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Part 3 Buildlng the Canoe

A long series of operations is involved inthe building of a birchbark canoe, fromassembling the frame to caulking the jointsand tips. The various steps are describedhere in chronological order.Assembling the FrameThe first step is to put together the maingunwales and the three temporary thwarts.This structure is used as a building frameto establish the general outline of thecanoe. It is first placed flat on the bark soas to mark the shape of the bottom, and islater raised to its final position at gunwaleheight, where it becomes an integral partof the frame.The gunwale members are 11 ft 9 In.long, and rectangular in cross-section so asto accept more readily the lengthwise curva-ture of the canoe. They taper toward theends so that they can be more easily bentup into the curve that defines the sheer ofthe hull. Measuring 1% in. by 3/4 in. atmid-length, they taper to a 1% in. squareabout 2 fi from each end. At the endsof the canoe, they assume the form of ahalf arrowhead (split lengthwise) with thepoints coming together at each end tomake a flat, neat joint (see figure 3). Theends are wrapped together with cord orroot lashings. The undersides of the gun-wales are bevelled and rounded off for theinsertion of the ribs at a later stage.The length of the central thwart, andhence the distance between the gunwalesat that point is 2 ft 3% in.; the other twothwarts are 1 fi 7% in. long, and are placed2 ft 7 in. away from the centre. The endsof the thwarts fit into the mortises in thegunwales, and are held in position by ver-tical wooden pegs. These thwarts are onlytemporary stretchers and will be replacedlater by finished pieces, which will belashed to the outwales and main gunwales,and in the case of the end thwarts (not yetinstalled) to the gunwales, outwales andgunwale caps.

The building bed is 13 ft long and about3 f tde ;meammximate r in ished-&mensions of Our canoe. The ground is*ared_~of st-es or other hard objectst h a t c o u l d c a u s ~ f i ~ u i t y ,tirred u p with--the feet, and then levelled with a straightplank, earth being thrown in to bnng any.~low spots up to grade. Th~ebui lding ed isflat across its width, but drops about 1%in.~Zt he n~cR:Sta kes areclriven into theground at each end, carefully ceniTed,%nd, .-a Iine-level is Xtretched between them to-gauge the curvature of the bed. The siight:ly convex shape assures the c a g a l f l a tboffom for almost itS entire length. At alater stage; the ends of the canoe will beshored up on a 3-in. plank placed on itsside crosswise on the bed, to correct thedroop and raise the bow and Stern slightly.The . .bu i l de r t hen -un ro l l s~barkgve~the-building bed, inside~sur&ce-down, tak-ing care to centre i t exactiy, with the middleof the bark at the highest point of the bed.He then centres the building frame ofi thebark. This step is important for it ulfimatelydetermines the general lines of the canoe,and the finl position of the bark over thesheathing and ribs. -Next. he slips planking under the thwartsto protect The bark-from the weight of thestones~thatwill be used to hold the build-ing frame in position. Split planking is alsoplaced on top of the thwarts. Then Stones,some quite large, are added. They will notonly hold the frame in position, but-will~keep the bottom of the canoe flat duringthe next stage of construction.Shaping the Sides..-~The builder now proceeds t c m a k n i n eslashes in the bark along each side of the-Ca=.-He does not use a gauge to, de-termine the exact distance between theslashes, but makes the fi rst cut near the.central-thwari and fourothers at more oyless equal distances toward each end ofthe canoe. In some cases, a slash wil l-bepositioned so as to coincide with a fauitin the bark that the builder wishes to cor-rect. Thests-cun-upward fr om th e zd g eof-the bark to a point near the edges ofthebuilding frame. Next, the builder places3-in. planks crosswise under each end ofthe canoe so as to raise the ends sliohtlv

Weighting the Frame and the Bark on theBuilding BedThe builder selects hlsbuilding site with~care. Th.e soi1 must be-somu--0-thatit can_be levelled, but ~fir-nough to hold- - ,ashape.. Sfightly~ ~--andy groundj~~p@fs{d. and fix the sheer of the hull..- -- -.22

