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Public Libraries, Values,Trust, and E-Government Paul T Jaeger andKenneth R. FleischmannAs public libraries are becoming e-government accesspoints relied on b y both patrons and government agen-cies, it is important for libraries to con sider the impli-cations of these roles. While providing e-governmentaccess serves to reinforce the tremendously importantrole of public libraries in the United States social infra-structure, it also creates new demands on libraries an dopens up significant n ew opportunities. Drawing uponseveral different strands of research, this paper exam-ines the nex us of public libraries, values, trust, an de-government, focusing on the ways in wh ich the valuesof librarianship and the trust that commu nities place intheir pub lic libr aries reinforce the role of public librar-ies in the provision of e-government. T he unique valuesembraced by public libraries have not o nly shaped themissions of libraries, they have influenced popularopinion surrounding public libraries and fostered theconfidence that com munities p lace in them as a source,of trusted information and assistance in finding infor-mation. As public libraries have embraced the provisionof Internet access, these values and trust have becomeintertwined with their new social role as a public accesspoint for e-government both in normal informationactivities and in the most extreme circumstances. Thispaper explores the intersections of these issues and therelation ofthe vital e-government role of public librariesto library funding, public policy, library and informa-tion science education, and research initiatives.

Public libraries have always been valued and tru stedinstitutions within society. Due to recent advancesin technology and changes in U nited States society,public libraries now also play a unique and critical roleby offering free public Intemet access. With the increas-ing reliance on the Intemet as a key source of news,social capital, and access to govemment services andinformation, the free access provided by public librar-ies is an invaluable resource. As a result, a significantproportion of the U.S. population, including peoplePaul T. Jaeger (pjaeger@umd.edu) is an Assistant Professorand Director of the Center for Information Policy and ElectronicGovernment at the College of Information Studies of theUniversity of Maryland, College Park, Kenneth R. Fleischmann(kfleisch@umd,edu) is an Assistant Professor at the College ofInformation Studies of the University of Maryland, College Park,

who have no other means of access, people who needhelp using computers and the Intemet, and people whohave lower quality access, rely on the Intemet access andcomputer help available in public libraries. Federal, state,and local government agencies now also rely on publiclibraries to provide citizens with access to and guidancein using e-govemment Web sites, forms, and services;many govemment agencies simply direct citizens to thenearest public library for he lp. This confluence of eventshas created a major new social role for p ublic librariesguarantors of Intemet and e-govemment access.

Though public libraries are not the only points of freeIntemet access in many commimities, they have createdthe strongest commitment to providing access and helpfor all. By providing not only the access to technology,but also to help using the technology, libraries becameIntemet access points, while community technology cen-ters, which usually did not offer the same level of avail-able assistance, failed in the late 1990s and early 2000s.Further, as libraries not only provide Internet access, butfree computer access as well, they attract the people whodo not own computers and do not benefit from a city'sor coffee shop's free Wi-Fi. The compelling combinationof free computer access, free Intemet access, the avail-ability of assistance from knowledgeable librarians, thevalue that public librarians place on serving their localcommimities, and the historical trust that society placesin public libraries has made libraries a critical part of theU.S. social infrastructure. Without public libraries, largesegments of the population would be cut off from accessto the Intemet and e-govemment.

While the provision of Intemet access for those whohave no other access parallels the role of public librariesas providers of access to print materials, the matura-tion of public libraries into Internet and e-governmentaccess hubs has profound implications for the rolesthat public libraries are being expected to play in theircommimities. Public libraries are trusted by their com-munities as places that community members can turnto for unfettered information access and as places to gofor information in times of need. Combining this trustwith the power of Internet access and support makespublic libraries even more critical within their local com-munities. The trust placed in libraries is also importantin balancing the lack of confidence that many citizensplace in other government institutions as well as in theIntemet, Clearly, e-govemment, which exists at thisintersection, has its trustworthiness bolstered by therole of public libraries in its use. As patrons are able toaccess e-government through the librarya place that istrustedthey may have greater confidence in the gov-ernment services they use through library computersand w ith the assistance of librarians.

The important role of libraries in providing citizenswith access to the Intemet, and especially to e-govem-3 4 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND LIBRARIES I DECEMBER 2007

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ment, makes natu ral sense given the values of the publiclibrary. These new services reflect the v alues traditionallyupheld by public libraries, such as equal access to infor-mation, literacy and learning, and democracy. Indeed,these values likely have played a significant role indeveloping an d sustaining public trust in public librariesas institutions. Thus, to understand how public librarieshave come to serve as the default site for e-govemmentaccess, it is important to consider how this role builds o nand reflects the public library's enduring values.

Drawing upon several different strands of research,this article explores the intersections of public libraries,values, trust, and e-govemment. The article first exam-ines the values of public libraries and the role that thesevalues play in influencing popular opinion surroundingpublic libraries. Next, the article focuses on the trustthat commimities place in public libraries, which buildsupon the values that libraries uphold. After that, thearticle explores the reasons why public libraries becameand remain the public access point for e-govemment,providing examples from the 2004 and 2005 hurricaneseasons that illustrate this point in the most extreme cir-cumstances. The article then examines the nex us of publiclibraries, values, trust, and e-govemment, further exam-ining how the values of librarianship and the confidencethat communities place in their public libraries reinforcethe role of public libraries in the provision of e-govem-ment. Finally, the article explores how the e-govemmentrole of public libraries could be cultivated to improvelibrary services through involvement in research andeducational initiatives.

Public libraries and valuesValues can be seen as "evaluative beliefs that synthesizeaffective and cognitive elements to orient people to theworld in which they live."^ In other words, values tietogether how individuals think about the world andhow they feel about the world. Following this definition,values are situated within ind ividuals. Although they area result of social interaction and may be shared amongindividuals, values are a highly individualized and per-sonalized phenom enon. T hus, values arise at the intersec-tion of the individu al and the social, with some scholarsnow making a case for increasing the emphasis placedon values in the social sciences. Recently, many scholarsand comm entators have focused on the values of librar-ies, most notably former ALA president M ichael Gorman,who has written extensively on the topic.^

Gorman focuses on library values in response to w hathe views as a disconnect between library practitionersand academics. He argues that library-science programsare becoming increasingly detached from reality, and that

one way to ground library science, as well as the libraryprofession, is through an em phasis on the values of librar-ianship, which dem onstrate the core, endu ring values ofthe profession.* H e explains that v alues, on the one hand ,should provide a foundation for interaction and mutualunderstanding among members of a profession; on theother hand, they should not be viewed as imm utable, butrather as sufficiently flexible to match the chang ing times.He lists eight central values of librarianship that he viewsas particularly salient at present: stewardship, service,intellectual freedom, rationalism, literacy and learning,equity of access to recorded know ledge and information,privacy, and democracy.

