ent $ith thoseof integrated insect #est !anage!ent and $ith best #ractices of land, $ater, $eed and disease!anage!ent* Thus, for better-endo$ed eco0ones and e1tension ser"ices, 7RR7 !akesa"ailable on the 7nternet an on-far! decision-su##ort s+ste! for rice6 this s+ste! includesland, $ater and #est !anage!ent, in addition to nutrient !anage!ent 37RR7, ())%a5*

Progra!!es are increasingl+ addressing the !ore co!#le1 issues of nutrient !anage!ent for non-irrigated rice s+ste!s and se.uences, $hether fa"ourabl+ rainfed lo$land or flood-#rone*For u#land rice, fertili0er a##lications are usuall+ !ini!al* /ffecti"e > !anage!ent is bestachie"ed through the Egood-land-husbandr+ #rocedures of sustainable agricultural resource!anage!ent 3SAR45, featuring >-fi1ing legu!es in agroforestr+ s+ste!s* Iand-le"ellingand the use of leaf colour charts in the field are alread+ #ro"ing highl+ successful inenhancing rice +ields* For e1a!#le, in Ca!bodia, land-le"elling has resulted in a (2 #ercentincrease in rice +ields $ith reco!!ended fertili0er le"els and a () #ercent reduction in total$ater re.uire!ents for cro# #roduction* ith the increasing use of si!#le de"ices 3e*g* so!e%' ))) ICCs :Ieaf Colour Charts; distributed to Fili#ino far!ers and so!e 8' ))) to bedistributed in 7ndonesia b+ 7RR75, nitrogen-use efficienc+ is bound to be considerabl+enhanced 3Cantrell, ()))5*

There is a general need in agriculture and the rural econo!ies to identif+ and #hase out thosesubsidies that encourage and re$ard en"iron!ental degradation and resource !isuse? theE#er"erse and distortionar+ incenti"es 3ADB, ())%a6 7FAD, ())%6 orld Bank, ())%5*/nsuring that ricelands do de#lo+ en"iron!ent-friendl+ and food-#roducti"e #rocedures $illre.uire substantial efforts and resources fro! "arious national and international stakeholders*A##ro#riate #olicies $ill be re.uired $ith attendant regulations and enforce!ent thereof* The!ost #ro!inent of these en"iron!ent-da!aging subsidies are those for fertili0er, $ater,electricit+, credit and li"estock-feed concentrates* %%@


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201241007 AWALUDIN AFADH HAS$ULLAH

Greenhouse gas e!issions

ith regard to agricultures "arious gaseous e!issions into the global at!os#heric

en"iron!ent, it is suggested that agriculture should focus on reducing nitrogen e!issions -forecast to ha"e a greater i!#act on the global cli!ate than carbon e!issions 3FAO, ()))a5*

Agriculture is also a #ro!inent source of a!!onia, contributing to acid rain and hence to treeda!age, as $ell as being a source of the greenhouse gases, !ethane and nitrous o1ide 3FAO,()))a5* Of the annual anthro#ogenic at!os#heric in#uts, agriculture 3of $hich rice accountsfor a substantial #ro#ortion5 contributes about 2) #ercent of nitrous o1ide and so!e


28/40

eco0ones b+ broadcasting urea into the field $ater, or b+ incor#orating it into te!#oraril+drained soil, $hen broadcasting is guided b+ regular !onitoring of #lant-tiller nu!ber or ofrice-leaf colour* 7RR7 re#orts that ' ))) #ieces of lo$-cost ICC $ere distributed to Asianrice far!ers during %&&8-&& 37RR7, ())%a5* Si!ilarl+, for E!i1ed cro#-li"estock s+ste!s,I/AD 3%&&&5 #ro"ides online a Edecision-su##ort toolbo1 for en"iron!ent-friendl+

