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The Character of SaulAuthor(s): John E. McFadyenSource: The Biblical World, Vol. 25, No. 2 (Feb., 1905), pp. 103-116Published by: The University of Chicago PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3141151

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THE CHARACTEROF SAULPROFESSORJOHN ,. McFAD\7ENKnox (Sollege,Toronto, Canada

A biographicalketchof Saul s besetby peculiar ifficulties.Noprogressan be made n theattempt o unravel hemystery f thisman's ife until we franklyrecognizehat the storyof that life isreally wice told in the booksof Samuel told,too,from different,and somewouldeven say conflicting,oints of view. Everyonewho readsthe narrative ithany attentionmust havebeen struckby the differentattitudes o the kingshipmaintainedby chaps.8 and 9 respectively.According o the one, the king is a giftof God,welcomeas a meansof unitingthe nationagainsttheassaultsof the PhilistinesI Sam.9:I6). Accordingo the other,the desireoran earthly ing sinterpreteds a rejectionf theunseenking, Jehovah I Sam. 8:7). Further, he originof the proverb,"Is Saulalso among he prophets" is connectedwithtwo differentincidentsn the life of Saul (I Sam. IO:I2; I9:24). Again,thecombinationf one storywiththe othercompletely estroysmanya splendiddramaticffectwhichbecomesplainas day the momenteach narratives read by itself. In reality, he battleof Gilboa(chap. I) dramaticallyollowsSaul's nterviewwith the witchofEndor(chap.28); whereas,n the presentform of the book,this sequences brokenby fragments f a biography f David.This pointneed notherebe further laborated; ut an analysis fthe book,restingon these and similarhints, leadsapproximatelyto thefollowingesults:The earlier toryncludes Sam. :I I0:I6;chaps. I;I3 (allbutvss.7b-I5a);I4;I6:I4-23;I8: $30;I9:II-I7;2I:I-9; chaps. 2 (except ss.3-5); 23; 25; 26; 27:I 28:2; chaps.29; 30; 2 Sam.,chap. I. The later story ncludes Sam.,chap.8;IO:I7-27; chaps.2;I5;I6:I-I3;I7:I; - I8:5; chap. 9 (exceptVSS.II-I7); 2I:I0-I5; 22:3-5; chap. 4; 28:3-25; chap. I;2 Sam.2:4b-7. The omittedverses appear to be fragments rom othersources, nd eventhe two leadingnarrativesmaynot be altogetherhomogeneous.

I03

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TIIE BIBLICAL WORLDo4We shall now brieflyoutlinethese narratives,confiningourselvesin the main to the biographyof Saul; for the story of David's earlieryears is also largelyinterwovenwith that of Saul. The older nar-rative, then, runs somewhatas follows: In search of stray asses, ayoung man named Saul, of mighty stature, happenedto reach aspot wherea sacredfestival was being conductedby Samuelthe seer,who was divinelyled to recognize n Saul the futureking of Israel.Samuelanointedhim and urged him to seize any opportunity hatcame his way to serve his country'scause. That opportunity ooncame in the form of a requestfrom the city of Jabeshin Gilead to

be delivered rom the terrorof the barbarousAmmonites. At onceSaul rose to the occasion, defeated the Ammonites,and was pro-claimedking. He then turnedhis attentionfrom the enemy on theeast to the enemy on the west, and inflictedsome crushing,thoughnot decisive, blows upon the Philistines. These wars revealedtoSaul the importanceof a regularlyorganizedarmy, the nucleus ofwhich he created in the form of a permanentbody-guard. Butthere was a darkerside to all this success. He was afflictedwith amental malady, and the efort to heal the distemperonly deepenedthe tragedywhich had begun. For the minstrel who was broughtto the court to soothe the king's troubled spirit happenedto be aman of versatilegeniusand of altogether xtraordinaryharm,besidesbeing also a brilliantwarrior. The suspiciousSaul speedilydetectedin him a possible rival, and repeatedlysought by cruel cunningtoput him out of the way, so that David was at length compelledtoflee for his life. Believing that the priests of Nob were in leaguewith David, Saul had them all put to the sword, only one escaping.Saul devoteswhat time he can spare fromhis attackson the Philis-tines to the persecutionof David, who finallytakes the bold step ofseekingprotectionat the courtof Achish,one of the Philistine ords.Before the fateful battle of Gilboa, the Philistines,not unnaturallydoubting the fidelity of David to their cause, had him sent backto the southcountry. The battleitself is not describedn this source,but an Amalekiteclaims to have slain Saul with his own hand.The tenor of the later story is as follows: The elders of Israel,vexed by the corrupt administrationof Samuel's sons, requestedhim to make them like their neighborsby appointing hem a king.