Frances Groen echoes Gorman's sentiments andargues that one of the major limitatioris of library-scienceprograms is their lack of attention to values.^ She arguesthat library an d information science (LIS) program s placealmost all of their educational emphasis on what librar-ians do and how they do it, and almost none on the rea-sons why they do what they do and why such activitiesare important. She identifies three fundamental libraryvalues: access to information, universal literacy, andpreservation of cultural heritage, all of which she arguesare also characteristics of liberal democratic societies.This argument parallels the observation that increasesin information access within a society are essential toincreasing the inclusiveness of the democratic process inthat society.*Library historian Toni Samek focuses on another

aspect of library values that is no longer as stronglyemphasizedattempts to achieve neutrality in libraries.^Neutrality often was advocated as a cherished value, inthe sense of providing equal access to all information andsources. However, Samek demo nstrates that libraries, onthe contrary, were more likely to em phasize mainstreaminformation sources and thus privilege them over alter-native sources. Not only has the value of neutrality beenproblematic in terms of how it has been implemented andmobilized in public libraries in the 1960s and 1970s, but italso is perhaps impossible to ever achieve in reality.* Thefact that neither Gorm an nor Groen include neutrality intheir listings of fundamental library values dem onstrateshow library values have continued to evolve as publiclibraries have developed as social institutions.As library values have dev eloped, they have served tounite librarians and establish the role of public libraries intheir comm unities. The values of librarianship h ave beenencoded in the American Library Association's (ALA)Library Bill of Rights, which strongly asserts the valuesof equal access and service for all patrons, nondiscrimina-tion, diversity of viewpoint, and resistance to censorshipand other abridgments of freedom of expression.' Thevalues of libraries and librarianship are one of the fac-tors that lead com munities to trust pub lic libraries, as thefollowing section explores. Overall, further study of the

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role of values in libraries is essential, especially g iven theincreasing role of technology in public libraries. "

I Public libraries and trustExactly one half of the respondents to a 2007 Pew ResearchCenter study agreed with the statement "You can't be toocareful in dealing with people."^^ However, even in aclimate w here trust can be a p recious commodity, publiclibraries are trusted by their communities. Carr arguesthat libraries have come to earn the trust of their com-munities because of four obligations that librarians striveto meet: to provide user-centered service, to activelyengage in helping u sers, to connect information seekersto unexplored information sources, and to take the goalof helping users as a professional duty that is controlledfirst and foremost by the library user.^^ Similarly, Jaegerand Burnett argue that, because of its traditional defenseof commonly accepted and popular valuessuch asfree access to and exchange of information, providing adiverse range of materials and perspectives to users fromacross society, and opposition to government intrusionsinto personal reading habitspublic libraries have cometo be seen by mem bers of the populace as a trusted sourceof information in the community.^^

Gorman argues for a direct link between the values oflibraries and the trust that is instilled w ithin them by thepublic, stating that one important mission for ensuringthe survival of libraries and librarianship is "assuring thebond of trust between the library and the society we serveby demonstrating our stewardship and commitment,thus strengthening the m utuality of the interests of librar-ians and the broader community."^* Further, a 2006 studyconducted by Public Agenda foimd that "public librariesseem almost immime to the distrust that is associatedwith so many other institutions."^^In specific terms of the Internet, the public Ubrary "is atrusted community-based entity to whidi individuals turnfor help in their orUine activitieseven if they have comput-ers and Internet access at home or elsewhere."^^ In a large-scale national survey, 64 percent of responden ts, includingboth users and non-users of public libraries, asserted thatproviding public access to the Internet should be one of thehighest priorities for public libraries.^'' Thus, trust in publiclibraries seems to carry over from other Ubrary services toprovision of Internet access and training.However, challenges to trust in public libraries seemto be growing in the Internet age. The trusted role of pro-tecting users' personal information may create conflictswith the other social responsibiUties of public libraries.^^As a result of a lack of preparedness of some Ubrariansto deal with privacy issues, it is possible that "the trustthat research shows users place in Ubraries is not fully

repaid."" A 2005 OCLC study suggests that, indeed,user trust in public libraries shows signs of weakening,as the majority of citizens place as much trust in Internetsearch engines a s they d o in public Ubraries. " Further, thechanges in the law foUowing the 9/11 terror attacks thathave increased the ability of the federal government totrack patron activities in public Ubraries, such as throughthe USA PATRIOT Act, have raised serious concernsabout privacy and freedom of expression among manypubUc library patrons and Ubrarians.^^Trust in Ubraries also has been challenged by the impo-sition of filters for pubUc Ubraries that receive E-rate fund-ing due to the Children's Internet Protection Act.^ WhileInternet access is no longer unfettered in Ubraries that haveto comply with the law, pubUc Ubraries have been able toprevent tiiis law from eroding their role as trusted Internetprovider through ALA's vigorous legal chaUenge to thecoristitutionaUty of law and the rejection of E-rate fxmds bya large nimiber of Ubraries after the Supreme Court uphe ldthe constitutionaUty of the law.^ Thus, the trusting rela-tionships that pubUc Ubraries have buQt with their com-mimities are valuable commodities that can be transferredunder some circumstances from one particular service toanother, yet are not inaUenable rights granted to pubUcUbraries. Rather, pubUc trust is something that Ubrariesmust work hard to maintain. Trust in pubUc Ubraries alsohas served as an important cause and effect of the role ofUbraries in providing access to e-govemm ent.