!anage!ent of li"estock $aste* %(@


29/40

20124104 ENGGAL FA"AR SETIYANI

Biodi"ersit+

The #lant and ani!al biodi"ersit+ of ricelands is greatl+ deter!ined b+ hu!an acti"it+* For

rice, the irrigated eco0ones, in #articular, ha"e in the #ast


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20124105% AHMAD SAU"I

/co-regional as#ects

Rice s+ste!s are usefull+ characteri0ed in ter!s of their $ater regi!e, $hether irrigated,

rainfed lo$land, rainfed flood-#rone or s$a!#land, or rainfed u#land* Cruciall+ 3for the!arginal #roduction 0ones and their inhabitants and for the #ros#ecti"e inter"entions to assistthe!5, the e1tensi"e South Asian and Southeast Asian rainfed !arginal regi!es are anal+sedand delineated in ter!s of subcategories for $hich the constraints and "ulnerabilit+ can bes#ecified, e*g* Edrought-and-sub!ergence-#rone and E$ater-de#th class* A!ong rice-gro$ing countries, both hunger and #o"ert+ are greatest in countries $hich de#end on rainfed3non-irrigated5 rice s+ste!s for !uch of their food #roduction*

Table < .uantifies the har"est areas for each of the four !aor categories of $ater regi!e3$ith the double-cro##ed area counted t$ice and all entries rounded to the nearest % 4ha5*Additionall+, there are !a#s 3uke and uke, %&2(6 uke, %&&=5 delineating these !aor

categories for the $hole of Asia* 4oreo"er, in the last decade and $ith the aid of $ithin-countr+ geogra#hic infor!ation s+ste!s and #ersonnel, detailed anal+sis and !a##ings atdistrict and #ro"incial le"el ha"e been acco!#lished for the subcategories of $ater regi!e*

TABI/ <ar!ested area Mha at &''& for rice sstems of !arious rice-phase /ater regimes

Region 7rrigated Rainfed lo$land Flood#rones$a!#land

Rainfed u#land Total

Asia 8' < %( %( %

/ast Asia ') %= < ' 8'

/ast Asia 3e1cl* China5 %& %< < <


31/40

totals about % 4ha6 although the irrigated sector constitutes onl+ '= #ercent of this totalarea, it generates !ore than 8' #ercent of total rice #roduction*

>onetheless, high #riorit+ is no$ accorded to rainfed lo$lands and to so!e dee#-$ater areas b+ go"ern!ents and ci"il societies in !an+ of those countries in $hich the rainfed areas

co!#rise an a##reciable #ro#ortion of the total rice area* Of the !aor rice-#roducingcountries, rainfed lo$land and dee#-$ater rice is #ro#ortionatel+ e1tensi"e in Bangladesh,Ca!bodia, 7ndia, Iao Peo#les De!ocratic Re#ublic, De!ocratic Peo#les Re#ublic ofKorea, 4+an!ar, >e#al, the Phili##ines and Liet >a!*

ithin the lo$-l+ing and hitherto i!#o"erished dee#-$ater areas of $estern Bangladesh andeastern 7ndia, the last decade has seen the successful ado#tion of se.uences allo$ing thede#lo+!ent of a##ro#riatel+ selected boro rice culti"ars and cro# !anage!ent #rocedures3including Eratoon #rocedures5 $hich take ad"antage of the slo$l+ receding #ost-!onsoon$ater* This recession occurs during the cooler !onths $ith a cloudless sk+, $hen airte!#erature and cro# res#iration and #est #ressures are lo$, solar irradiance and

#hotos+nthesis high, and +ields therefore also high* %


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201241058 HERMAWAN

INITIATE APPROPRIATE POLICIES

7ncreased in"est!ent in rice s+ste!s, rice research and rice technologies de"elo#!ent

As e!#hasi0ed at the orld Food Su!!it? fi"e +ears later 3Nune ())(5, #rogress to$ards the"arious ()%' targets for hal"ing rural undernourish!ent and #o"ert+ is $orr+ingl+ behindschedule* Possible causes include a !arked decline in global assistance 3includingDe"elo#!ent Bank assistance5 to all co!#onents of de"elo#ing $orld agriculture during thedecade %&282&-%&&8&&* 7n South Asia, this decline has been co!#ounded b+ the rate ofgo"ern!ent e1#enditure #er agricultural $orker, $hich is e1tre!el+ lo$ 3belo$ sub-SaharanAfrica5 and decreasing*