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THE CHARACTEROF SAUL Io5Samuel,regarding he requestas implicitapostasyfromJehovah,isgreatlydistressed,and he paints the inevitableevils of monarchy nIsrael in veryluridcolors. But, as the peopleare insistent,he sum-monsan assembly,and by the sacred ot Saulis discoveredand madeking. But soon Samuel'sforebodingsreceivepainfulcorroboration.In the sacred war against Amalek, Saul, by sparingAgag and thebest of the cattle,had disobeyed he direct njunctionof the prophet,and brokenthe ancientlaw of the ban (cf. Deut. 7:2; 20:I7; Josh.6:2I). So for his disobedienceSamuel solemnly pronouncedhisrejection romthe kingdomby the God whosewordhe had rejected;with his own hand he slew Agag, and Saul and Samuelnever metagain. The narrativethen records the anointing of David, andhis victoryover Goliath. Stung with jealousy,Saul sought to haveDavid removed by assassination,and when his suggestionswerefrustratedby the affection of Jonathan, he did not scruple on alater occasion to hurl a spear at him with his own hand. Davidbetook him to the Philistine Achish, and, as prudencecompelledhim soon to leave the Philistinecourt,his life was again sought bySaul. On the deathof Samuel,the Philistinesmustered heirhosts,and Saul, unable to ascertainthe will of God throughany of thelegitimate agencies, turned to a witch with the request that shemight use her art to conjureSamuelup from the world of shades.When he rose, however,his wordfor Saul was one of doom, defeat,and death. The nextdaythedoomwasfulfilled. Israelwasdefeatedon the heightsof Gilboa,and Saul lay deadon the field,slainby hisown hand.It is quiteplain that these two narrativesare writtenfromdiffer-ent pointsof view. The former s, on the whole, a straightforwardaccountof the facts; the lattersuggests,and even obtrudes hrough-out, a religiousinterpretation f the facts, and is thereforeof lessvaluefor the purposeof the historian,whoseprimaryconcern s withthe facts themselves. The conceptionof the kingdom,for example,as an apostasyfromJehovah,seems to reflectthe attitudeof a laterage whichhadbehind t longyearsof bitteranddisillusioning xperi-ence; and the religiousmotive, so prominenthere, dominatesthenarrativethroughout. It is particularlyprominent n the story ofSaul'swarwiththeAmalekites,whichin this narratives the turning-