I Public libraries and e-governm entPublic Hbraries are not orily trusted as a means of accessto the Internet in general, they are trusted as a p rovider ofaccess to e-govemment. With nearly every United StatespubUc library now cormected to the Internet and offer-ing free pubUc access, they can fiU a commun ity need ofensuring that aU citizens have access to e-govemmentand assistance using e-govemment services.^* Indeed,public Ubraries and the Internet have both improvedpubUc access to govem ment information.^

This social role also is embraced by all levels ofgovemment, with govemment agencies often directingpeople with questions about their oriline materials topubUc libraries for help.^* As such, govemment agenciesalso trust public Ubraries to serve as key providers of e-govemment access and training. PubUc Ubraries couldnot have foreseen becoming the default social accesspoint for e-govemment when they began to provide freepubUc Internet access in the mid-1990s, due in great partto the largely separate evolution of Internet access inUbraries and e-govemment. However, they now fill thisrole in society, ensuring access to those who hav e no othe rmeans of reaching e-govemment and providing a safety

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net of training and assistance for those who have accessbut need help using e-govemment.Pubhc libraries have develope d in to the social sourceof e-govem ment for two reasons. The first is simply thatlibraries committed to the provision of public Internetaccess in the early 1990s and have continued to growand improve that access so that virtually all publiclibraries in the Un ited States provid e free public Interne taccess.^^ However, presence of access alone does notaccount for the curren t role of the public library, as mostpublic schools and government offices have Internetaccess, and community technology centers were origi-nally funded to create an environment that wouldprovide computer access. A key difference in publiclibraries is that they are historically trusted as provid ersof information, including government information, toall segments of society. "The public library is one placethat is culturally ingrained as a trusted source of freeand open information access and exchange."^^A key part of the p rovision of Internet access in pub-lic libraries also has been providing help. As Heanueexplains, "even if Americans had aU the hardware theyneeded to access every bit of govenvment informationthey required, many would still need the help of skilledlibrarians whose job it is to be familiar with multiplesystems of access to goverrunent systems. " ^ Not only isthe information trusted because of the source, the helpis trusted because the librarians are part of the library.As e-govemment has developed and the complexity hasgrown, this trusted help has become invaluable to manypeople who need to use e-govemm ent bu t do not feel ableto on their own. In a 2001 study of both public library andInternet users, the key preferences identified for publiclibraries included the ease of use, accuracy of informa-tion available, and help provided by library staff. Theseperceptions have carried over into e-govemment, as thestaff members not only provide help u sing e-govemment;their guidance directs users to the correct e-govemmentsites and forms and makes using the sites an easier expe-rience than it otherwise wo uld be.In the era of e-govemment, governments internation-ally are showing a strong preference for delivering ser-

vices via the Internet, particularly as a means of boostingcost-efficiency and reducing time spent on direct interac-tions with citizens.-'^ However, citizens show a strongpreference for phone-based or in-person interactions withgovernment representatives when they have questions orare seeking services.'^ E-govemment services generallyare limited by difficulties in searching for and locatingthe desired information, as well as lack of availability ofcomputers and Internet access to many segments of thegeneral population.^^ Such problems are exacerbated bygeneral lack of familiarity of the structxire of governmentand which agencies to contact as well as many citizens'attitudes toward technology and government.^ Also, as

e-govemment sites give more emphasis to presentingpolitical agendas rather than promoting democratic par-ticipation, users are less trusting of the sites themselves.''^Finally, perhaps the most compelling reason for the reli-ance on public libraries to provide access to and help w ithe-govemment is that public libraries provide supportequally to all members of a communityand that freeservices are of most relative value to those who have thefewest resources of their own.As a result of the reliance of patrons and governmentagencies on the pubUc library as a center for e-govem mentaccess and assistance, public librarians have had to becomede facto experts on e-govemment, ranging from Medicareprescription plans to FEMA forms to immigration registra-tion to water management registration.^^ In one case, theinvolvement of a librarian who specialized in governmentinformation was necessary in a comm unity planning pro-cess to sort through the related e-govemment materialsand information sources.^^ One area where the social rolesas provider of e-govemment and as trusted provider ofinformation w ere notably intertwined w as during the 2004and 2005 hurricane seasons along the Gulf Coast.

I Public libraries as trusted providerof e-governmentPubUc libraries hav e become vital access po ints and com-munication hubs for many conununities and, in times ofemergency, are vital in helping their comm unities cope withthe crisis.^^ This role proved especially important in com-munities along the Gulf Coast during the unprecedented2004 and 2005 hurricane seasons, with public librariesemploying their Internet access to assist their com munitiesin hurricane recovery in num erous ways. The pubUc librar-ies in that region described five major roles for the publiclibrary Internet access in communities after a hu rricane:

finding and communicating with dispersed and dis-placed family mem bers and friends; completing FEMA forms, which are online only, andinsurance claims; searching for news about conditions in the areas fromwhich they had evacuated; trying to find information abou t the condition oftheir homes or places of work, including checkingnews sites and satellite m aps; and helping emergency service providers find informa-tion and connect to the Intemet. ^

The provision of e-govemment information and assis-tance in filling out e-govemment forms was a centralfunction of these libraries in helping their commimities.The level of assistance was astoimdingone Mississippilibrary completed more than forty-five thousand FEMA

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applications for patrons in the first month after Katrinastruckdespite tiie fact that the libraries were not specifi-cally prepa red to offer su ch a service and that few librarysystems planned for this typ e of situation.*" Furtherm ore,while libraries helped many conimunities, they couldnot meet the enormous needs in the affected communi-ties. The events along the Gulf Coast in 2004 and 2005revealed a serious need for the integration of local andstate public entities that have large-scale coordinationplans to wo rk with the libraries,*^Most of the functions that community organizationsplayed in the most ravaged areas after Katrina, Rita,Wilma, Dennis, Ivan, and the other major storms werecompletely ad hoc and unplanned.*^ TTie federal gov-emment was of little help in the immediate aftermathof many of these situations.*^ As such, it was the localcommunity organizations, particularly public libraries,that used information technology (at least wh at was stillworking) to try to pick up the pieces, get aid, find themissing, and perform other vital functions. Considerthe following quotes from local goverrunent officialsexplaining the role computers and Internet access inpublic libraries played in providing information to dev-astated communities:

Our public access computers have been the onlysource of communicating with insurance carriers, theFederal Emergency Management Agency and othersources of aid.The greatest impact ha s been access to information suchas FEMA forms and job applications that are ONLYavailable via Internet. This was highly visible duringthe aftermath of hurricanes Rita & Katrina, Overallaccess to information in this rural comm unity has beenoutstanding due to use of the Internet,Relief workers were encouraged to use the library tokeep in touch w ith family and friends through em ail, ,, , The Library prov ided a FEMA team with local mapsand help in locating areas that potentially sufferedmajor da mage from the storm.During the immediate aftermath of Katrina, our com-puters were invaluable in locating missing family,applying for FEMA relief (which could only be doneonline) and other emergency needs. For that timethecomputers were a Godsend,We have a large number of displaced people who arecoming to rely upon the library in ways many of themnever expected, I've had so many people tell me thatthey had never been to a library before they had tofind someplace to file a FEMA application or insur-ance claim. Many of these people knew nothing aboutcomputers and would have been totally lost withoutthe staff's help,"

Along with e-govemment access, one of the greatestaffects of access to information related to searches for lostfamily, friends, and pets, with m any libraries creating listsof individuals who had been to the library and who w erebeing sought to help in establishing contacts betweenpeople. As one librarian stated, "our computers wereinvaluab le in locating a missing family."*^ Searches wereconducted by patrons and by librarians helping them tolocate evacuees and search for information about thosewho stayed behind, Internet access also allowed patronsto have "contact with fanuly members outside of thedisaster area," "communicate with family and friends,"and "stay in touch with family and friends due to lack oftelephone service."*^ Libraries used their Internet accessto aid rescue personnel to communicate with their agen-cies, and even to direct emergency respond ers with direc-tions, maps, and information about where people mostneeded help.*^The level of local libraries' success in meeting theneeds of their communities after the hurricanes variedwidely, though. Many were simply overwhelmed by thenimibers of people in need and limited by the fact thatthey had never expected to have to act as a communitylifeline in this way,** The libraries th at faired the best wereusually in Florida; they have a greater familiarity withdealing with hurricanes and th us were more prepared andhad more established ties between local libraries, coimtygovernm ents, and state agencies.*' Having Internet accessand expertise is clearly not enough. Planning, coordina-tion, experience, and govemment support and fundingall influenced how different public libraries were ableto respond after the major hurricanes. Public librariesalso may be able to play a role in ongoing emergencyresponse efforts, such as the development of large-scalecommxmity response grids that coordinate citizens andemergency responders in emergencies.^"The greatest lesson, however, may be that public librar-ies, as trusted p roviders of information technology access,particularly access to e-govemment, are the most localline of response in comm imities. The national govemmentfailed shatteringly and completely to help people afterHurricane Katrina, while little public libraries in and onthe edges of the devastation hummed along. The localnature of the response that libraries could provide man-aged to reach commimities and members of those comm u-nities much better than national or state level responses.Such local response to crises, w hile vital, is becoming muchharder to find outside of public libraries.

I The nexus of public libraries,values, trust, and e-governmentThe democratically oriented core values of public librar-ies and the trust that commimities place in their public

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libraries have the potential to significantly enhance andstrengthen the role of pubUc libraries in the provisionof e-government. Citizens who access e-governmentusing computers in public libraries, and with the expertassistance of librarians, may have more confidence in thee-govemment information and services they are using asa result of their high regard for public libraries. As patronstrust that librarians will help them reach the informationthey need, patrons' awareness of and confidence ine-govemment will increase as they leam from librariansabout the types of information and services availablefrom e-govemment. Further, by teaching patrons whatis available from and how to use e-govemment, librar-ians are serving to increase the number of e-govemmentusers. Because e-govemment is still at an early stage inits development, such positive associations could p lay acritical role in encouraging and facilitating its wid espreadacceptance and adoption.

Just as e-govemment is still in its formative stages,research on e-govemment also is just getting started.To date, research on e-govemment has focused moreon technical than social aspects. For example, a meta-analysis of 110 peer-reviewed journal articles related toe-govemment revealed that the relationship betweene-govemment and values is an important, yet to dateund erstu died , topic, ^ It is impo rtant to consider not on lybandwidth and markup languages, but also values andtrust in developing and analyzing e-govemment.It also is important to consider the relationshipbetween trust in e-government and the potential forincreasingly participatory democracy. Trust can be seenas "centrally positioned at the nexus between theprimarily internally driven administrative reforms ofe-governm ent's architecture and the related, more exter-nally rooted pressures for e-governance reflected inwidening debates on opermess and engagement,"'^Similarly, "citizen engagement can help build andstrengthen the trust relationship between governmentsand citizens,"^^ Through e-goverriment, it is possible tofacilitate citizen participation in government throughthe bidirectional interactive potential of the Internet,making it possible to move toward strong democracy.^Greater faith in democracy can potentially significantlyincrease citizen trust in e-govemment.

At the same time th at we consider all of these imp or-tant issues related to e-government, it is important notto lose sight of the critical role that public libraries playin the provision of e-govem men t. Fu rther, it is necessaryto make certain that public libraries receive credit andsupport for the work that they do in providing access toand help with e-government. As demonstrated above,public libraries are uniquely and ideally situated toensure access to and assistance in using e-governmentinformation and services. However, this activity is notsustainable without the recognition and resources that

mu st accompany this role. The conclusion addresses thisimportant point in more detail.

I Conclusions and future directionsThe evolution of the public library into an e-govemm entaccess point has occurred without the direct intention ofpublic libraries and without their involvement in policydecisions related to these new social roles. As with theneed to become more active in encouraging the d evelop-ment of technologies to help libraries fulfill these socialexpectations, public libraries also must become moreinvolved in the policy-making process and in seekingfinancial and other support for these activities. Publiclibraries have to demand a voice not only to better con-vey their critical role in the provision e-govem ment, butto help shape the direction of the policy-making processto ensure more govemm ent sup port for the access to andhelp with e-govemment that they provide.