This decline has caused an1iet+ a!ong the international de"elo#!ent banks* ADB 3())%b5

re#orts that its loans to su##ort the de"elo#!ent of agriculture and natural resources ande1#ressed as a #ro#ortion of all loans #eaked in the %&2)s at < #ercent6 the+ then declined to& #ercent in %&&8-&&, $ith a slight reco"er+ to %) #ercent in ()))* ADB 3())%c5 describes thedecline as Ealar!ing* Si!ilarl+, the orld Bank 3())%5 describes the decline in lending foragriculture 3fro! %2 to %( to & of total lending in %&&), %&&' and %&&&, res#ecti"el+5 asE#reci#itous* 7FAD 3())%5 calculates that the absolute "alue of global aid to agriculture fell

b+ t$o-thirds during %&28-%&&2* There has been a corres#onding decline in su##ort toagricultural research and agricultural technolog+ de"elo#!ent, including rice research andrice technolog+ de"elo#!ent - des#ite the fact that obecti"e anal+sis has sho$n that of theinter"entions that ha"e hel#ed lessen rural #o"ert+, the t$o !ost effecti"e in 7ndia ha"e beenthe construction of roads and the s#onsoring of agricultural research and de"elo#!ent 3Singh,())%a5* For Bangladesh 3ADB, ()))a5, the greatest i!#act on #o"ert+ $as !ade b+strengthening hu!an ca#ital, follo$ed b+ in"est!ents in #h+sical infrastructure 3notabl+roads and electricit+5 and agrotechnological research and e1tension*

>ational and international de"elo#!ent and financial su##ort s+ste!s, including the orldBank and regional de"elo#!ent banks, such as ADB, !ust re"erse the decline in su##ort toagriculture as a $hole and to national and international rice research and rice technologiesde"elo#!ent* Financial and technical assistance should be #ro"ided on a #riorit+ basis toestablish and effecti"el+ o#erate rice s+ste! checks to bridge +ield and inco!e ga#s*Successful ne$er #aradig!s of de"elo#!ent !ust include !ulti-financing sources, including

#ri"ate, coo#erati"e and non-go"ern!ental organi0ations, although the state should continueto #la+ a !aor strategic, inno"ati"e and enabling role* Dee#-rooted refor!s are needed forin"est!ents in land, $ater and other natural resource de"elo#!ent #rocesses to$ards hungerand #o"ert+ reduction 3Alagh, ())(5* %'@


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20114107 AMIN SUYITNO

Rice !arkets, #rices, econo!ics, globali0ation and e!#lo+!ent

/cono!icall+, rice is i!#ortant to far!ers, #rocessors, !arket-!akers, consu!ers and

go"ern!ents* For go"ern!ents and their !arket inter"entions, the reconciliation of theconflicting interests of #oor far!ers and #oor consu!ers is long-enduring and likel+ to belong-continuing* Si!ilarl+, go"ern!ents of !an+ rice-gro$ing countries consider that Ealarge degree of food self-sufficienc+, as distinct fro! food self-reliance, is desirable to ensurefood securit+ 3FAO, %&&2a5*

Buffer stocks are !aintained for consu!ers, and "er+ #oor fa!ilies 3rural and urban5 !a+recei"e rice at subsidi0ed #rices* For the far!ers, !an+ of $ho! are s!allholders generating.uite s!all !arketable sur#luses, !arket inter"ention #olicies in"ol"e so!e !easure of #ricesu##ort* Such #olicies !a+ include go"ern!ent #rotection against har"est-season i!#orts andinternational rice #rice "olatilit+ 3des#ite the fact that the #ro#ortion of rice traded

internationall+ is onl+ = #ercent of total #roduction, $hich is !uch less than for $heat andcoarse grains5* Conse.uentl+, in !ost rice-gro$ing countries rice #roduction has increased

#rogressi"el+ in recent decades 3Table %5*

For the !arket-!akers, go"ern!ents ha"e generall+ encouraged #ri"ate trading, though $itha##ro#riate controls* o$e"er, there has recentl+ been a substantial and global decline in$ithin-countr+ rice #rices* This decline has caused concern a!ong rice far!ers and !arket-!akers, and a!ong i!#orters and e1#orters and their go"ern!ents 3$hich ha"eunderstandabl+ ado#ted #rotecti"e !easures5*

Rice-#roduction econo!ics at far! le"el is !uch deter!ined b+ rice +ield and b+ theefficienc+ $ith $hich resources and finances are used to generate such +ield* Gi"en thecontinuing constraints to increases in far!gate rice #rices, it is necessar+ to decrease the costsof rice #roduction, and increase the efficienc+ of the use of resources6 rice can thus re!ain a!arket-co!#etiti"e #roduct and far!-fa!il+ inco!es !a+ be raised*