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Io6 THE BIBLICAL WORLDpoint of Saul'scareer. It is commonlyconcededthat this narrativeis late, perhapsas late as the time of Hosea,and, on that account, thas sometimesbeen deniedall historicalvalue; but such a wholesalecondemnationof it is surely out of place. It alone contains thestory of the war with Amalek, which, though probablylate in itspresentform,is undoubtedly,n the centralfacts, authentic. Again,thoughthe wordsthat Samuelis representedas utteringon the eveof the battle of Gilboa probablybetraythe standpointof the laternarrator, he story of the interviewwith the witch of Endorhas allthe marks of an early time. Therefore Kittel seems justified insayingthat "our duty is ratherto makea cautioususe of both thesedocuments,endeavoringto determine by internal evidence whatthe real facts probablywere."IOn the other hand, it is only just to remember hat the secondnarratives distinctlyfavorable o David and distinctlyunfavorabletoSaul. It is that narrativewhichcontainsthe romanticstoriesofDavid'sanointingand of his combatwith Goliath; while it is alsothatnarrativewhich insists again and again on the divinerejectionofSaul. Here, in fact, we can trace the beginningsof the spiritwhichculminated n the Chronicles,whose glorifiedand sacerdotalDavidbearsbut a very faint resemblance o the versatileoutlawoftheearlierhistories,and whose Saul receivestoo patheticallyscantajustice; for, in flat contradictionto the earlier statement thatSaulnquiredof Jehovah on the eve of the battle (I Sam. 28:6),theChroniclerassuresus that he did not inquire (I Chron. IO: I4).Arue estimateof Saul'scharacter s thereforebeset by difficulties,arisingartlyout of the necessarilymeagerrecitaland the possiblesuppressionf important ncidents; partly out of the fact that oneof is biographerss late and not impartial. Even the oldernarra-tives full of religiousphraseology,according o the mannerof thetimes.What is meant, for example,by such a phraseas "an evilspiritrom Jehovahtroubled" Saul (I6: I4) ? It is the task of thehistoriano pierce behind such phraseology o the fact of which itisn realityan interpretation.Undoubtedlythe later and theologicalnarrativehas done moretoetermine he popularestimateof Saul than the earlierand more

I IIistoryof theHebrews,Vol. II, p. I12, n. I.

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THE CEIARACTER F SAUL Io7secular narrative. He was dwarfed in his lifetime, and has beendwarfedever since, by his greaterand moresuccessfulrival. Evena morebrilliantand capablemanthanSaul mightwellhaveappearedinferior to David. But it is quite certain that Saul must have hadmany qualities not only splendid but substantial, and Samuel'sinitial choiceof him was largelyjustifiedby the native worthof theman himself. For one thing, he must have been a man capablehimself of great devotionand of inspiringdevotion n others. Thisis attested by the elegy of David, which speaks as eloquently forthe charmof Saul as for the magnanimityof Daarid cf. also I6:2I);and it is attestedalmostmorestrikinglyby the devotionof the menof Jabesh Gilead,who riskedtheir lives to save his dead body fromindignity. His relationswith his servantare of the friendliestpos-sible kind (chap. 9), and he shows a tenderregard for his father indeterminingo returnhomeat once, so as to relievehimof all ansietyas to his fate.But these moregraciousqualitieswere wedded to much strengthof character. In spite of much that has been said to the contrarJr,he must have been a man of great capacity,quick to see and seizean opportunity. When the despairingrequestof the men of Jabeshreached Gibeah, Saul took in the situation at a glance, dealt hisblowswiftly,and won by it the popularconfidencewhichplaced himon the throne. Again, in spite of the turbulenceof the times,and thecomparativensignificanceof Saul's own tribe, he succeeded n con-solidatinghis kingdommore or less effectively,not onlywest,but alsoeastof the Jordan(2 Sam. 2: 8 ff.). His bravery,of course, s beyondall question,and was never more conspicuousthan on that last daywhenhe went forthto battle in the firmbelief that his effortswouldnot be sustainedby the nationalgod.Again, he was a profoundly religious man, according to thereligiousideas and practices of those days. To this the incidentsdescribed n the fourteenthchapter offer eloquenttestimony. Per-haps toomuch stress should not be laid uponhis consultation f theoracle,2when the Philistineswere overtaken by a panic, especially

2 Insteadof the Hebrewtext (I4:I8), "Bringhither the ark of God," the Greekshouldbe followed,which no doubtcontains he originalreading: "Bring hlther theephod: for he carried he ephodthat day beforeIsrael."