Public libraries have taken on these responsibilitieswithout receiving additional funding. While the provi-sion of Inteme t access alone is a major expense for publiclibraries, the reliance of govemment agencies on publiclibraries as the public support system for e-govemmentadds very significant extra burdens to libraries.^' In a2007 survey of Florida public libraries, for example, 98.7percent indicated that they receive no support from anoutside agency to support the e-govemment servicesthe library provides, despite the fact that 83.3 percent ofresponding libraries indicated that the use of e-govem-ment in the library had increased overall library usage.^*This lack of outside supp ort h as resulted in public librar-ies in different parts of the coun try having w idely varyingaccess to the Internet,^''The reality is that public libraries are expected bypatrons and govemment agencies to fulfill this socialrole, whether or not any supportfinancial, staffing, ortrainingis provided for this role. The vital roles thatpublic libraries played in the aftermath of the major hur-ricanes of the 2004 and 2005 seasons may have perma-

nently cemented the public and govemment perceptionof public libraries as h ubs for e-govem ment access. *WhQe public libraries have become the unofficial uni-versal access point for e-govemment and are trusted toserve as a vital community response and recovery agencyduring emergencies, they do not receive funding or otherforms of external assistance for these functions. Publiclibraries need to become involved in and encourage plansand program s that will serve to sustain these essential andinextricably linked activities, while also bringing some levelof financial, trairung, and staffing support for these roles.The tremendo us efforts and successes of public librar-ies in the aftermath of the 2004 and 2005 hurricanes has

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earned libraries a central position to e-govemment andemergency planning at local, state, and federal levels. Inthose emergency situations, public libraries were able toserve their comm imities in a capacity that was far beyo ndthe traditional image of the role of libraries, but theseemergency response roles are as significant as anythingelse libraries could do for their communities. In order tocontinue fulfilling these roles and adequately performingother expected functions, public libraries need to pushnot only for financial support, but also for a greater role inplanning and decision-making related to e-govemmentservices as well as emergency response and recovery atall levels of government.

If strategic plans and library activities have a consis-tent message about the need for supp ort, the interrelatedroles of trusted source of local information, e-govem mentaccess provider, and community-response informationand coo rdination center can make a compelling argumen tfor increases in funding, support, and social standing ofpublic libraries. The most obvious source of further sup-port for these activities would be the federal government.Amazingly, federal government support accounts foronly about 1 percent of public library funding.^' Giventhat federal government agencies are already relying onpublic libraries to ensure access to e-govemm ent and fos-ter community response and recovery in times of emer-gencies, federal support for these social roles of the publiclibrary clearly can and should be increased significantly.State libraries, cooperatives, and library networks

already wo rk to coordinate fimding and activities relatedto certain pro gram s, such as the E-rate program.^" Thesesame library collectives may be able to work togetherto promote the need for additional resources and coor-dinate those resources once they are attained. Privateand public partnerships offer another potential meansof support for these library activities. With its stronghistorical and current cormections to technology andlibraries, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foimdation mightbe a very important partner in funding and facilitatingthe increased role that public libraries play in providingaccess to and help with e-government. The search foradditional fimding to support e-govemment provisionshould not only focus on funds for access and training,but also on funds for research about how to better meetindividual and com munity e-government needs and theaffects of e-govem men t provision by pub lic libraries onindividuals and communities.Regardless of what approaches are taken to find-ing greater support, however, public libraries must doa better job of communicating their involvement in theprovision of e-govemment to governments and privateorganizations in order to increase suppo rt. Such commu-nications will need to be part of a larger strategy to definea place within public policy that gives public libraries avoice in e-govemm ent issues. If public libraries are going

to fulfUl this social role, they m ust becom e a g reater pre s-ence in the national policy discourse su rround ing e-gov-emment. To increase their support and standing in poUcydiscourse, libraries must not be hesitant in reminding thepublic and government officials of their successes afteremergencies and in providin g the social infrastructure fore-filing of taxes, enrolling in Medicare prescription drugplans, and m yriad other routine e-govemment activities.In many societies, e-govemment has come to beseen by many citizens and governments as a force thatwill enhance democratic participation, more closely linkcitizens and their representatives, and help disadvan-taged populations become more active participants ingovemment and in society.*^ E-govemment is seen bymany as having "the potential to fundamentally changea whole array of public interactions with government."*^While the E-govemment Act of 2002 and President'sE-govemment Management Agenda have emphasizedthe transformative effect of e-govemment, thus far ithas primarily been used as a way to make informationavailable, provide forms and electronic filing, and distrib-ute the viewpoints of govemment agencies.* However,many citizens do look to e-govemment as a valuablesource of information, considering e-govemment sitesto be "objective authoritative sources."** Currently, theprimary reason that people use e-govemm ent is to gatherinformation.^ In the United States, 58 percent of Internetusers in the United States believe e-govemm ent to be thebest source for govemment information, 65 percent ofAmericans expect that information they are seeking willbe on a govem ment site, and 26 million Am ericans seekpolitical information orJine everyday.^

Public satisfaction with the e-govemment servicesavailable, however, is limited. As commercial sites aredeveloping faster and provide more innovative servicesthan e-govemment sites, public satisfaction with gov-emment Web sites is declining.*^ Public confidence ingovemment Web sites also has declined as much of thepublic policy related to e-govemment since 9/11 hasbeen to reduce access to information through e-govem-ment.^ The types of information that have been affectedinclude many forms of socially useful information, fromscientific information to public safety information toinformation about govem ment activities.*' For these andother reasons, the majority of citizens, even those with ahigh-speed Internet connection at hom e, seeking gove m-ment information and services prefer to speak to a persondirectly in their contacts with the government.^" In manycases, people turn to public librariaris to serve as the per-son involved in e-govemment contacts.

Further, when people struggle with, become frustratedby, or reject e-govemment services, they turn to publiclibraries. Every year, public libraries deal with huge num-bers of patrons needing help with online taxes, and theMedicare prescription d rug plan sign-up period resu lted in

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an influx of seniors to pubUc Ubraries seeking help in us ingthe online registration system.''^ For example, during the2006 tax season, Virgirua discontinued the distribution offree prin t copies of tax forms to enco urag e use of the onlinesystem. Instead, citizens of the state flooded public Ubrar-ies, assuming that Ubraries could find them print copies ofthe forms, which of course the libraries did.