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Shaplng the Sides

Figure 3Ends of the gunwales lashed togetherMeanwhile, he has prepared 14stakesabout 4 f t long; these are driven .into thegrounFjKeifier side of the buildinb frame,after the bark has been pulled up overthe,stones. There are7~ sta kes n each side,rranged symmetrically in iine with the

thwarts but not directly opposite them. Thedistance between the central thwari and itsneighbour is 2 ft 7 in., between the secondand the third 2 ft 6 in., and between thelatter and the tip of the canoe 12 in. Thus,the last two stakes are very close together.Before the stakes are lashed together inpairs across the canoe, a long -lath-isslipped between them and the bark so asto align the sides of the canoe; anotherlath goes between the inside surface ofthe bark and the stones. The stakes aredriven in at an angle, and then pulledup:right by a cord that attaches each staketo the one across from it. This operationserves to bend the bark at right angles atthe b a s m f ti fiamer-A this point, toprevent the bark from splitting, the buildermay have to sprinkie it with hot waterto soften it and make it more flexible.Parallel to the first row of stakes, a.~rowof 2-ft stakes is placed inside the canoe

between the bark and the stones, to holdthe-ark in t h e -proper upright pos?fi,ition'TheSe stakes are attached at the top tothe outside stakes, and the bottoms arebevelled so as to fit snugly .between thebark and the outer face of the gunwales.Before tying the two rows of stakes to-gether and securing the bark ~f irmly be-tween them, the builder adjuststhe oveclapof the bark at each joint. The sheer andcurve of the]hull will necessitate some over-lapping of the bark when it is-folded-up-ward, but this overlapping is-not a-hap-hazard matter. The rule followed is this:at either end of the canoe eachoverlap is-adjusted~with-tHe edge of the bark that is~ -nearer to the centre of the canoe on theinside, thus minimizing-.theresistance- ofthe canoe to the water when moving ineither direction. Once the overlaps at eachjoint have been properly arranged, the in-ternal and external stakes are bound tight:ly together. Small wedges are also placedbetween the posfCaiong the upper insideedge of the bark, to hold it firmly upright.Now the women can proceed to lash thej.oints. Albert left this job to his sister, whoused no more thantwo or hree3tc hes for

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Building the Canoe

scale in feet

Figure 4Plan of the canoe built at Weymontaching, summereah-igint. Secured with a stop-kno$ theFthong crosses the jointandtheiZns upthe inside of the bark to the next stitch.Positioning the Gunwales, and Trimmingand Lashing the BarkOnce the joints have been stitched, thebark is rigid and strong enough for theStones and interna1 stakes to be removed.The frame composed of gunwale membersand temporary thwarts is then raised tosheer height, and held in this position bysupports under each thwart near the gun-wales. The ends of these supports restdirectly on the bark, and they are cut withsquared butts so as not to pierce it. The

1966: front viewlength of the supports, and thus the heightof the frame, is determined by means of ameasuring stick, or tsimotsigan.The builder then trims the bark downflush with the gunwales, beginning at thecentre and working outward to within 2 fiof the tips. Before determining the sheerof the hull, which is a delicate operation,he will install the outwales so as to in-crease the rigidity of the assembly.The outwales are 12 ft 6 in. long-longerthan the main gunwaies, which stop about4 in. from the stempieces. The outwalesrest against the stempieces. Like the gun-wales, they are tapered frorn mid-length to-ward each end, so that they will be easierto bend. They measure about Ih in. by 1 in.

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Building the Canoe

View from above

Side view (from outside)

Side view (from inside)

Figure 6Bark-to-gunwale lashingsin cross-section, tapering to ?4 in. squarefor the last foot at each end, and arepressed flat against the bark in line withthe main gunwales. Gunwales and outwalesare peggd together as the bark is trimmed.It becomes easier to shape the gunwales atthe ends once th@ are fastened to thebarKand to the outwales in the central sec-fion-of the canoe. However, a special de-vice is required for this operafion.' T h e builder attaches a bark disc with aknotted thong t i i r o u g h w cenfie, t o eachside of-the canoe about.l?4 ft froE the-end of The gunwales and 1 ft below them.~ h eree-end of the thong passes-throughthe-bark to t h e inside and is attached t 5fhe gunwale. Enough tension is exerted-on.the thong to pull the gunwales.downward;the ends of the canoe are, meanwhile, be-ing he l d a t z higher level by the supportsmentioned arlier. This step gives the gun:,wales the desired curvature. The .builderthen finishes trimming the bark'and fastensthe main gunwales and outwales togethec-Everything is now ready for the next step,lashing the,bark and the gunwales together.This task iS delegated t o t h e women, in

