46 Social Work Intervention with Individuals and Groups

3

Practice of Social Casework* P.D. Misra

Introduction

So far we have seen that social casework addressesitself to the solution of problems that block or minimizethe effectiveness of the individual in various roles. In asociety of rapid change and development, the scientificbase and the knowledge and philosophical assumptionsregarding the worth and value of the individual havenot changed. However, new theories and new modelsof practice have developed in response to the experienceof practitioners to the many situations they encounter.As Florence Hollis states in her article, “ ThePsychosocial Approach to the Practice ofCasework”(1972), that casework concepts are dynamic,they change, grow and develop as they are shaped bynew experience and knowledge.

Brief History of the Casework Process

Mary Richmond may be thought of as the conceptualfounder of casework. In 1917, in her book, “SocialDiagnosis’’, she described the three basic categories inthe theory of social work practice. They are (a)Investigation or Fact finding, (b) Diagnosis, and(c) Treatment. The process, according to Richmondbegan with the gathering of evidence or investigationfollowed by a critical examination and comparison ofevidence. The second category was the diagnosis,wherein an attempt was made to arrive at a definition

* Prof. P.D. Misra, Department of Social Work, Lucknow

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of the social situation, knowledge of the causes andpersonality of a given client. Last came its interpretationand the definition of the social difficulty. Richmond usedthe word diagnosis more frequently when describingthe whole process; she felt that the word diagnosis wasa better word than investigation as the former belongedto the end of the process. However, social work writerslike Florence Hollis, Evelyn Davison and several othersexpressed that the term diagnosis had beenborrowed from medicine and therefore gave a falseimpression of the caseworker. It led to the necessityfor discovering the etiology of each “illness” as thoughit were some internal infection. Then treatment wasfocused on dealing with some internal bacterium thatwas causing some symptoms of fever and aches andpains. The caseworker does not diagnose pathology andprescribe a remedy, but working alongside the client,seeks gradually to come to an understanding of theclient and his/her problem. Diagnosis in medicine,according to the critics suggests a completed appraisalbefore treatment, which may not be true in casework.In casework both diagnosis and treatment proceedtogether. Since client worker relationship is the mediumthrough which help is offered, treatment begins at themoment when the client and the worker first meet,and continues as long as the case remains active. Sinceclients and problems are ever changing, diagnosis incasework must also be a continuing process. Besideswhen treatment was used as the almost partner of theterm ‘diagnosis’, it was felt that the worker manipulatedthe client- doing something to the client rather thanwith him/her. The idea of partnership was lacking asalso the respect for the client’s right to direct his/heraffairs.

Caseworkers for several years attempted to use the

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knowledge about the causes. It served as an aid inunderstanding the development of behaviour. It was alsoused as a substitute for intervention knowledge on theassumption that understanding how a problem cameabout also provides information about how to changethat problem. For instance, understanding a body ofknowledge such as the Freudian theory was sufficientfor carrying out treatment or intervention. Very sooncasework critics realized that causal knowledge is notoften related to treatment or intervention knowledgerather it cannot be equated with treatment. What wasneeded was to have a separate and an entirely differentset of principles and procedures to carry out anintervention. Several writers like Gordon Hamilton,Hollis, Turner and others evolved various sets ofprocedures and techniques of intervention for guidingchange in clients.

Gradually the approach faced changes as it wasinfluenced by the socio-economic events of the 1920’sand 1930’s, as well as by the growth of social theory. Itredirected its attention to the fact that individuals livein a world of here and now, or in a series of situations.Living in a series of situations means “interaction isgoing on between an individual and other persons.”Subsequently the use of the principle of interactionbrought with it the dynamic conception of socialcasework as a process of helping.