It seems unUkely, however, that the same govemmentofficials pushing the use of e-govemment are aware of theroles of pubUc libraries in help ing citizens with day- to-daye-govemment use. Further, the enormous social roles ofpubUc Ubraries in emergency response in communities,such as during the 2004 and 2005 hurricane seasons, arefar from widely known among govemment officials. Toencourage the provision of external funding, the develop-ment of targeted support technologies, and poUcy sup-port for these social roles, pubUc Ubraries must make thegov em men t and the pubUc better aware of these roles andw ha t is nee ded to erisure that the roles can be fulfilled.

Similarly, there is an extremely important role for LISprog rams in ensuring pubUc Ubraries can meet co mm unityexpectations for e-govemment provision. LIS programgraduates need to be prepared to help patrons access anduse e-govemm ent information and services. As gov em-ment activities move primarily or exclusively online,patrons wUl increasingly seek help with e-govemmentfrom pubUc Ubraries. LIS program s m ust ensure that grad-uates are ready to serve patrons in this capacity. In 2007,the College of Information Studies at the University ofMaryland became the first ALA-accredited school to offera concentration in e-govemment as part of the Master ofLibrary Science program.'^ The goal of this concentrationis to prepare future Ubrarians who wish to speciaUze ine-govem ment, which wiU be an area of increasing a nd sig-nificant need as mo re govem me nt information a nd servicesmov e online and more go vem men t agencies rely on publicUbraries to ensure access to e-govemment. LIS programsneed to prioritize finding w ays to incorporate the teachingof issues related to e-gov em me nt in pubUc Ubraries as ne wconcentrations or courses, or into existing courses. Theprovision of e-govemment is an important role of pubUcUbraries that is Ukely to increase sigjiiHcantly, and gradu-ates of LIS prog rams n eed to be prepared to meet patron s'e-govemment information needs. Further, LIS facultiesalso can support public Ubraries in their e-govemmentaccess and training roles by focusing more research on theintersections of pubUc libraries and e-govemment.

Ultimately, the role of the trusted and valued pubUcprovider of e-govemment access creates many financialand staffing obUgations and social responsibilities, butit also is a tremendous opportimity for public libraries.Fighting against censorship efforts in the 1950s estab-Ushed the pubUc perception of Ubraries as guardians ofthe First Am end me nt d urin g the McCarthy era . ^ Wo rkingto ensure access and the abiUty to use e-govemment is

creating new public perceptions of Ubraries as guardiansof equal access in new but just as socially meaningfulways . Rather than needing to ponder whether the emer-gence of the Internet will limit or remove the relevance ofpublic libraries, the advent of e-government has created abrand new and very significant role that public librariescan play in serving their communit ies. Given the emp ha-sis that govem men ts are placing on mo ving informationand services online, patrons will continue to need accessto and assistance in using e-govemm ent.

The trust and values that have long been associatedwith public Ubraries are evolving to include the socialexpectations of the provision of access to and training fore-govemment by pubUc Ubraries. In the same ways thatpatrons have learned to trust pubUc libraries to provideequal access to print information sources, they now havelearned to trust that Ubraries can provide equal access toe-gove mm ent information. It seems that citizens wUl regu-larly be tuming to pubUc libraries for help with mundanee-govemment activities, such as finding forms and filingtaxes, as weU as with the most pressing e-govemmentactivities, as was demonstrated in the aftermath of hur-ricanes Katrina and Rita. Because the trust in and valuesof pubUc Ubraries have set the stage for the emerging roleof Ubraries in e-govemment, public Ubraries need to workto ensure the availabiUty of the support, education, andpoUcy decisions that they nee d to serve their co mm unitiesin this new and vital role in situations ranging from every-day information n eeds to the most extreme circumstances.

In spite of the costs associated with serving as thepublic's e-govemment access center, acting as the socialguarantor of equal access to e-govemment emphaticallydemonstrates that public libraries will continue to be acentral part of the infrastructure of society in the In ternetage. PubUc Ubraries now must learn to articulate betterthe social roles they are playing and the types of supportthey need from LIS pro gra ms , funding agencies, and gov-emment agencies to continue playing these roles.

I AcknowledgmentThe authors of this paper have worked with several col-leagues on projects related to the ideas discussed in thispaper. The authors would particularly Uke to thank JohnCarlo Bertot, Lesley A. Langa, Ch arles R. McClure, JenniferPreece, Yan Qu , Ben Shneid erman , and Philip Fei Wu.

References and notes1. Margaret Mooney Marini, "Social Values and Norms,"Encyclopedia of Sociology, Edgar F. Borgatta and Marie L. Borgatteds., 2828 (New York: Macmillan, 2000).

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2. Steven Hitlin and Jane Allyn Piliavin, "Values: Reviv-ing a Dormant Concept," Annual Review of Sociology 30 (2004):359-93.3. Michael Gorman, Our Singular Strengths: Meditations forLibrarians (Chicago: ALA, 1997); Michael G orman , Our EnduringValues: Librarianship in the 21st Century (Chicago: ALA, 2000);Michael Gorman, Our Own Selves: More Meditations for Librarians(Chicago: AL A, 2005).4. Go rman , Our Enduring Values.5. Frances K. Groen, Access to Medical Knowledge: Librar-ies, Digitization, and the Public Good (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow,2007).6. Elizabeth Smith, "Equal Information Access and the Evo-lution of Am erican Dem ocracy," Journal of Educational Media andLibrary Sciences 33, no. 2 (1995): 158-71.7. Toni Sam ek, Intellectual Freedom an d Social Responsibility inAmerican Librarianship, 1967-1974 (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland,