this case Jlbefl's wte-and sister. As weshall see, their techniques dffered slightly.First, the builder-must-rnarkthesplacingoftheribsafd lashings, which alternate alongthe gunwales. The marks are made on t i 'lower.edge o f t he inner gunwale with thetibwehitaban, which is designed specificaiiyfor this purpose. For a 12-ft canoe, thismeasuring gauge is ab-t ~ 3 ~ i tong andlias pncT1 mari@ e ve r y 2% in. Thebuilder transfers these marks to the inner..gunwale. The space in line with the centralthwart is marked for alashing, the spaceseither side of i t for a rib, and so on. Thereare 14-lashings and 14 r ibs on either sideof the central thwart. The spaces for the.lashings are marked with an "X" so thatthe women will not confuse the two.In a process described earlier, the rootsfrom which the thongs are made have beensplit and boiled to give them the requiredresilience and flexibil ity. The women-take.the thongs straight from-the-pot. as~they.need them.-With an~a wl ,hey punch hoiesjn the bark just beneath the gunwales, andthread the thongs through, sharpening themto a point if they are too thick. In somecases, the thong passes_through~the_samehole two three times. Each lashing- e;quires aboutten turns, ana if the thong islong enough, it is passed-along underneaththe gunwale to the next space. Thesewomen did not use stop-knots; they had avariety of techniques for fastening the endof the thong, wedging-it-either-into-a-hole,under two or thre~turnsof a lashing, orbetween the main gunwale and the outwale:When the lashing is completed, the stakeson the outside, the sumorts for the maingunwales and the discs used to puil th&gunwales down can al1 be removed. Whatremains already has the rough shape ofthe finished canoe, although the sheathingand ribs have not yet been added and thebirchbark envelope sags here and there.Piecing-in the Bark ExtensionsThe piece of bark was not. long~enough ocove~comple tely he frame of the proposed.canoe; extensions had to be installed at-,ach en3:This was the next step.'' The- builder Pends theextensions. andinstalls them inside the main bark covering,overiapping them 5 in. a n d 3 in., fore..andaft. In each case the extensions project-~~

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Figure 7Lashings of extension and stempiece

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Building the Canoe

the canoe will continue after the bendingand drying of the ribs.Measuring, Shaping and Drying the RibsA m c a n o e has 28 ribs. To begin with,each wood str ip i s k t h e same siz-ft long andzA-~iiwide, and between J/4 in.-.and ?& in. thick, sl ight ly~og~nded.o~tTiei ' ruppersurfce, aiid chisel-shaped at theends-to facilitate their insertion betweenthe bark and the main gunwales (see figure8). Shaped w i t h the crooked knife, theribs are al1 remarkably uniform in shape.At this point the builder immerses-them inwater to soften the fibres; later he will

1% X X ln. -tut them to varying lengths, depending onwhere they will fit into the canoe.The-ribs-must be pent in such a way asto give the canoe its flat bottom and slight-,.ly rounded sides. To achieve thk, the.builder has to mark^ each one at the-apexof the desired curve, where pressure.willb e applied by his knee during the bending.The ribs in-the middie of the canoe form ashallow arch bent in two places, or a broadU, which narrows as we rnove toward the' tips; the last rib at-each end is like a pointed

Figure 8 -arch, bent only in one- place. The builderShape of nb ends iays the ribs flat acro ss thegunwa les inthe Spaces between the lashings, 14 ofthem on each side of the central thwart,aiir8 in. beyond thejoint . The main-piecepf numbers them so that each can be identi-6arl

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Finishing the Tips and Strengthening the Frame