Phases in the Social Casework Process

Study, assessment, intervention, termination andevaluation are the main divisions of the social caseworkprocess. They are the threads of the process that willcontinue to be interwoven throughout the socialcasework process. We, as social workers would logicallyplace study, assessment, intervention, termination and

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evaluation in that order. Actually these steps are notperformed in sequence, and as Gordon Hamilton saidthey are woven in and out, one process parallelinganother. She further explained that we made atentative or temporary diagnosis in the beginning andeven planned out a treatment. However, our minds goon drawing inferences and we continue in thepreparation of the study to understand the client better.Intervention or treatment begins with the first contact.According to Skidmore the study process is treatmentwhen it helps the client to clarify the problem for himor herself, and to make changes in or her life situationresulting from this understanding. Since ourassessment is on ‘persons’ and not ‘problems’ and whilewe are trying to understand the nature of the problem,we are also trying to understand what sort of personhas the problem. So understanding the person is acontinuous process. As long as the assessmentcontinues the phases of study, intervention,termination and evaluation continue to recur. Thephases may overlap and may proceed simultaneously.However, there tends to be an emphasis in time onone or the other. Although, specific stages are not therule, the processes, though interwoven, should bestated in orderly stages of procedure or the case maylose its focus and may drift.

Study, Assessment, Intervention,Termination, Evaluation and theirApplications to Social Casework Practice

In the study phase the client presents the problem.This phase begins with the caseworker involving theclient fully in the process. The essential functions ofthe worker are to facilitate the client to participate andinteract in the process.

50 Social Work Intervention with Individuals and Groups

This stage is crucial because the client makes theimportant decision of whether to enter into thetreatment. Whether to accept or decline a service isthe client’s decision. The client, not the worker makesthe choice. So the initial contact needs to be fruitfuland constructive to encourage the client to continue inthe service.

Client-Worker Communication

The worker’s attitude is an important controlling factorin what the client decides. At this juncture, the workeris guided by the basic values of social work. Showingrespect for the worth and dignity of the client profoundlyinfluence the worker’s practice with individuals. Workerbelieves in the ‘worth’ value which places the individualin a position of ‘eminence’. Where a client is placedabove objects and institutions, worth caring for becausehe or she is an individual. While communicating thisvalue, the worker reinforces the problem-solvingcapacity, worth and self-affirmation in the client. Workeralso applies his/her skill and knowledge in helpingclients to decide, to express individuality andambivalence in socially approved ways. This helps theclient to achieve social enhancement and personalgrowth.

It is the first task of the worker to hear the client’sdescription of his problem, catching not only the wordsbut also their meaning --- what is said and what is unsaidare important. Mary Richmond described the firstinterview in the book, ‘Social Diagnosis’ as an opportunityfor a full and patient hearing and for getting an idea ofthe client’s attitude towards life. A sense of leisure,even within the limited time, conveys to the client thatthe worker regards him as a person of worth to whomthe worker wishes to give the time that is needed for

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full understanding. A rapport is established where inthe worker is natural, outgoing, and at ease. Workertakes definite steps to establish the so called emotionalbridge over which factual data regarding the client andhis/her problem pass to the worker and back, overwhich interpretations and guidance pass from workerto the client.

Much of this type of communication takes place throughnonverbal or para verbal means---nods, smiles, and anattentive posture. The worker usually tries, by givingthe client an empathetic hearing, to lessen anxiety andgive the client the feeling that he or she is in a placewhere help will be given. Remarks such as “You arelooking well today” or “I can understand how difficultthat must have been” or “Such feelings are natural”are some illustrations.

Two factors are important in this stage --- the client’strust in the worker’s competence and his/her trust inthe worker’s goodwill. The way the client sees the workerdepends a great deal on the worker’s true interest inhelping the client, his/her warmth and his/heracceptance of the client. The worker’s way of greetingthe client, his/her tone of voice, facial expression, andposture, as well as his/her verbal expression and theactual content of his/her communications will allcontribute to how the client feels about the worker.The worker will have to show his/her competence byunderstanding the client’s needs and feelings, by his/her knowledge of resources and by the skill with whichhe/ she enables the client to communicate. Theemphasis during the interaction is on the ‘here andnow’ and on the problem. The problem may not be aswhat is seen by the worker but as experienced at themoment by the client. This relationship, which isestablished between the two, is therefore a central

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means of help in casework. Perlman describes it as ‘anattitude of attentiveness, respect, compassion andsteadiness’ and adds, ‘‘It is this demonstration ofsympathetic attitudes and intent that, more than words,encourage the client to begin to tell his/her troubles.”