2001).8. Pam Scott, Evelleen Richards, and Brian Martin, "Cap-tives of Controversy: The M yth of the Neutra l Social Researcherin Contemporary Scientific Controversies," Science, Technology,and Human Values 15 (1990): 474-9 4.9. Am erican Library Association, "Library Bill of Rights,"www.a la .o rg /a la /o i f / s ta temen tsp o ls / s ta temen ts i f / l ib r a ry b i l l -rights .htm (accessed Ma y 19, 2007).10. Kenneth R. Fleischmann, "Digital Libraries with Embed-ded Values: Combining Insights from LIS and Science andTechnology Studies," Library Q uarterly (in press); Kenneth R.Fleischmann, "Digital Libraries and Human Values: Human-Computer Interaction meets Social Informatics/' Proceedings ofthe 70th Annual Conference of the American Society for Infor-matio n Science and Technology, Milwau kee, Wi se, 2007.11. Pew Research Center, Americans and Social Trust: Who,Where, and Why (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2007),h ttp : / /pewresearch .org /assets /social /pdf /SocialTrust .pdf , 2 .12 . David Wildon Carr, "An Ethos of Trust in InformationService," in Ethics and Electronic Information: A Festschrift forStephen Almagno, Barbara Rockenbach and Tom Mendina, eds.,45-52 (Jefferson, N .C.: McFarla nd, 2003).13 . Paul T. Jaeger and Gary Burnett, "Information Access andExchange among Small Worlds in a Democratic Society: TheRole of Policy in Redefining Information Behavior in the Post-9/11 United States," Library Quarterly 75, no. 4 (2005): 46 4-95.14. Gorman, Our Enduring Values, 66.15 . Public Ag enda, Long Overdue: A Fresh Look at Public andLeadership Attitudes about Libraries in the 21st Century (New York:Public Agenda, 2006) , 11 , www.publicagenda.org /research/

pdfs/lo ng_o verdu e.pdf (accessed May 19, 2007). '16. John Carlo Bertot et al., "Public Access Computing andInternet Access in Public Libraries: The Role of Public Librar-ies in E-govemment and Emergency Situations," First Monday11, no. 9 (2006) , w ww .f irs tmond ay.org /issues /issuell_9/be r to t(accessed May 19, 2007).17 . Public A genda, Long Overdue.18 . Nanc y Zim me rma n a nd Feili Tu, "It Is Not Just a Matter ofEthics 11: An E xamination of Issues Related to the Ethical Provi-sion of Consume r H ealth Services in Public Libraries," Ethics andElectronic Information: A Festschrift for Stephen Almagno, BarbaraRockenbach and Tom Mendina, eds., 119-27 (Jefferson, N.C.:McFarland, 2003).

19 . Paul Sturges and Ursula Iliffe, "Preserving a SecretGarden for the Mind: The Ethics of User Privacy in the DigitalLibrary," Ethics an d Electronic Informa tion: A F estschrift for StephenAlmagno, Barbara Rockenbach and Tom Mendina, eds., 74-81Qefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2003), 81.20 . Online Co mpu ter L ibrary Center, Inc. (OCLC), Perceptionsof Libraries an d Information Resources: A R eport to the OCLC Membership (Dublin, Ohio: OCLC, 2005).21 . Jaeger and Burnett, "Information Access and Exchangeamong Small Worlds in a Democratic Society"; Paul T. Jaegeret ah, "The USA PATRIOT Act, the Foreign Intelligence Surveil-lance Act, and Information Policy Research in Libraries: Issues,Impacts, and Questions for Library Researchers," Library Quar-terly 74, no. 2 (2004): 99-121.22 . Childre n's Internet Protection Act, Public Law 106-554.23 . Paul T. Jaeger, John Carlo Bertot, and Charles R. Mc Clure,"The Effects of the Children's Internet Protection Act (CIPA) in

Public Libraries and its Implications for Research: A Statistical,Policy, and Legal Analysis," Journal of the American Society forInformation Science an d Technology 55 , no. 13 (2004): 1131-39; PauT. Jaeger et ah, "CIPA: Decisions, Imple men tation, an d Impa cts,"Public Libraries 44, no. 2 (2005): 105-09.

24 . Bertot et al., "Public Access Computing and InternetAccess in Public Libraries"; John Carlo Bertot et ah, "Drafted:I Want You to Deliver E-govemment," Library Journal 131, no.13 (2006): 34-39; John Carlo Bertot et ah. Public Libraries and theInternet 2006: Study Results and Findings (Tallahassee, Fla.: Infor-ma tion Institute, 2006), w ww .ii.fsu.edu/plintem et_reports.cfm(accessed May 19, 2007).25 . Nan cy Kranich, "Libraries, the Internet, and D emocracy,"Libraries & Democracy: The Cornerstones of Liberty, Nancy Kraniced., 83-95 (Chicago: ALA, 2001).26 . Bertot et ah, "Public Access Computing and InternetAccess in Public Libraries"; Bertot et ah, "Drafted."27 . Bertot et ah. Public Libraries and the Internet 2006.28 . Jaeger and Burnett, "Information Access and Exchangeam ong Small Worlds in a D emocratic Society," 487.29 . Anne Heanue, "In Support of Democracy: The LibraryRole in Public Access to Gov ernm ent," Information, Libraries, andDemocracy: The Cornerstones of Liberty, Nancy Kranich, ed. (Chicago: A LA, 2001), 124.30. George D'Elia et ah, "The Impa ct of the Intern et on PublicLibrary Uses: An Analysis of the Current Consumer Market forLibrary and Internet Services," Journal of the American Societyfor Information Science an d Technology 53, no. 10 (2002): 802-20;Eleanor Jo Rodger, George D'Elia, and Corrine Jorgensen, "T hePublic Library and the Internet: Is Peaceful Coexistence Pos-

sible?," American Libraries 31 , no. 5 (2001): 58-61.31 . W. E. Ebbers, W. J. Pieterson, and H. N . Noo rdm an, "Elec-tronic Government: Rethinking Channel Management Strate-gies," Government Information Quarterly (in press).32 . Ibid.33 . Aw dhesh K. Singh and Rajendra Sahu, "Integratin g Inter-net, Telephones, and Call Centers for delivering Better QualityE-governance to All Citizens," Government Information Quarterly(in press).34. Paul T. Jaeger and Kim M. Thompson, "E-govemm entaround the World: Lessons, Challenges, and New Directions,"Government Information Q uarterly 20, no. 4 (2003): 389-94; PaulT. Jaeger and K im M. Thom pson, "Social Information Behavior

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and the Democratic Process: Information Poverty, NormativeBehavior, and Electronic Govemment in the United States,"Library & Information Science Research 26, no. 1 (2004): 94-107.35. Paul T. Jaeger, "Deliberative Democracy and the Con-ceptual Foundations of Electronic Govemment," GovernmentInformation Quarterly 11, no. 4 (2005): 702-19; Paul T. Jaeger,"Inforn\ation PoUcy, Information Access, and Dem ocratic Partic-ipation: The National and Intemational Implications of the BushAdministration's Information Polit ics," Govemment InformationQuarterly (in press).36 . Bertot et al . , "Public Access Computing and IntemetAccess in Public Libraries"; Bertot et al., "Drafted."37 . Aimee C. Quinn and Laxmi Ramasubramanian, "Infor-mation Technologies and Givic Engagement: Perspectives fromLibrarianship and Planning," Govemment Information Quarterly(in press).38 . Bertot et al., Public Libraries and the Internet 2006; Paul T.