Figure 9The iaminated stempiecefit, he sprinkles t@ with hot water again Flnishing the Tips and Strengthenlng theand co rrecf s fhe c u r v e x e pioperly Frameshapea; the @s are fltted into position inthe canoe and lft tiere 6 ry. The F s t Before the sheathing and ribs are installed,rib-ateach end requires special 'care and the tips-a@~the.gunwales_must-b~finihed.experienced judgement as to the strength Ea& t ip is fitted with a stempiece and aof the material. These ribs rnust be bent headboard to support thg~nwals~andsuntil they are almost V-shaped t F fit- into-. ieinforced with an apitowan, or-bark cove-!lie taijering tipFof the'canoe, yet caremust ing.be faken not to break them in the process. Like the headboard, thes tempiece isThe ribs- are now left in the-canoe to made of cedar. It rneasures 2 it by M-in.dry into shape in the open a? which takes by 1%-inTlts oc d~ed ge -i s- ro unde d wherefGast a day. 'AfteTthat they can be re- the bark reinforcement will cover it. The.moved from the canoe without losing their builder splits it lengthwise into five lamina-.shape. Before he removes them, however, tions towithin..5 in. of its heel; the (amina-the bu-ilder makes-a pencil ma rk on -e ach tions will make it easier t~o.shape he p;iece-one, ievel with the Top edge of the-gun- into the-required gentlearc. A notch is tut-wales, where he wil l have to-cut them in an inch from the-end to hold 'fKefootCofarder to fit them between the bark and th headboard (see figure 9)..the main gunwales. To shape the-stempiece, the builder firstWhile the ribs are drying, the builder cuts treats it ~~wi thot water, then bends it overwood to shape for the sheathing. h k knee; the piece is fragile, and- this-

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Building the Canoe

headboard

operation requires a great deal of care-a little too much pressure, and the wholeprocess must begin again. While the stem-piece igdrying, which takes at ieast a day,'Ttscurvature is fixed by a cord holding itsiwo ends together. Later-a-root thong willbe wound spirally around the larninations,with the ends tucked in between them.Now the builder inverts the canoe overtwo sawhorses, in order to attach the barkto the stempiece and trim it to follow itsfiriished curvature. The same stitch thatwas used to lap the bark extension to themain bark envelope is used here, except.atthe top, where a spiral cross-stitch is used.An awl is used to guide the thongs betweenthe'laminations of the stempiece, and thestitching runs up from the point where thelaminations end to about 4 in. from the!op of the stempiece. The tempiece pro-jecfs slightly beyond the bark and the out-waies, which bear against its sides.The headboard, or giboorlln, serves notonly t~ brace -bu t lso to reinforce the sidesof the canoe, which are particularly fragileat this point since the ribs do not extendas far as this. The headboard- is~insertedbetween the two sides and supports them,thus forming a more or less triangularpartition and leaving an empty space about6 in. from the stempiece. Sheathing wil lbe jammed in between the headboardandthe bark covering later.The headboard is shaped into a 15-in.-long c u ~ e , arrower at the foot' than atthe head, with the peak of its curvatureabout three-quarters of the way up iseefigure 10). It measures 2% in. across at itswidest point and 1 U in. at the foot, with auniform thickness of !A in. It is notched ati h e bottom so that it can be fitted into thecorresponding notch in the stempiece. Toposition it, the b.u-Lde treats it with-.hot-wm inserts the end of'it into the notchin the stempiece and then bends it-until.the top snaps into position between theinner gunwales, whose ends then bear onits upper edges. th us,^ whef instailed theheadboard follows a curve paraliel to thatof the stempiece.,Having installed the stempiece and theheadboard, the builder further ceinforcesthe tips of the canoe by placing a gussetcut from a Diece of bark la~ itowan). ver thegunwales between the top'of the headboardand the lashing adjacent to the stempiece

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Flnishing the Tlps and Strengthening the Frame

Figure 11Finished tip of the canoe(see figure 11). The gusset passes overthe inner gunw alesan d is ~i ia i l edo l~theouter edge-of the-outwaies.-Measuring 2%in. by 4 n., with its shorter side laid length-wise to the length of the canoe, it hangsdown below-the outwales. Later it will betrimmed flush with their bottom edges.The buiider now shapes the permanentthwarts. The central thwari measures 2 ft.3% in. between the gunwales, wi th i ts upperedge slightly convex and its lower edgestraight. It varies in thickness from ?4 in.:at the ends to % in. at the centre, and inwidth from 1% in. fo-1% in. at the centreiit begins tdfa!5rlb6f 5 n.from the gun-wales. Two holes are bored at each endfor the thongs that will secure it to thegun-?ales.The next pair of thwatts are placed oneither side of the central thwari and 2 R7 in. away fro-rn it. EacKof these i s ? 7 T7% in. long, measuring 1% in.. by o l i j . I a t -:he ends and 11% in. by 'h in. at the middie.