Rice #roduction s+ste!s and rice econo!ies at national le"el ha"e e"ol"ed together $ithAsian ci"ili0ation* Rice s+ste!s can for! a basis for sustainable agriculture and ruralde"elo#!ent* Contain!ent of costs !ust be achie"ed through !ore efficient use of resourcesand b+ increased s+ste! di"ersit+ and "alue-adding enter#rise and !arketing* There is acorres#onding need for !ore e.uitable access to #roduction resources and e!#lo+!ent

o##ortunities, $hich !ust be achie"ed $ith !ini!al ad"erse i!#acts on other sectors ofsociet+ and the econo!+*

The orld Trade Organi0ations General S+ste! of Preferences 3GSP5 establishes thatde"elo#ed countries !ust #ro"ide non-reci#rocal #references to de"elo#ing countries6ne"ertheless, the global rice trade is characteri0ed b+ for!idable tariffs set b+ !an+de"elo#ed countries* 7ndeed, $hile the $orld-a"erage tariff for non-agricultural #roducts is <

#ercent, for agricultural #roducts it is


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7FPR7 3%&&25 calculates that for e"er+ 9SQ%*) increase in far! out#ut 3including rice far!out#ut5 in the de"elo#ing $orld, there is an additional 9SQ)*8 of i!#orts 39SQ)*%8 of $hichare agricultural i!#orts5 #redo!inantl+ fro! de"elo#ed countries* The increase in far!out#ut results in an increase in rural e!#lo+!ent 3in #articular for $o!en5 and hel#s lessen

#o"ert+* 7t is, therefore, in the econo!ic interests of de"elo#ed countries and of de"elo#ing

rice-gro$ing countries to facilitate ointl+ the econo!ic de"elo#!ent of rice #roductions+ste!s*

7n relation to the interaction bet$een agricultural #roduction, rural e!#lo+!ent and inco!egeneration, studies of 7ndia and 4ala+sia 3FAO, %&&2b5 and of Bangladesh, 7ndonesia,Pakistan and Thailand 3ADB, ())%c5 de!onstrate that a %*) #ercent increase in agriculturalout#ut "alue 3including rice out#ut "alue5 results in a )*'-%*) #ercent increase in the out#utsof the associated non-far! sector*

These increased acti"ities in the on-far! 3rice-#roduction5 and non-far! 3"alue-adding5sectors ha"e corres#onding #ositi"e i!#lications for the #reser"ation of e1isting rural

e!#lo+!ent and for the creation of ne$ e!#lo+!ent* For ne$ e!#lo+!ent, it is highl+rele"ant to national econo!ies that the Ecost of a rural $ork#lace is substantiall+ less than thecost of an urban $ork#lace 3FAO, ()))e5* %=@


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201241024 MUHAMMAD SILAHUDDIN

u!an resources strengthening, co!!unications and coo#eration

7n all rice-gro$ing countries, #ro-acti"e skills and "ocational training are a $orth$hile

national in"est!ent, #re#aring current and future far!ers 3!en and $o!en5 for thetransfor!ed rice-s+ste! agriculture of ()%)-()() and ()()-()) 37FAD, ())%6 FAO, %&&&b5*Skills are re.uired in "arious areas?

• !anage!ent of the ne$ t+#es of rice #lant and of non-rice cro#s, including oil cro#s

and feed cro#s and #erha#s biofuel cro#s, gro$n in se.uence or in association $ithrice6

• #oultr+ and ru!inant !anage!ent using !odern techni.ues of husbandr+,

re#roduction, health and h+giene6 and

• !anage!ent of the co!#le1ities of the integrated far! s+ste!, including financialand "alue-adding and !arketing as#ects*

o$e"er, fe$ rice far!ers ha"e for!al education be+ond #ri!ar+ le"el, and !an+ ha"e note"en co!#leted #ri!ar+ schooling* The+ do, ho$e"er, ha"e indigenous kno$ledge ofagricultural #ractices and econo!ics* For these far!ers, a##ro#riate training !a+ be best

#ro"ided through agricultural e1tension #rogra!!es, #erha#s ado#ting the FAO !odel ofEfar!er field schools, $ith e!#hasis on Etraining of trainers and Elead far!ers* Such