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Io8 THE BIBLICAL WORLDas he advances to action before an answer is received (the will ofGod being sufficientlyplain in the confusionof the Philistine camp).But the curse which he imposed on any who ate food before sunseton the day of the battle is very significant. The object of this wasno doubt to retain the favor of Jehovah,as the divinitywas supposedto be gratified or placated by the fasting of his worshipers. As apractical oldier,Saul must have knownvery well the risk of failurehewas running n thus impairing he physical vigor of his troops; andJonathan bluntly expresseswhat was no doubt the popular opinionwhen he says that his father, by the oath, had brought disaster onthe land. Immediately afterward the extreme scrupulousnessofSaul comes out in his horrorwhen he discovers hat the blood, whichshould belong to Jehovah, had been eaten along with the flesh of thecaptured animals, and in the instant he makes provision to giveJehovah his due. He further listens to the suggestionof the priestthat the oracle be consulted before renewing the attack, and he isgreatly distressedwhen there is no response so distressedthat hesets himself at once, by the use of the lot, to discover he culprit,andis prepared to have him put to death, even supposing the culpritshould turn out to be his son, or even himself (on one not improbableemendationof the text). This is not like the headstrong, mpetuousman we have sometimes magined Saul to be. He wished to makesure of the presenceof the national god at all costs; - ndeed, he hasalmost a morbid fear of failing in his duty toward him. It is noanswerto say that he merely showed the customary cruple of an-tiquity,for his own son, Jonathan,does not sharethat scruple. Reli-gion was a stern realityto this man; and it cannot fairly be said thathis religionwas altogethera matter of externals. In this connectionwe have to rememberhis stern efforts to suppress witchcraft andnecromancy no doubt an authentic touch-and this again pointsin the directionof a worthy conceptionof the God of Israel. Themerit of this measure would be none the less, even if it were per-formedat the instigationof Samuel rather han on his own initiative.He is annous and unhappyexceptwhen he sustainsfriendlyrelationswith the unseen. Even the later narrative mplicitlyrepresentshimas seeking to ascertain the will of Jehovah by dream, Urim, andprophets. It is also worthy of note that in one important respect

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THE CHARACTEROF SAUL Io9Saul'smoral ife was conspicuouslyonorableor thosedays-he isrecordedo havehadonlyonewife I Sam. 4: 50) andoneconcubine(2 Sam. 2I:II)-in this contrasting eryfavorablywith his morebrilliant uccessorcf. 2 Sam.3:2-5).Saulwaswithoutdoubta man of characternd ability,and hadat least someof the elements f greatness;yet therewas a tragedysomewhere.Where was it ? What was it ? Two explanationsare oSered: one-to whichwe have already lluded-hisdisobedi-enceto thepropheticword n connection iththe warwithAmalek;another, n I3:8-Isa, accordingo whichhe had not kept the com-mandmentf JehovahI3: I3). The latter xplanation,t any rate,is inadequate, s Saulhad kept the only commandmentecorded(cf. IO:8; I3:8). Undervery tryingcircumstances,hen the en-genciesof the military ituation oupledwith the impatience ndthreatened issolution f his armydemandedmmediatection,hewaited hesevendaysappointed y SamuelbeforeoSering acrificehimself. Nor can the crimehave ainin the sacrifice eingofferedby Saulhimself;for in thosedaystherewas nothingllegal n suchconducton the part of a layman,and, had that beenthe author'sconception,e woulddoubtless avemade t plain. Even the firstexplanation oes not adequatelyccountor the subsequentragedyof Saul's ife. The bare act that twoexplanationsreofferedeadsto the suspicionhatneither epresentshe whole ruth;but it showshow keenwas the feeling hat therewassomethingn the career fSaul, andin his ultimate ailure,or "rejection" to use the theo-logical anguage f the book),whichneededexplanation.Further,both narrativesgree n regardinghe apaptla in Saul'scharacter

* Tas a re glOUSne.Where,hen,didthetragedy egin? Was t a tragedyf incident,or was it not rathera tragedy f temper Was it a predispositionto melancholy?Was it a felt incapacityo fill the great positionwhich Providence ad thrustupon him? Was it a lack of self-restraint, n impatiencef control? Was it the lossof the friend-ship of Samuel,and the consequent istrustof his own initiative,and despair f the divinesupport f which he presence f Samuelwas the pledge Was it jealousy f David? Wasit any or all ofthese hings

