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USE OF LANGUAGE
Ms. Amna Rafque
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• Language can serve three basic functions;
– Informative
– Expressive
– Directive
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Informative function of language
• The first use of language is tocommunicate information. Ordinaril! thisis accomplished b formulating andaffirming "or dening# proposition.
• Language used to affirm or denpropositions! or to present arguments! issaid to be serving the informative function.
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• $ere the %ord &information& includesmisinformation! false as %ell as truepropositions! incorrect as %ell as correct
arguments.• Informative discourse is used to describe
the %orld! and to reason about it. 'hether
the alleged facts are important orunimportant! general or particular! doesnot matter.
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For example
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Expressive function of language
• (ses of language of this second tpe arenot intended to communicate informationbut to express emotions! feelings! or
attitudes.• )ust as the clearest examples of
informative discourse come from the
reports of courts or laboratories! the bestexamples of language serving anexpressive function come from lric poetr.
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For example;
• *atch me such marvel! save in eastern+lime,,,,,
• - rose red cit,,, &half as old as time&
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• Expressive language is not intened to toinform us of an facts or theoriesconcerning the %orld! but to manifest the
poets feelings of admiration and a%e.• 'ith these lines! %e are told somethingabout the scene before him! true! but theircheif purpose %as not to report information.
• The lines express the emotions felt b the%riter and aim to evo/e similar feelings inthe reader.
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• Expression ma be anal0ed into t%o
components; %hen it is used to manifest
the spea/ers feeling! e.g someone pras
in solitude! the language used functions to
express the feelings of the spea/er or
%riter! but it is not intended to evo/esimilar feelings in anone else.
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• On the other hand! %hen orator see/s to
move others and %hen the cro%d cheers
its athletic team! the language used not
onl expresses the feeling of the spea/er
but is intended to evo/e similar feelings in
the hearers.
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Directive function of language
• Language serves the third! directive function %hen it is intended to cause orprevent overt action.
• The clearest examples are commandsand re1uests.
• 'hen a parent teaches a child to %ash upfor dinner! the intention is not to
communicate the information or toexpress or evo/e an particular emotion.
• The language is intened to get results.
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• Directive discourse in neither true nor false.
• - command such as &close the %indo%&cannot be either true or false. 'e madisagree about about %hether a command
has been obeed or disobeed! but %enever disagree about %hether a commandis true or false.
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DISCOURSE SERVING MULTIPLEFUNCTIONS
• The examples of informative! expressiveand directive discourse offered in thepreceding sections %ere chemicall pure
specimens! so to spea/. 2ut almost anordinar communication %ill probablexhibit all three uses of language.
• Thus a poem! %hich ma be primarilexpressive discourse! also ma have amoral and thus also direct the reader.
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• 'hen languge serves mixed or multiple
functions the %riter or poet is not confused
but effective communication demands
certain combinations on functions.
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For example;
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THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE
• - setence is defined as the unit oflanguage that expresses a completethought.
• 3etences are commonl divided into fourcategories; – declarative
– interrogative – imperative and
– exclamator
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DECLARATIVE SENTENCES
• Declarative sentences ma/e up most of
%hat ou read. The are setting the scene!
giving the bac/ground! telling %hat is
going on in plain! simple facts. If thesentence doesn4t involve as/ing a
1uestion! telling someone to do something
or someone4s excited! emotionalstatements then it is a declarative
statement.
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INTERROGATIVESENTENCES
• The interrogative sentence is one that
ends in a 1uestion mar/ and is al%as
as/ing a 1uestion.
• 5or example! an interrogative sentence is!6$o% are ou78
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Imperative Sentences
• The imperative sentence is one that gives
a command to someone or something. If
someone %al/s into our office and ou
tell them! 69lease! sit do%n.8 That is an
imperative sentence.
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EXCLAMATOR SENTENCES
• This sentence al%as ends in an
exclamation point and it is said %hen a
%hole lot of excitement is going on. If ou
%al/ into the /itchen and find our childsetting the curtains on fire then ou are
probabl going to use a fe% exclamator
sentences.
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• 5orm often gives an indication of
function,, but there is no sure connection
bet%een the grammatical form and the
use or uses intended. Language serving
an one of three principal functions ma
ta/e an one of the four grammaticalforms.
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EMOTIVE !ORDS
• - single sentence can serve aninformative and an expressive functionsimultaneousl. To do this! its %ords must
have literal and descriptive meaning!referring to ob:ects or events! and to theirattributes or relations.
• 'hen the sentence expresses an attitudeor feeling! it ma also have emotionalsuggestions or impact.
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• The literal and emotive meaning of a %ord
are independent of each other.
• 5or example the terms &bureaucrat&
&government official& and &public servanthave almost identical literal meaning but
their emotive meanings are ver different.
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• &2ureaucrat& tends to express resentment
and disapproval %hile public servant
expresses respect and approval.
• &overnment official& is more nearlneutral than either of the others.
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• It is clear that the %ords %e use to refer to
things have a mar/ed effect upon our
attitudes to%ard those things.
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"INDS OF AGREEMENT ANDDISAGREEMENT
• To the extent that anthing or some
activit can be described b using
alternative phrases,, one conveing
approval! another disapproval! still another
neutralit,, different /inds of agreement
and of disagreement ma becommunicated about anthing.
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• Disagreement in belief
• T%o people ma disagree about %hether something hasin fact ta/en place! and %hen the do! the ma be saidto have &disagreement in belief" (disagreement about
the facts of the matter, different literal significance).• Disagreement in attitude
• On the other hand! the ma agree that an event hasactuall occured! thus agreeing in belief! and et the
ma have different or even opposite attitudes to%ardsan event! this is /no%n as disagreement in attitude"there is an emotional difference bet%een thedisputants.#.
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•
• 3ince the degrees of agreement in beliefand attitude are independent of each
other! there are four possible
combinations at %or/ here<
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• Agreement in belief and agreement inattitude
• There arent an problems in this instance! since
both parties hold the same positions and havethe same feelings about them.
• Agreement in belief but disagreementin attitude
• This case! if unnoticed! ma become the causeof endless "but pointless# shouting bet%eenpeople %hose feelings differ sharpl about somefact upon %hich the are in total agreement.
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• Disagreement in belief but agreementin attitude
• In this situation! parties ma never recogni0e!
much less resolve! their fundamental differenceof opinion! since their attitude is same.
• Disagreement in belief anddisagreement in attitude
• $ere the parties have so little in common thatcommunication bet%een them often brea/sdo%n entirel.
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+onsider the follo%ing four situations
concerning &The Distance to the 3un.&
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