#rocedures ha"e had notable success in training $o!en far!ers in seed collection and!anage!ent* The Rice-heat Consortiu! 3()))5 re#orts e1cellent results in Bangladesh fora $ell-#re#ared E$hole-fa!il+ training #rogra!!e $hich dealt $ith the #ractical as#ects of$heat !anage!ent $ithin rice-$heat-s+ste! far!ing6 this #articular training !ethodolog+ isdesigned to trans!it to fa!il+-run far! enter#rises the enthusias!, d+na!is! and ne$kno$ledge of the +oung, and the $isdo! and e1#erience of their elders*

But different #olicies and strategies are needed for the far!ers of the future $ho alread+recei"e the benefit 3not a"ailable to their forebears5 of a for!al education* So!e of thefar!ers of the future !a+ $ish to beco!e s#ecialists in a #articular cro# or li"estockco!!odit+* The de"elo#!ent and ada#tation of the field school !odel !ust take ad"antageof their increased literac+, nu!erac+ and co!#uter co!#etence* Such de"elo#!ent andada#tation should assist rice far!ers, associated entre#reneurs, future e1tension officers and

ada#ti"e researchers to ac.uire the agricultural and entre#reneurial e1#ertise needed so thatthe+ !a+ share in the increases in national $ealth that shall deri"e fro! the generale1#ansion of Asian econo!ies 3ADB, ())%b5*

Policies should ai! to strengthen course !aterials and #ro"ide skilled e1tensionists 3fe!aleand !ale5 to facilitate technical training and adult education for s!allholder fa!ilies,ada#ting, $here a##ro#riate, fa!il+ training #rocedures in order to? strengthen the technicalkno$ledge of $o!en fa!il+ !e!bers6 access agrono!ic and socio-econo!ic e1#ertise6 andengage the interest and enthusias!, and ac.uire the u#-to-date kno$ledge of older children*Policies are re.uired to ada#t and ado#t e1isting training !odules 3including >GO-#re#ared!odules5 of best #ractices, success cases and decision-su##ort s+ste!s for rice and non-rice

cro#s, li"estock and rice-field fish, of sustainable resource and co!!on #ro#erties!anage!ent, and of "alue-adding and #ost-har"est technologies and enter#rise !anage!ent*


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Policies and training are needed to de"elo# skills 3technical, ad!inistrati"e, financial and$ithin e1isting seed regulator+ regi!es5 so that rural $o!en can e1#and and directco!!unit+-based seed !anage!ent enter#rises*

Rice co!!unit+ adult education could include !ulti-agenc+ curricula addressing di"erse

rural to#ics and featuring as#ects of? financial !anage!ent 3in enter#rises and households56nutrition, health, h+giene and sanitation6 and the for!ation and o#eration of grou#s,associations and coo#erati"es* o!en-s#ecific sessions should e!#hasi0e as#ects of!aternit+ care and of !other-and-child !icronutrition so as to enhance the nutritional use ofa"ailable food and lessen the incidence of lo$-bod+-!ass fe!ales, and so as to describe andencourage ho!e garden contributions to fa!il+ nutrition*

Policies and in"est!ents could also enable !ulti-agenc+ su##ort for rural infor!ation andkno$ledge-sharing to and fro!? far! fa!ilies6 e1tensionists, researchers and >GOs6!icrofinance and agricultural-in#uts su##liers6 and non-agricultural rural entities* Suchinfor!ation-sharing $ould #ass through "arious channels? far!er field schools6 fa!il+

se!inars6 $orksho#s6 !onitoring tours6 brochures6 re#orts6 tele"ision and radio6 and 7nternetand tele#hone facilities for access to !arket infor!ation*

4an+ e1cellent e1tension and training !aterials are currentl+ under-used b+ their intended #ractitioners, as the+ are onl+ a"ailable in /nglish* o$e"er, for al!ost all rice-gro$ingeco0ones there are no$ co!#uter soft$are #ackages $hich can translate these /nglishlanguage !aterials into the local language $ith relati"el+ little effort and cost* A"igorous andselecti"e #rogra!!e of translations and co#ublication $ould constitute a "er+ cost-effecti"ein"est!ent b+ go"ern!ents or donors*

SUMMARYAND CONCLUSIONS

There are indeed !an+ challenges and !an+ o##ortunities $here$ith to sustain and enhancerice #roduction in Asia and the Pacific region* Such increased #roduction and the associatedinco!e generation can also i!#ro"e li"elihoods, #articularl+ for the #oorest of the #oor andfor "er+ hungr+ children*