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TZE BIBLICAL WORLDIOLet us go back and gather up such hints as throw light on theriddle of this man's characterand destiny. The first significanthint occurs in the proverb, "Is Saul also among the prophets?"This proverb-well authenticated,as it is set in two differentcon-texts has been very variouslyexplainedby the commentators;butthis at least is plain, that Saul's presenceamong the prophetswasa surprise. Now, when we remember he ecstaticdemeanorof theearly prophets, and recall the fact that prophecyand raving areoccasionally ynonymous erms, the proverbat once throwswelcomelightuponthe characterof Saul. It suggeststhat he was of a some-

what impassive, stolid, moody nature, not spontaneousand viva-cious, but rathergiven to broodingand introspection,and thereforethe last man whom one wouldexpect to see identifiedwithan excitedand noisyband of prophets IO:5). This inferenceseemsto be fur-therborneout by thefact thatin bothnarratives unless n thisrespectthe laternarrative implyborrows romthe earlier)objection s takenby some to Saul's elevationto the throne. "Shall Saul reign overus?" (II:I2), and still more contemptuously,"How shall this mansave us?" (IO:27). Saul must have seemed,to some at least, unfitfor such a station, in spite of his kinglypresence,his commandingstature,and his militarysuccess. When we remember he qualitiesnecessary n a king of thosedays - spontaneity, nitiative,rapidityofaction we areconfirmed n ourview of Saulas one who impressedstrangers s phlegmaticand impassive. That, then,was the ground-work of his character. His was in essence a Hamlet nature aIlamlet whom circumstancesdevelopedinto an Othello. He wasgiven to meditation,which would on occasion easily merge intomelancholyand suspicion.

But note whathappensthe momentSamuelbringsthe idea of thekingdomwithin the circle of his thoughts. As the narrativesays,"God changedhis heart" (IO:9); his heart was changed. It wasjust some such master-thought r ambition, f you like, as this, thatwas neededto stir up the phlegmaticgiant into action and passion.It is a mistake to supposethat he was by nature an impetuousman,devoid of self-control. The fact that he kept so long the secret ofSamuel'sannouncement o him about the kingdom points not somuch to his modesty, as is usually maintained,but rather to an

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THE CHARACTER F SAUL IIIaltogether xceptional owerof self-control; nd there s otherevi-dence of self-control nd magnanimityombined n his refusal oadopt he suggestion f the peopleand put to death hosewho hadprotestedagainsthis elevation o the throne II:I3). Wherehedoesgivethe reins o his passion, s in the caseof the massacre f thepriests f Nob, thereareother easons orhis conduct onnected iththe new issues hat had been brought nto his life.The kingdom hen was the vitalizing dea in the thoughtandactionof Saul from hat moment n. His sluggish ife was shakento ittsdepths,and it began o hastenon withpowerand enthusiasmtoward ts great destiny. His was not the vulgarambition o situpona throne, ut the nobleambitiono realizehimself n the divinecareerwhichhad opened p; for,called o it as he wasby a prophet,the kingdomwas to him a God-givenmission. He was "stungbythe splendor f this sudden hought" nto the most manifold ndsuccessful nterprise. He defeatsthe Ammonites,he Philistines,the Amalekites;and, according o the mechanicaldeas of thosedays, he must have read in his success he divinecorroborationfSamuel'swords. But the taskof Saulwasharder han n the fresh-ness of his enthusiasm e had anticipated. That his defeatof theAmalekiteswas not by any meansa decisive ne is shownby theirrenewed ctivity oward he closeof his life (I Sam.,chap.30); andagainwe are informed hat therewas sore war against the Philis-tines all the days of Saul (I4:52). No doubtthe situationwouldbe further omplicatedy intertribalealousies. Now, to a religiousmanof that day sucha situationwas capable f onlyone interpreta-tion. Defeatand calamitymeant he angerof God. Samuelhadsenthimon his firstgreat askwith heassurance, God s with hee"(IO:7); here was fairlycogentproof that God was not with him.A less religiousmanwouldhavebeen ess concerned,ndmighthavecontinuedo prosecute is workwithenergy ndhope; but we haveseen how profoundly eligiouswas the natureof Saul,and howpersistentlyagerhe was to assurehimselfof the presence f God.We can imaginewhat effect military ailuresabroadand internaltroubles t homemusthavehadupona religiousmind,behindwhoseearly enthusiasm here lay a predispositiono introspection ndmelancholy.