A single hole for the thongs is bored at eachend of this p a i r ~The second (and last) pair of thwarts areplaced 2 ft 6 in. from theother pair; theyare 4 in. long, 1% in. wide and 'A in. thick.They are not- attached until aiter-the in---stallation of the gunwale caps, since theywill be aftached to these-caps as well asto the main gunwales and outwales (seefigure 12). The gunwaie caps need firmsupport at this point, for it is here that theircurvature begins.Next cornes the installation of the gun-wale caps. They are th e same length asthe outwales, 12_ft6in., and measure 1%in. by % in., tapered-to- in: wide at theenas to make them easier-to-bendl Laidfiat on top of the outwaies~ nd main gun-wales, they cover them both. Near the endsof the canoe the caps are lashed to the gun-wales and the bark in several places. The.end thwarts are then lashed to the gunwaleCaps. main gunwales and outwales. The

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~ ~

Central thwatt

First of thwartsOutwae-BarkMain gunwale-Gunwale cap- Second pair of thwattsFigure 12Lashings of the thwaits

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lnseriing the Sheathing and the Ribs

Wooden pegs

Figure 13Cross-section of the gunwale at the centrai thwariremaining Iength of the gunwale caps is-. .attache ifWith 2%. wooden pegs driven:into holes drilled ai 9-in. intervals. Thisi s the finaCstep in-finishingLthe tips of thecanoe and reinforcing-the gunwales:Caulking the lnsideTO ensure a watertight craft, the buildermust caulk Xll the joints: TtTe preparationof the caulking compound has already beendescribed, but it should b recalled that themixture used on the inside of the-canoecontains pitch, which increases its adhesiv'properties. Albert's wi fe and bis-assistantapplied this -mixture with a cloth-coverepatula. Each joint was given a first coatof gum, which served ta i o l d in place a-3-in.-wide strip of cloth; a second coat of.:gum was then smeared ovG the cloth, thusachieving a perfectly waterproof joint.lnserting the Sheathing and-the Rlbs--Withhis crooked knife, the builder prepares.about 50 strips of wood. This requires greatskill and a sure hand, since the-4-ft_by_.3 in. planking-ha-to be cut barely_'/e_in,--thick, and-the..strip_thatwiIIextendinto.Jhe @s of the canoe must taper slightly,,sinc this area is %6 mch narrower;

The ?trips t h a_ t se~eas floorboards areinstalled in' a special order in three rows,with the ones in- the-~middle o w slightly'ove-apping those on-each end: In eachrow, the wood stiip next to the gunwaleoverlaps~itsneighbour, which-in trn over-laps its neighbour, and so on-down to thecentre .of.the canoe.In the meantime, the rjbs-have-driedthey have been taken out of their canoe"mould" and cut t o varying lengths. Thectual installation of ribs andsheathing nowbegins. Starting at the tips of the canoe,the builder inserts a row of sheathing stripsbetween the headbozrdand the bark; whiiehis assistant~holds he strips inposition, heinstalls the first rib, no. 14 (see p. 28),pushing the ends up between the main gun-wale and the bark envelope. The rib is leftfor the moment at an angle; any at fempfto move it into its final position would im-pose too concentrated a stress onthe barkenvelope, with the risk of splitting it. Thebuilder installs al1 the ribs in this manner,eushing them lu st - firmly enough t o hold,them in tilted position. Ribs that go in tooeasily must be corrected, for they wouldweaken the canoe. Sometimes, too, theribs are too long, and then the crookedknife must once more be called into action..When al1 the ribs have been installed at- -~ ~- 4

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Building the Cano8

an angle, the byud~tapseach-one @to tsfinacpo- ion, with a birch..mallet and a-~~wooden drift, moviKg-~eachone a-bit at.azime_unfi-they are ai i uprig7it. Care mustbe taken-Zt thiSpoiGecause such a greatstrain is imposed on the bark envelope bythe driven ribs. Nevertheless, the ribs mustexert enough pressure on the bark to keepit taut and also to hold themselves in posi-tion, since they are not attached to thebark or gunwales in any way. During in-stallation, this pressure must be exertedevenly along the entire side, thus makingthe canoe capable of taking even greaterstrain. 4s-he works, the builder sprinklesthe bark liberily with hot water to make it~'as fiexibte as possible. pespi tethese pre-cautions, two.10-in. splits appeared in thebark of Albert's canoe; these were closedand caulked in the same manner as the.joints.Caulklng the Outside and the TipsThe final~>tep_consists-of caulking the out-side of t h e ~ a n o e ~ere, too, a-spatula-is-~se T ~& t moistene