MALAYSIA’S TERRACED HOUSING

Towards an Environmentally Sustainable Future

by

Sumita Jayapalasingam

Bachelor of Interior Architecture (Hons)

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Architecture

Deakin University

January 2009

DEAKIN UNIVERSITY

CANDIDATE DECLARATION

I certify that the thesis entitled

MALAYSIA’S TERRACED HOUSING Towards an Environmentally Sustainable Future

submitted for the degree of

Master of Architecture

is the result of my own work and that where reference is made to the work of

others, due acknowledgment is given.

I also certify that any material in the thesis which has been accepted for a

degree or diploma by any university or institution is identified in the text.

Full Name.................................................…………………………………. (Please Print)

Signed ..................................................................................……………….

Date......................................................................................……………….

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS x

ABBRIEVIATIONS xi

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Problem Statement and Research Aim 2

1.2 Research Approach 3

1.3 Outline of Thesis 4

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Housing Malaysia’s Masses 7 2.1.1 Malaysia – A Brief Introduction 7 2.1.2 A Concise Historical Overview 8 2.1.3 The Terraced House 15

2.2 Regionalism – Architectural Identity 30

2.3 Green Design 35 2.3.1 Definitions 35 2.3.2 The Malaysian Government’s Involvement 39

2.4 Hypothesis 43

3 METHODOLOGY 44

3.1 Introduction 45

3.2 Questionnaire 48

3.3 Interviews 51

3.4 Case Studies 51

3.5 Analysis of Data 53

4 RESULTS 56

4.1 Results : Questionnaire 57

4.2 Results : Interviews 75

4.3 Results : Case Studies 76 4.3.1 Category 1 : Typical Terraced Housing 76 4.3.2 Category 2 : Connecting With The Environment 90 4.3.3 Category 3 : Alternative Options 94

iv

5 DISCUSSION 107

5.1 Introduction 108

5.2 Malaysia’s Terraced Housing in the Twenty-First Century 109 5.2.1 Greenery 110 5.2.2 Spatial Organisation 111 5.2.3 Thermal Comfort 113 5.2.4 Energy Consumption 113 5.2.5 Conclusion 115

5.3 Responses from the Environment 115

5.4 Roles and Responsibilities 118 5.4.1 General Population 118 5.4.2 Developers 120 5.4.3 Industry Professionals 120 5.4.4 Government Bodies 121 5.4.5 Summary 122

6 CONCLUSION 123

6.1 Findings 124

6.2 Limitations of the Research 124

6.3 Further Research 125

APPENDICES 126

APPENDIX 1 – The People of Malaysia 127

APPENDIX 2 – Malaysia’s Architectural Chronology 130

APPENDIX 3 – Plain Language Statement & Consent Form 133

APPENDIX 4 – Letter of Invitation 139

APPENDIX 5 – Fact Sheet and Questionnaire 140

APPENDIX 6 – Guidelines for Extensions to Terraced Houses in Kuala Lumpur 147

APPENDIX 7 – 20 Trees Marketing Excerpts 174

APPENDIX 8 – Housing Price Categories in Malaysia 176

APPENDIX 9 – Newspaper Articles : Landslide 177

REFERENCES 183

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Houses with Austronesian influences. 9

Figure 2.2 Orang Asli homes in the Taman Negara (National Park) forest. 10

Figure 2.3 A Malay House in Sandakan, Sabah. 10

Figure 2.4 An illustration of a longhouse belonging to the Orang Ulu ethnic group. 11

Figure 2.5 The Malaccan townhouse. 17

Figure 2.6 An axonometric illustration of a Malaccan townhouse. 17

Figure 2.7 The early settlements in Kuala Lumpur-1884. 19

Figure 2.8 An axonometric illustration of a shophouse. 20

Figure 2.9 English terraced houses in Reading- c.1900. 20

Figure 2.10 Early Chinese shophouses (L) & the earliest form of the terraced house (R) 21

Figure 2.11 A generic terraced housing development with 24’x80’ homes in Selangor

scheduled for completion in June 2009. 23

Figure 2.12 Rows of terraced housing dominate the residential scene in Bangsar. 25