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THE BIBLICAL WORLDI2The suspicionwhichmusthavebeenslowly ormingn themindof Saul reached n aYvfullimas n the wordsaddressedo himbySamuel fterhisfailureoexecutehebanuponAmalek. It ispossiblethat thebreachbetweenhe kingandthe prophet adbeengrowinggradually ider,andthatthis s onlythe climax f a seriesof similarincidents. Saul'senthusiasmmayoftenhaveurgedhim alonganindependentath,differentrom hatwhichSamuelhad prescribedforhim; andSamuelmaylonghavefeared,beforehe finallyandirrevocablyenounced,he rashness f Saul,which n this caseatleastamountedo impiety. If thatbe so, it explains he peculiar

andawful olemnityf Samuel'swords, ndthefactthat hatrupturebetween rophet nd kingwasfinal. Therecanbe noquestionhatthe withdrawalf Samuel's resence ndfriendshipmusthavehada cripplingffect nSaul. It wasnotonly hathe ost headvantagefhis wiseand steadying ounsel,but whatto the religiousmind ofSaulwas muchmoreserious-he lost the bondwhichboundhimto his newlife andjustifiedhis career. Samuelhadcalledhimtothekingdom;f he left himanddenouncedim-aboveall, f hewasrightin leavingand denouncing im-then Saul'spositionon thethronewas an anomaly;his lifehadlost its raisond'8tre.Was Samuelright,then? Even Saul must acknowledgehathe was. ForSamuelhad,so to speak,caughtSaulred-handed: ehad chosen he momentwhenhis sin was indisputable.WhetherSamuel'swordsof rejectionwere so definiteand far-reachingsrecordedwe need not nowdiscuss;but,whateverheywere,theyflasheduponSaul the convictionhat he had brokenone of thefundamentalaws of Israel, and therefore f Israel'sGod. To anaturallyloomymind ucha convictionmusthaveproducednstant,even if not permanent, aralysisof religioushope and practicalenergy. Scrupulouslynxiousas we haveseen him to be, in themain,withregardothings eligious, e musthave elt,in thatawfuImoment,withthewordsof Samuel ingingn his ears,as if he hadcommittedhe unpardonablein, andas if therecouldbe no placeforeffectiveepentance,houghhe should eek t carefullywith ears.Thelaterhistorians nodoubt ustifiedn regardinghisincident sthe crisisof Saul'scareer;for, though he exigencies f the daywouldcompelSaulfrom imeto timeto renewhis activity, ndcall