Understanding the Client

Study basically involves three main activities, whichwill help in understanding the client:

a) Ascertaining the facts;

b) Pondering their meaning; and

c) Deciding upon the means of help.

Ascertaining the Facts

According to the Oxford Dictionary ‘a fact is a thingcertainly known to have occurred or to be true, a datumof experience.’ Facts may be a present fact or fact ofhistory, it may be tangible or intangible. All these factsare important in casework often the intangible onesmost of all. The next issue that we need to addressourselves is: What facts do we really need in order tohelp? Data on the client’s feelings and emotions,communicated in the interview are of great relevanceand provide important clues regarding the problem. Italso helps in understanding the way the client perceivesthe problem and the way the client has handled theproblem in the past. A client cannot be isolated fromthe family. Study of the family gives a clear insight intothe relationship and interactional pattern amongst thefamily members and more importantly between the clientand the family.

There are three aspects on which the worker may focusthe study of the client’s family:

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1) The influences in the family, which shaped the earlyyears.

2) The way the family relates to the problem and theclient.

3) The way it reacts to the worker’s intervention.

Such data are useful for assessment purposes and fordecisions on treatment goals.

The amount of information, which a worker needs inorder to help his/her client effectively, varies greatly.In some cases long and detailed exploration may beessential, in others it may be unnecessary. Thecasework skill here is the ability to determine whateach case requires.

To illustrate: For any child care officer, when planningto receive a child into care, particularly if this is likelyto be long-term, it is essential to have a thoroughunderstanding of the child’s home background and ofthe kind of life experience he/she has had so far.Worker, therefore, needs to understand what is likelyto be relevant in any problem, which falls within a givencategory.

Tools and Techniques in the Study Process

Interviews with the client and those significantly involvedin the situation can motivate, can teach, can secureinformation and can help the client to bring out things,which are bothering him/her. It is also one of the bestways of observing a person’s behaviour. Records anddocuments also have a special place. Collateral contactsare also helpful as these are contacts other than theclient or his or her immediate family, for example,schools, hospitals, employers and relatives.

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Assessment

Assessment is the understanding of the psychosocialproblem brought to the worker by the client.Assessment means to ‘know through’ or recognizing orunderstanding thoroughly; it attempts to answer thequestion ‘ what is the matter”. As Hamilton says ‘it is arealistic, thoughtful, frank and “scientific” attempt tounderstand the client’s present need. Assessmentbegins with a further elaboration of the problem by theclient giving the worker a better perspective andunderstanding of the problem. As the case progressesand more information are added, the initial impressionsare established, changed or even rejected. There is acircular quality about assessment. It never stops duringthe casework process. As Skidmore and Thackeray saythat it is fluid and dynamic as it is ever changing,beginning at study and continuing to termination.

Drawing of tentative inferences begins with the firstinterview and observation continues throughout thecase. All skills rest in knowing what to look for, what todisregard and how to review the findings in the light ofthe present data. As one moves along with the client toexplore, the meaning of the facts becomes clearer. Whenone asks relevant questions, helps the client to bringout the necessary data, whether he/she is telling abouthis/her current situation, his/her life experience, orhis/her purposes in using the agency, whether he/shearranges with us for a home or collateral visit or for aninterview between the worker and another member ofthe family, one comes to an understanding of theproblem and the person who has the problem.

Tasks of the Worker

One of the tasks of the worker in this phase is to arriveat causes and this means a more precise definition

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and a description of the problem. For example, whenthe client tells the worker that he is not able to getalong well with his wife, we note this as an instance of‘marital discord’ which need to be further defined anddescribed. However, as a complete definition of the caseis not always possible and final, the assessment needsto be reviewed from time to time.

Another task of the worker is to establish causalrelationships. Use of causal knowledge focuses onanswering the question, Why did a given state of affairscome about? Thus, a caseworker might use suchknowledge to understand how and why a particularindividual developed as he or she did. For example, theboy runs away from school and does not return homebecause he is jealous of his younger sibling, or thechild’s aggressive behaviour was because of his earlyrejection by his mother. Here we are looking at theinterplay between the client and other people and theinteractions within them in order to understand howchange in one part may affect another part. In otherwords we are looking at the causes of a specificsituation.