Figure 2.13 General modifications to the terraced house. 26

Figure 2.14 Summary of Supply of Residential Units by Type in Malaysia 27

Figure 2.15 Summary of Supply of Residential Units by Type in Malaysia 29

Figure 2.16 A colonial bungalow: the Agnes Keith house, Sandakan, Sabah. 32

Figure 2.17 The Amanda Superlink Home – D’Kayangan Township. 33

Figure 2.18 The Amanda Superlink Home Floor Plan. 33

Figure 3.1 An overall diagram of the research process 45

Figure 3.2 Outline of research methodology 46

Figure 3.3 Percentage breakdown of participants 49

Figure 4.1 Percentage breakdown of response to Question 1 57

Figure 4.2 Site Plan – Bukit Prima Pelangi 2 Storey Terraced Houses 76

Figure 4.3 Location Map – Bukit Prima Pelangi 2 Storey Terraced Houses 77

Figure 4.4 Streetscape – Bukit Prima Pelangi 2 Storey Terraced Houses 77

Figure 4.5 Intermediate Lot Layout Plan – Bukit Prima Pelangi 78

Figure 4.6 Rear of houses and back lane – Bukit Prima Pelangi 79

Figure 4.7 This adjacent housing development, by the same developer 79

Figure 4.8 Streetscape – Bukit Prima Pelangi 2 Storey Terraced Houses 80

Figure 4.9 Intermediate Lot Elevations – Bukit Prima Pelangi 80

Figure 4.10 Intermediate Lot Cross Section – Bukit Prima Pelangi 81

Figure 4.11 Location Map – Opal 2 Storey Terraced Houses 82

Figure 4.12 Streetscape – Opal 2 Storey Terraced Houses 83

Figure 4.13 Intermediate Lot Layout Plan – Opal 2 Storey Terraced Houses 83

Figure 4.14 Front Facade – Opal 2 Storey Terraced Houses 84

Figure 4.15 Rear of houses – Opal 2 Storey Terraced Houses 84

Figure 4.16 Location Map – Studio M 2 Storey Terraced Houses 86

Figure 4.17 Intermediate Lot Layout Plan – Studio M 2 Storey Terraced Houses 87

vi

Figure 4.18 Show Unit Front Facade – Studio M 2 Storey Terraced Houses 88

Figure 4.19 Show unit interior – Studio M 2 Storey Terraced Houses 88

Figure 4.20 Artist’s Impression – 20 Trees 3 Storey Terraced Houses 90

Figure 4.21 Location Map – 20 Trees 3 Storey Terraced Houses 91

Figure 4.22 Site Plan – 20 Trees 91

Figure 4.23 Type B1A Layout Plan – 20 Trees 3 Storey Terraced Houses 92

Figure 4.24 Type B1 Garden Home Front Facade - 20 Trees 93

Figure 4.25 Site Plan – Nong Chik Heights 95

Figure 4.26 A generic honeycomb housing layout & a generic terraced housing layout. 95

Figure 4.27 Location Map – Nong Chik Heights 96

Figure 4.28 Artist’s Impression of Layout – Nong Chik Heights 96

Figure 4.29 Artist’s Impression – Quadruplex & Sextuplex – Nong Chik Heights 97

Figure 4.30 Quadruplex Layout Plan – Nong Chik Heights 98

Figure 4.31 Quadruplex drawings – Nong Chik Heights 100

Figure 4.32 Sextuplex Layout Plan – Nong Chik Heights 101

Figure 4.33 Sextuplex drawings – Nong Chik Heights 102

Figure 4.34 Thermal comfort levels achieved with an insulated roof and mechanical

ventilation. 103

Figure 4.35 An artist’s impression of the terraced house prototype 104

Figure 4.36 UKM lecturer and researcher Mazlan Tahir with a scaled model of the terraced

house prototype 105

Figure 4.37 A cross section diagram of the terraced house prototype 106

Figure 4.38 A diagram illustrating the prefabricated modular panels that would form the walls

and floors, accommodating various configurations 106

Figure 5.1 Abstract of Case Study Analysis 110

Figure 5.2 The slope for the Damansara 21 development. 117

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Malaysian Architectural Chronology - Extracts 15

Table 3.1 Questionnaire target groups and number of responses received 49

Table 3.2 Data sources for case studies 52

Table 4.1 Response to Question 1 57

Table 4.2 Response to Question 2 59

Table 4.3 Response to Question 3 60

Table 4.4 Further Breakdown of Response to Question 3 61

Table 4.5 Response to Question 4 63

Table 4.6 Response to Question 5 65

Table 4.7 Response to Question 6 66

Table 4.8 Further Breakdown of Response to Question 6 67

Table 4.9 Response to Question 7 67

Table 4.10 Further Breakdown of Response to Question 7 68

Table 4.11 Response to Question 8 69

Table 4.12 Response to Question 9 69

Table 4.13 Further Breakdown of Response to Question 9 70

Table 4.14 Response to Question 10 71

Table 4.15 Breakdown of Response to Question 10 71

Table 4.16 Response to Question 11 72

Table 4.17 Further Breakdown of Response to Question 11 72

Table 4.18 Response to Question 11(a) 74

Table 5.1 Land-use efficiency based on generic layouts in Figure 4.27. 112

viii

ABSTRACT

The study builds on and contributes to existing studies in the implementation

of environmentally sustainable elements into Malaysia’s housing

developments for the general population. It concentrates on the terraced

house typology because it is most common in the form of a single storey or

double storey unit, and is the dominant form of housing in Malaysia.