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THE CHARACTEROF SAUL II3out in him acertain pasmodicnergy,he horror f thathourcouldneverbe forgotten; t would ie like a blackcloudoverall the sub-sequent nterprisef hislife. Hadhe notbeensoreligious, e wouldprobablyhave beeninfinitelyhappierand considerablymore suc-cessful. Butnow theshadows hrown crosshis mindby his initialpredispositiono morbidnessre deepened y his senseof abandon-mentby God, and by Samuel,who wasto him themost mportantearthly epresentativef God. The feelingrises hat he will, in allprobability,e forever nable o realizehe highpurpose f his life.Melancholys reinforcedy remorse; or he cannotbut recognizethe heinousness f his sin in disobeying,or whatever eason,sowell-known ndfundamental law asthat of the ban; and he can-not butrecognizehejusticeof Samuel'serriblewords. A worthierconception f Godmighthavesavedhimfrom hisparalysis;but hehad no religious enius. He held theconceptions f his time; andheld them, o his hurt,withpatheticenacity. He iswhatwe mightcall thevictimof religiousmania. It is not so much hat he haslost the kingdom;but he has lost hiJGod,and he haslost his life.Now webegin o see what s meantbythe evilspirit romJehovahwhichcameuponhim. As he broods verhis brokenife, his mel-ancholymerges nto temporarymadness,which s so obviousanduncontrollablehat his servantsnotice t, and makefriendly ug-gestions o have t remedied. At thispointa newtragedy ntershislife in the personof David, whomSaulsoon learnedo look uporas an angelof darkness isguised s an angelof light. At first hemusicwroughtts desired ffect. But soonthe poor,crushedmindbeginsto broodagain; and, as David'smilitary xploitsare con-fessedlymorebrilliant ndpopularhanhis own, hesuspicionormsthat this man is destinedo be his rival. Saul, withhis unhappypowerof introspection,eginsnow to seemoreprofoundlynto theinexorablepurposeof Providence.Everything his maladvv, isfailures, isrupturedriendship iththe prophet hasbeenmakinwit increasinglylear hathis day is past,that his work s done, hathe is a "rejected man;andnow t begins o seemveryprobablehathis placewill be taken,and his worlzdone, by the cleverminstrelwho hasbeen brought o the court o soothehim. And the sting,the horror f the situation,ay in this, that David'srelationswith

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TIfE BIBLICAL "'ORLDI 4the courtweredirectly ueto the maladywhichhadprostrated aul,and indeed to the direct invitationof Saul himself(I6: I9). Itmightwell seemto the unhappy ingthat he was beingpursued ya heartless ate, which had mockingly ompelledhim to be thechief instrumentn his own ruin.Is it any wonder hat such a man, with such a spirituponhim,and such circumstancesroundhim, shouldhave been jealousofDavid? But it wouldbe the grossest njustice o Saul to regardthis as mere vulgar ealousyof an abler man. It is jealousy,ofcourse I8:8, 9); Saul knewverywell that Davidwas the superiorman. He instinctively nd emphatically cknowledgedis charmon his verySrstappearance t court I6:2I, 22); and David's upe-riority o Saul in war had becomealmosta bywordI8:7; 2I:II).Nevertheless,aul's ealousy f Davidwas not without ts redeemingnobleness; t was the jealousy f a manthroughwhomhis own ife-workwas destined o be ruined. The idea that had hauntedSaul'simagination nd determined is activityfrom the momentwhenSamuelwhisperedhe Srst promise nd raised he Srst hopes n hisheartwas the idea of the kingdom of the kingdom, owever, otso muchas a privilege, ut rather s a duty; not as an honor o begrasped t, but as a task to be worked ut. In another ense hanthat n whichRenanusesthe words,Saulmusthaveregarded .lvidas an "unscrupulousandit" as a man who was destined o robhim of his own life-work, he supreme nd the dearest hing thatwas his sincethe day when"his heartwas changed." "Whatcanhe have morebut the kingdom "(I8:8). If he succeedsn takingthat,thenhe takeswith t the life of Saul,andthat ife whichbeganwith such enthusiasm nd consecratednergYwill be forever"castas rubbish o the void."Thataccountsorhisrelentless ersecutionf David; hataccounts,too,forhis ruthlesseverityowardhepriests f Nob; forhe suspectstheir omplicity ithDavid,with heman, hat s, whoseemsdestinedto ruinnot so muchhis ambitions s his very ife. In a sensenot atall fantastic,we mightsay that Saul, n his strugglewith David, sfighting or his deeper ife. He is strugglingor self-realization---for an opportunityo realize hatself whichwas bornagainandsentout upon its royal ask, the day he had met the band of prophets