We do not seek to know the past because we feel thatthe past is structured in the present. Failures inadaptation in the past are usually carried over and maybe seen in the client’s functioning in the presentsituation even in the interview itself.

The worker is constantly making a review of thestrengths and limitations of the client and assessinghow the client is coping with the situation. Assessmenttherefore refers to the analysis of strengths, capacities,limitations, motivation and opportunities of the client.Eventually the net result of assessment guides theworker in planning out the intervention.

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Role of the Worker

The role of the worker is essentially that of aknowledgeable person. The worker in a helping roleapplies his or her knowledge of life situations andunderstanding of human behaviour. A thoroughknowledge of Freud’s personality theory may beessential. The functioning of the many aspects of theinteracting forces such as id, ego and superego, includinghow the individual’s defences operate is considered ofprimary importance in assessing the client’s capacityto deal with the problem and the extent to which he/she is contributing to his/her own problem. Any body ofknowledge that focuses on understanding humanbehaviour, whether in terms of personality or societybecomes essential. This is the reason why we studythe subjects in our courses --- dynamics of humanbehaviour and individual and society.

We also need to understand the nature and dynamicsof role expectations as they influence the individual’sshaping of his/her own behaviour, his/her expectationsof how others will act, his/her interpretations of theiractions and consequently his/her response to theiractions and their response to his/her.

An assessment does not result in categorization ofindividuals or in labeling of problems. It furtherfacilitates the worker to use psychosocial classificationssay for example, according to socio-economic class,which is often represented by education plus occupationand income or physical disease for which theclassification is arrived at by the doctor or breakdownsor inadequacies in social functioning which may beclassified into, for instance, parent-child adjustmentproblem or learning problem. Classifications may be keptflexible keeping in view the dynamic and changing lifesituation. Questions, comments and in many non-verbal

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ways, the worker communicates to the client to furtherelaborate the problem as may be required forintervention. A mutual agreement is maintainedbetween the worker and the client. Goals are setaccording to the client’s needs and the availability ofservices.

Intervention

Technical definitions of “intervene” as given inWebster’s Dictionary include “to come in or between byway of modification” and “to come between in action”.Intervention knowledge would include that knowledgewhich helps caseworkers bring about change in thosesituations with which they are concerned. Thisknowledge focuses on the questions, What can be doneto modify this situation, and will it be effective?

Intervention begins with the set of goals as decidedtogether by the client and the worker. Goals, asmentioned earlier are determined by the client’s needsand the availability of external resources if the serviceswithin the agency are not available. The ultimateobjective of the worker is to reduce the client’s distressand decrease the malfunctioning in the client’s situationor to put it positively as Hollis says it is to enhance theclient’s comfort, satisfaction and self- realization. Herewe must look at client motivation and client strengthsand at how the situation can be modified or changed.

According to Skidmore and Thackeray, Intervention isguided by a set of principles, which are as follows:

1) The client’s right to decide his or her own course ofaction. Worker considers the limits of the client’scapacity to make sound choices. This is encouragedand respected by the worker, knowing that onesmall achievement can be a stepping-stone forfurther development.

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2) Acceptance of the client’s capacity to change andthat he/she can and will utilize his /her resourcesto improve.

3) Social work relates to strengths rather thansickness or disorder. Limitations are handled andrecognized realistically.

4) Knowledge about the client’s family and the varioussituations related to it are used responsibly for thewelfare of the family. The worker shares thisinformation appropriately with the knowledge andconsent of the client.

5) Worker is responsible not only to the client but tohim or herself, the agency, the community and theprofession.