Jaeger et aL, "The 2004 and 2005 Gulf Goast Hurricanes: Evolv-ing Roles and Lessons Learned for Public Libraries in DisasterPreparedness and Gommunity Services/ ' Public Library Quarterly(in press).39 . Bertot et al, "Drafted."40 . Jaeger et al., "The 2004 and 2005 Gulf Goast Hurricanes."41 . Ibid.42. Ibid.43 . Michael Amone, "Storm Watch 2006: Ready or Not," Fed-eral Computer Week, June 5, 2006, www.fcw.com/print/12_20/new s/94 711 -l.htm l (accessed May 19, 2007).44. Jaeger et al., "The 2004 and 2005 Gulf Goast Hurricanes."45 . Bertot et al., "Public Access Gomputing and IntemetAccess in Public Libraries."46. Jaeger et al., "The 2004 and 2005 Gulf Goast Hurricanes."47. Ibid.48 . Ibid.49. Bertot et al., "Public Access Gomputing and IntemetAccess in Public Libraries."50 . Paul T Jaeger et al., "911.gov: Harnessing E-govemment,Mobile Gommunication Technologies, and Social Networks toPromote Gommunity Participation in Emergency Response,"Telecommunications Policy (in press); Ben Shneiderman and JennyPreece, "911.gov: Gommunity Response Grids," Science 31 5(2007): 944.51 . Kim Viborg Andersen and Helle Zinner Henriksen,"E-Govemment Research: Gapabilities, Interaction, Orientation,and Values," Current Issues and Trends in E-Govemment Research,Donald F. Norris, ed., 269-88 (Hershey, Pa.: Gybertech, 2007).52. Jeffrey Roy, "E-Govem ment in Canad a: Transition or Trans-formation?" Current Issues and Trends in E-Govemment Research,Donald F. Norris, ed., 44-67 (Hershey, Pa.: Gybertech, 2007), 51 .53 . OEGD e-Govemment Studies, The E-government Imperative(Danvers, Mass.: Organization for Economic Go-Operation andDevelopment, 2005), 45.54. Bruce Barber, Strong Democracy (Berkeley, Galif.: Univ. ofGalifomia Pr., 1984).55 . Bertot et al.. Public Libraries and the Internet 2006.56 . Gharles R. McGlure et al., E-government and Public Librar-ies: Current Status, Meeting Report, Findings, and Next Steps

(Tallahassee, Fla.: Information Use Management and PolicyInst i tute , 2007), www.i i . fsu.edu/announcements/e-gov2006/egov_report.pdf (accessed May 19, 2007).57. Paul T. Jaeger et al., "Public Libraries and Inte me t Accessacross the United States: A Gomparison by State from 2004 to2006," Information Technology an d Libraries 26, no. 2 (2007): 4-1458. Jaeger et al., "The 2004 and 2005 Gulf Goast Hurricanes."59 . Bertot et al., "D rafted."60. Jaeger et al., "Public Libraries and Intemet Access acrossthe United S tates."61 . Beth Simone N oveck, "Designing Deliberative D emocracyin Gyberspace: The Role of the Gyber-lawyer," Boston UniversityJournal of Science an d Technology 9 (2003): 1-91.62. S. H. Holden and L. I. Millett, "Authentication, Privacy,and the Federal E-govemment," Information Society 21 (2005):367.63 . E-govem ment Act of 2002, PL . 107-347; Jaeger, "Delibera-

tive Democracy and the Gonceptual Foundations of ElectronicGovemment" ; E-government Strategy: Implementing the President'Management Agenda for E-government (Washington, D.G.: EGov,2003), www.whi t ehouse .gov /omb/egov/2003egov_s t ra t .pdf(accessed May 19, 2007).64. Anderson Office of Government Services, A UsabilityAnalysis of Selected Federal Government Web Sites (AndersonOffice of Go vem me nt Services: Wash ington, D.G., 2002), 1.65 . Ghristopher G. Reddick, "Gitizen Interaction with E-gov-emment: From the Streets to Servers?," Govemment InformationQuarterly 22, no. 1 (2005): 338 -57.66. John B. Horrigan, Politics Online (Washington, D.G., PewInte me t & American Life Project, 2006); John B. Ho rriga n andLee Rainie, Counting on the Internet (Washington, D.C., PewInte me t & Am erican Life Project, 2002).67. Stephen Barr, "Public Less Satisfied with GovemmentWebsites," Washington Post, Mar. 21,2007, www .washington post.com/wp-dyn/con ten t / a r t i c l e /2007/03 /20 /AR2007032001338 .html (accessed May 19, 2007).68 . Lotte E. Feinberg, "FOIA, Federal Information Policy,and Information Availability in a Post-9/11 World," Govem-ment Information Quarterly 21 (2004): 439-60; Elaine L. H alchin,"Electronic Govemment: Govemment Gapabili ty or TerroristResource," Govemment Information Quarterly 21 (2004): 406-19:Harold G. Relyea and Elaine L. Halchin, "Homeland Securityand Information Management," Th e Bowker Annual: Library an dTrade Almanac 2003, D. Bogart, ed., 231-50 (M edford, N .J.: Infor-matio n Today, 2003).69. Jaeger, "Information Policy, Information Access, andDemocratic Participation."70. John B. Horrigan, How Americans Get in Touch with Govemment (Washington, D.G., Pew Intem et & Am erican Life Project,2004).71 . Bertot et al . , "Public Access Gomputing and IntemetAccess in Public Libraries"; Bertot et al., "D rafted."72. The description of the University of Maryland's e-gov-emment master ' s program is avai lable a t www.cl is .umd.edu/progra ms / egov.shtml.73 . Jaeger and Bumett, "Information Access and Exchangeamong Sn\all Worlds in a Democratic Society."

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