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THE CHARACTEROF SAUL II5comingdownfrom the high-placewithpsaltery ndtimbrel. Thegloomof his mind,the misfortuneshatweregathering bouthim,the threats f Samuel,hadpracticallyonvinced imthat the oppor-tunity ully o realizehimselfn the workof establishinghe kingdomwouldnevercome. Butthe abilityandpopularityf David cut ofTall suchprospect bsolutely; encehiscunning nddesperateffortsto have him removed.There is something ery touchingn hiswords o the %iphites, henthey disclosehe hiding-placef David(23:2I): "Blessedbe yeof Jehovah; orye havehadcompassionnme." Theyshow howterriblyhis soulwas shaken. David is hisevil destiny,and thosedeservehe blessing f Godwho help him toremovet. The fearwhichSaulentertainedf Davidhas somethingof the superstitiousn it (I8:I5, 29); it is the samesortof uncannyfearas theEgyptians resaid o haveentertainedowardheIsraelites,when theysaw how theyincreased Exod. :I2). He feels in thepresence f David as if God had not only desertedhim, but wasworkingagainsthim. Similarly, e was afraidwhenhe saw thePhilistinesbefore Gilboa,and his hearttrembledgreatly (28: ).Why? He may, indeed,have been by this time a nervouswreck,and consequentlynwillingo face the horrors ndperilsof battle.But, on thewhole, hat s not the mostprobable xplanation; e wastoo braveand seasoned warrioro fearfor his life. The groundsof his terrorie far deeper. He suspectshatnowtheend of his life-work is come,and thatthe agonized rayerof his life, "Establishthou theworkof my hands,"will remain orever nanswered.Then, ndesperation,e seeks o ascertainhewillof Jehovah; orthoughhehasthe bestof reasons orbelievinghat Godhas desertedhim, he cannotdo withoutGod. The old religiousnatureof themanassertstself: "I amsoredistressed;God s departedromme"(28: I5). Whetherhesebe his actualwords r not,theyundoubtedlyrepresent is mood. He calls for his old friend,Samuel, he manof God whosewordshadstartedhim on the careerwhichwas nowendingso sadly; and when he hearsthe wordsof doom,"He fellstraightwayis full lengthupon the earth, and was sore afraid"(28: 20). This is the descriptionf a manwho s laboring nder hemost ntense motion. He was soreafraid,not onlyat the prospectof defeat n the comingbattle,but alsoat the contemplationf his

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THE BIBLICAL WORLDshattered nd defeatedife. Alldayand all night,we are old,he hadeaten no bread. This statement ivesus a glimpsentothe gloomyand abstractedhoughts f the unhappyking; and forthhe went,with sullenbravery,o his doom,with night n his heartas blackasthe night throughwhichhe walked, orsaken, s he supposed, ythe God whosepresence e had, on all but one tragicoccasion sofar as we know),sought o securewith scrupulous iety, and dis-couraged y the prophetwhohad urned im rom he simple ountrylife wherehe mighthavebeennot altogether nhappy,o ascend heslippery teps of a throne.

There s some truth n the contentionhat Saul was not a manof the very highestcapacity. He was, beforeall things,a soldier,and he lacked hat versatility hich s necessaryo the highestkindsof success n public ife. The mentaldistemperwith whichhe wasafflicted, nd whichmust often and painfullyhave interrupted isenergy,was a fatal barrier o the highest form of achievement.And t mustnot be forgottenhatthis distemper as not due to jeal-ousy of David. Jealousy ggravatedt, but certainly id not createit; it was there from the beginning, perpetual indranceo allhigh endeavor, nd no doubt t accounts or much n the patheticcareer f the king. But the mostfatalelement n his character ashis superstition.Fromthe ancientpoint of view this is no doubta misnomer;but the intensely eligious atureof the man, encom-passed s he wasby difficultynd ailure, ndpreyed ponby morbidthoughts,had all the crippling ffectsof a superstitiousatalism.Had he beenable to shakeoff the conviction f his "rejection," emighthave done even more han he did and he did not a little-to give Israelherplaceas a nationamong he nations f the East.