Categories of Intervention

Intervention can be of three types: a) Direct,b) Environmental modification, and (c) Administrationof a practical service

a) By direct methods of intervention is meant a seriesof interviews carried out with a purpose of helpingthe client make constructive decisions, maintainan emotional balance and reinforce attitudesfavourable to growth and change. They are calleddirect as they involve face-to-face interaction. Theseinclude counselling, supportive techniques likeacceptance, assurance, and facilitation of expressionof feelings, accrediting and building of self-confidence, and being with the client. Counsellingtechniques are inclusive of the supportivetechniques as in the beginning phase of the clientworker communication, use of supportive techniquesis necessary for a professional relationship.However, as Grace Mathew says they need to be

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considered as two sets of techniques as supportivetechniques and not always followed by counsellingtechniques even though counselling techniques arealways preceded by one or more supportivetechniques.

Counselling is intended to help a person in a rationalway to sort out the issues in his/her situation, toclarify his/her problems and conflicts, to discussthe various options and help make choices.Counselling, to some extent is an educationalprocess and is used only for individual counsellingthat calls for professional training, education andexperience. Some of the important counsellingtechniques are reflective discussion, giving advice,motivation, clarification, correcting perception,modeling, anticipatory guidance, role playing, realityorientation, partialisation, interpretation,universalisation and confrontation. (For moredetails of these counselling techniques read thebook, “An Introduction to Social Casework” by GraceMathew.)

Supportive techniques : Acceptance, which is a basictechnique of helping, is conveyed through wordsand the overall behaviour is visible to the client.Further, it is characterized by the way the workerdemonstrates warmth and genuineness to theclient. The way the client is received and listenedto, is important in creating a feeling of beingaccepted. One way to accept the client is toempathize rather than sympathize. Sympathy is thefeeling of concern, compassion or sorrow, whileempathy refers to the ability of entering into anotherperson’s ‘shoes’ or mental state and to feel thelatter’s feelings. Worker has to guard himself orherself from sympathizing with a client.

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Assurance is a technique used by the worker tohelp the client understand that his/her feelingsare not judged and that the worker is not shockedat hearing the client expresses feelings of hatred,jealousy, resentment and anger. The worker canmake statements that are assuring like “I canunderstand how you feel” or “it is natural to havesuch feelings in such circumstances”.

Facilitation of expression of feelings is a techniqueof helping the client to vent his/her feelings. Strongfeelings that are bottled up can create blocks inthinking. In such cases it is essential for the workerto help the client to express and the worker acts asa prodder and prompter.

Accrediting and building of self-confidence refersto the worker pointing out to the client his/herstrengths and giving him/her due credit for thetasks performed. This helps the client build up his/her confidence.

Being with the client is a technique that is essentialwhen the client loses confidence or is weighed downwith anxiety and is unable to make decision or carryout his/her tasks. In such instances the presenceof the worker will serve as a support.

b) According to Hamilton environmental modificationrefers to all attempts to correct or improve thesituation in order to reduce strain and pressure.The emphasis here is on modifying the situation.This method is often referred to as an indirectmethod of intervention as the focus is on the changeof physical environment, or an alteration of any ofthe social systems, which may be essential for theclient for better functioning. For example, the client

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may be encouraged to join a recreational or othergroup, so that he/she may be able to function better,or arranging programmes to reduce strain for theslow learners for whom competitive situations areto be avoided.

c) Administration of a practical service as Hamiltonsays is one of the oldest and best known of thecasework methods of intervention. In this methodthe worker helps the client to choose and to use asocial resource or service provided by the agency.Many times the client knows what he/she wants,but does not know where or how to get it. The clientis served in one’s own agency or sent to anotheragency where he/she is best served. Providingmaterial help, legal aid, medical care and arrangingfor camps are examples of practical services. Theworker needs to have a thorough knowledge ofcommunity resources, use them selectively andeconomically.

Termination

Termination as used in social work means the endingof a process that began when the agency agreed to enterinto the interventive process. The processes of study,assessment and intervention do not continue forever.The worker and the client together understand andplan out termination.

Termination is also the stage when the client can lookback with satisfaction on what has been accomplished.Worker takes the initiative, outlines realistic goals,confirms the importance of what the client can do andis expected to do in resolving the problem. Terminationin other words is the signal that the worker uses toconfirm that the worker has confidence in the client’s

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ability to learn to cope with situations and to grow. Therole of the worker is of an enabler and also as a resourcefor the client in the present situation.