The sustained and enhanced #roducti"it+ and #roduction of Asian rice and riceland isfunda!ental to the $orlds food securit+ and its #olitico-econo!ic stabilit+* The science-ledrice re"olution $hich triggered the green re"olution in the %&=)s led to a significant dro# in

the le"el of hunger and #o"ert+ in rice-gro$ing Asia* The effort !ust be sustained and dul+adusted according to ne$ challenges and o##ortunities in order to !eet the ()%' rice #roduction targets and achie"e the orld Food Su!!it goal of hal"ing the nu!ber of!alnourished #ersons b+ ()%'* 7n !ore recent +ears, although rice #roduction has fallenslightl+ 3due !ostl+ to the shar# decline in rice #rices5, rice +ields !ust be steadil+ i!#ro"edin order to achie"e the #roduction target* Per ca#ut consu!#tion of rice in !ost countries ise1#ected to stabili0e at the current le"el, or e"en to decline slightl+, #articularl+ in a largecountr+ like China* Further!ore, the regions #o#ulation gro$th has considerabl+decelerated* et, the Asian ricelands !ust considerabl+ increase rice #roduction, reaching'


37/40

• #reser"e and reali0e the gains achie"ed during the green re"olution, es#eciall+

bridging the +ield ga#s and reducing #ost-har"est losses6

• increase the #otential for rice +ields and "alue-adding enter#rises6

• facilitate integrated and en"iron!ent-friendl+ natural resources !anage!ent6 and

• initiate a##ro#riate #olicies for in"est!ent, including those in research and

technolog+ de"elo#!ent, trade liberali0ation and globali0ation, institutional su##orts,gender !ainstrea!ing and hu!an resources de"elo#!ent*

Fortunatel+, there are nu!erous technological, social, econo!ic, institutional andinfrastructural o##ortunities for addressing the "arious challenges and constraints to increasedsustainabilit+ and #roducti"it+* The !obili0ation of $orld o#inion, led b+ the orld FoodSu!!it in Nune ())(, leads to o#ti!is! for increased national and international resourcesand #olitical co!!it!ent to co!bat hunger and #o"ert+ - fro! $hich rice-based li"elihoodscan onl+ benefit*

FAO, in #articular RAP, in #artnershi# $ith national and international s+ste!s andinstitutions concerned, is $ell #ositioned to hel# initiate and su##ort necessar+ inter"entionsto sustain and enhance Asian and global rice #roduction* 7t can contribute technical, social,econo!ic and institutional e1#ertise, e1#erience and technical assistance to the "ariousre.uired endea"ours and #rogra!!es* %8@

R010R02C0S

A"agh, $.K. ())(* Agricultural in"est!ent strategies? #rioriti0ing land and $ater* 7n Investment in and and &ater * RAPPublication ())()&* Bangkok, Thailand, FAO*

A3B. ()))* 3ighting poverty in Asia and the 4acific. he poverty-reduction strategy*4anila, Phili##ines*


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1acon, T. ())(* 7n"esting in irrigation and drainage in the conte1t of $ater #olic+ andinstitutional refor!* 7n Investment in and and &ater * RAP Publication ())()&* Bangkok,Thailand, FAO*

1A8. %&&%* Rice-husk gasification technoogy in Asia* RAPPublication %&&%)(* Bangkok,

Thailand*

1A8. %&&8* Moderni*ation of irrigation schemes* RAP Publication %&&8((* Bangkok,Thailand*

1A8. %&&2a* 4overty aeviation and food security in Asia. 9essons and chaenges* RAPPublication %&&&)%* Bangkok, Thailand*

1A8. %&&2b* he state of food and agricuture. !"":0 Ro!e, 7tal+*

1A8. %&&&a* Moderni*ation of irrigation-system operations* RAP Publication %&&&


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u:e, R.0. 7 u:e, 0.. %&2(* Rice area by type of cuture* Phili##ines, 7RR7*

u:e, R.0. %&&=* =igiti*ed maps of rice area by type of cuture* Phili##ines, 7RR7*

usain, A.M.M., ossain, M. 7 5anaiah, A. ())%* 6ybrid rice adoption in 1angadesh*

BARC research !onogra#h series >o* %2* Dhaka*


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$uan, 9.P. ())(* 3uture outook on hybrid rice research and deveopment * Fourth7nternational S+!#osiu! on +brid Rice, anoi, Liet >a!, 4a+ ())(*

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