Termination planning removes certain wrong notionsthat arise in the client about shifting the responsibilityto the agency or to the worker, thus avoiding the feelingof dependency and false hope by some clients. As therelationship gradually comes to a close, the workerreviews the total number of gains made in theinterventive process. This review, based on worker’sobservations and client’s contributions will also includea self-assessment by the client. This phase is basicallyhighlighted by the reassurance of the client in his /her readiness and willingness to function moreeffectively.

Evaluation

Evaluation is the process of attaching a value to thesocial work practice. It is a method of knowing whatthe outcomes are.

Evaluation is done for three important purposes, whichare:

1) To let the agency and the worker know if their effortshave brought fruitful results in the service provided.

2) For public relations.

3) To build a case for promoting funds.

Casework practices need to be evaluated from time totime. This subject needs to be tested and researchedand most importantly needs ongoing validation. Theyneed to be proved to the public that they are effectiveand beneficial to the clients. Casework practice shouldbe subjected to critical review. Workers need to be held

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accountable for what they do and for their social workcompetence. Workers need to win approval from thepublic for their programmes. They may sometimes haveto be told that their services are overlapping andineffective. Workers have to enhance their own imageand also of the agency to develop public relations. Theclients need to give a feedback on the effectiveness ofthe services.

Recording

Recording is important as it publicizes to the public aboutthe efficiency of the services. Facts have to be gathered,organized and recorded for measurement of results.

Case Illustration

Study

Suresh was a twelve-year-old boy who had problems oflying, stealing and cheating in examinations. His overallperformance in school and particularly in class was farfrom satisfactory. He also had a behaviour problem,which involved hitting other children, kicking variousobjects in the classroom, and swearing when otherchildren hit back, or when the teacher corrected him.

Suresh belonged to a middle class family, whichconsisted of his father, Ramesh, mother Saundarya andone sister Seema, two years younger to him. Rameshworked as a driver in a private firm and his job seemeddemanding. The children rarely saw their father, leavealone talk to him. Saundarya, his mother was sick mostof the time, looked weak and lethargic. She could barelymanage the home and take care of the children. As aresult the home and the children were badly neglected.

Suresh found it difficult to relate to his mother as shewas in bed most of the time. He spent a lot of his time

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with his friends in the neighbourhood and was hardlyseen at home. From his talk and behaviour it could beinferred that he was greatly influenced by his peergroup.

Assessment

The worker tried to look for the underlying causes ofSuresh’s behaviour or try to get at the why’s of it. Takinga ‘social history’ was the purpose of the worker’s efforts.What was also important was to look at ‘here and now’and on the present problem. Saundarya’s ill health,consequently leading to Suresh being neglected werepartially some of the causes contributing to the problem.Ramesh’s indifference to the responsibility of takingcare and showing love to the children were also theother factors. The teacher in school did not make effortsto provide the right kind of emotional support that hewas craving for. He had confidence only in his friendsand that was the solace that he looked forward to.

Intervention

First and foremost the worker tried to communicate toSuresh in a warm and non-threatening manner. Shedemonstrated a genuine concern to his problems inschool and towards his mother’s ill health. Gradually arapport was established with Suresh. Worker talkedabout his friends in school and in the neighbourhood,which made Suresh feel relaxed and free. He startedto talk more, gradually expressing some of his likesand dislikes. He expressed dissatisfaction about hisfather not being around, not taking him out like otherfathers did. He said he was unhappy about his mother’sillness and that his mother never looked happy. He feltthat his little sister was always stuck to his mother –‘never would leave her’.

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The meetings with Suresh increased in frequency andthe relationship between the worker and Suresh grewstronger. Suresh seemed to enjoy worker’s companyand would want to spend more time with the workerthan before. It was apparent that Suresh had developeda confidence in the worker. Suresh did not hesitate onworker’s suggestion to meet his teacher and even hisfather. Suresh on his own arranged a meeting of theworker with the family.

On meeting the family, the worker realized that it wasnot an easy task for the worker to relate to Ramesh thefather, on Suresh’s problems. It would take at least twoto three meetings for Ramesh to change his attitudestowards Suresh. Saundarya the mother seemedforthcoming and she assured the worker that she wouldspend more time with Suresh. Worker’s meeting withthe teacher did not show immediate results. The teacherexpressed her inability to help at first as she said shehad so many children to look at and so would not havemuch time to mind Suresh. But then she said she wouldtry.

Termination

Worker planned out a termination once she learnedthat Suresh was showing improvement. Since Ramesh,Suresh’s father needed more counselling, it wasnecessary for the worker to work more towardschanging the father’s attitude and outlook. Workerregularly met the mother to pursue the treatment forher illness. Worker used supportive techniques withthe teacher in school like for example giving advice,anticipatory guidance, motivating and encouraging.

Evaluation

There was a definite improvement in Suresh’sbehaviour. His attitude towards other children in class

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had changed for the better. He was not misbehaving inclass. The two to three meetings with Ramesh had madesome impact as worker felt that Ramesh was showingsome interest in Suresh. The teacher in class enquiredand showed concern about Suresh. Complaints aboutSuresh in the school reduced. Suresh certainly lookedbetter and the worker feels, even felt well.

Conclusion

In this chapter we have studied the various phases ofthe casework process. The history of social caseworkprocess saw the gradual changes and developments inthe various approaches of the process. The phases ofthe casework process, the study, assessment,intervention, termination and evaluation are consideredas the threads interwoven throughout the process.

In the study phase the worker makes the initial contactconstructively and fruitfully. Showing respect andwarmth influence the worker client communication.Worker shows his/her competence by understandingthe client’s needs and feelings and by his/her knowledgeof resources. The tools in this phase include interviews,records and documents and collateral contacts.

Assessment, which is the understanding of thepsychosocial problem, is circular in nature. As the casemoves on, more information is added or even rejected.Assessment involves arriving at causes, establishingcausal relationships and reviewing the strengths andweaknesses of the client.

Intervention knowledge focuses on the questions, Whatcan be done to modify the situation? This phase beginswith a set of goals as decided together by the clientand the worker. The ultimate objective is to reduce theclient’s distress and decrease the malfunctioning of the

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client’s situation. It also includes that knowledge whichhelps caseworkers to bring forth changes in thosesituations with which they are concerned. Interventionis guided by a set of principles. Intervention can be ofthree types: Direct intervention, environmentalmodification and administration of a practical service.

Termination refers to the end of the process. At thisjuncture, the client looks back with satisfaction on whathas been accomplished. It also gives the signal thatthe worker uses to confirm that the worker has theconfidence in the client’s ability to cope.

Evaluation is a method of knowing what the outcomesare. Casework practices need to be evaluated from timeto time. Caseworkers need to be held accountable forwhat they do and for their social competence.

Finally facts have to be gathered, organised andrecorded for the purpose of measurement of results.

References

Biestek Felix P. (1957), The Casework Relationship,Unwin Hyman Ltd, London.

Davison Evelyn H. (2nd ed.) (1970), Social Casework,Williams &Williams Company, Baltimore.

Friedlander Walter A. (5th ed.) (1982), Introduction toSocial Welfare, Prentice Hall of India: New Delhi.

Hamilton Gordon (2nd ed.) (1951), Theory and Practice ofSocial Casework, Columbia University Press: New York.

Kasius (ed.) (1950), Principles and Techniques of SocialCasework, Free Press, New York.

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Mathew Grace, (1992), An Introduction to Social Casework,Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Bombay.

Perlman Helen . H (1957), Social Casework: A Problem-Solving Process, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Richmond Mary (1917), Social Diagnosis, Russell SageFoundation, New York.

Robert W. Roberts and Robert H. Nee (eds.) (1972),Theories of Social Casework, University of Chicago Press,Chicago.

Skidmore Rex A. (4th ed.), Milton G.Thackeray and OWilliam Farley, (1988). Introduction to Social work,Englewood Cliffs: N.J Prentice- Hall.

Turner Francis J. (ed.) (1968), Differential Diagnosis andTreatment in Social Work, Free Press, New York.

Turner Francis J. (2nd ed.) (1979), Social Work Treatment,Free Press, New York