Studies in this area have examined the feasibility of using different

construction methods and materials, and developed prototype housing

models as environmentally sustainable alternatives for the Malaysian

terraced house typology. However, there has not been enough focus on

producing such housing from developers or the government. This study

provides additional insight into where the current focus is on housing

developments incorporating environmentally sustainable elements, and

possible future directions of such housing developments. Although these

housing developments exist in other countries, based on the scope of the

literature review, it appears that little analytic attention has been paid towards

identifying methods and strategies that will enable the creation of

environmentally sustainable housing developments for Malaysia’s general

population.

The data analysis for this study involves information gathered from primary

sources and secondary sources comprising house plans, papers, journals,

newspaper articles, reports, a questionnaire, interviews and case studies.

The questionnaire was created to obtain personal opinions and perceptions

of home owners, developers and industry professionals on the topic of

terraced housing design in Malaysia with a focus on environmental

sustainability. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the willing

participants in the form of further discussions on the responses given in the

questionnaire. Categories of case studies were formed to group the various

housing projects that were looked at in order to understand terraced housing

in Malaysia. The categories consist of typical terraced housing

developments, terraced housing developments purporting to adopt

ix

environmentally sustainable elements and alternatives to the current form of

terraced housing.

The findings of this study discuss the feasibility of enabling the incorporation

of environmentally sustainable elements into housing developments for

Malaysia’s general population. This is done by looking at the reasons why

such elements have not been incorporated into these housing developments

and discussing methods of implementation.

x

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Dr Mirjana Lozanovska and Dr David Beynon of the School of

Architecture and Building of Deakin University, for their supervision, patience,

guidance and support throughout the course of this thesis.

I would also like to thank all the participants involved with this research

project for their contributions, valuable time and insight.

Sumita Jayapalasingam

xi

ABBRIEVIATIONS

IBS Industrialised Building System

KLCH Kuala Lumpur City Hall

NMP Ninth Malaysia Plan

RM Ringgit Malaysia - the Malaysian currency unit

SDB Selangor Dredging Berhad

1 INTRODUCTION

Introduction

2

1.1 Problem Statement and Research Aim

“For people always seem to have known how to produce the habitat they

need, as naturally and intuitively as birds build nests.”1 -Charles Correa

This thesis concentrates on the terraced house typology because it is

presently the dominant form of housing in Malaysia, and is most common in

the form of a single storey or double storey unit.

Malaysia’s vernacular homes such as the Orang Asli2 dwellings, the Malay

house and the longhouse, as well as the original Malaysian terraced house

typologies were built to comfortably accommodate its occupants in the

tropical climate. However, in the current Malaysian context, the intuition

mentioned above by Correa, appears to have been somewhat clouded by

today’s ever-present technology, as the natural environment is ignored and a

more acceptable version of the climate is tailored to accommodate the built

environment with the use of active cooling systems such as air conditioning

units. Besides the issue of thermal comfort, this study also addresses the

effects of housing developments on the natural environment.

This thesis hypothesises that the terraced housing presently being built to

accommodate Malaysia’s general population does not contain

environmentally sustainable elements. Consequently, for housing developers

to produce housing developments for Malaysia’s general population which

incorporate environmentally sustainable elements, there is a need to

establish if the lack of such elements is perceived as a problem by members

of the general population, building and construction industry professionals,

housing developers and the government.

1 Lim, W & Tan, HB 1998, Contemporary Vernacular – Evoking Traditions in Asian Architecture, Select Books, Singapore, pp.10. 2 Orang Asli translates into English directly as ‘Original People’. Orang = people ; Asli = original. Refer to Appendix 1 for further information on the Orang Asli.

Introduction

3

Studies in this area have examined the feasibility of using different

construction methods and materials, and have developed prototype housing

models as environmentally sustainable alternatives for the Malaysian

terraced house typology. However, there has not been enough focus from

developers or the government on producing such housing. This study

provides additional insight into the position of terraced housing developments

incorporating environmentally sustainable elements in the Malaysian context,

and possible future directions of such housing developments.

Although these housing developments exist in other countries, based on the

scope of the literature review, it appears that little analytic attention has been

paid towards identifying methods and strategies that will enable the creation

of environmentally sustainable housing developments for Malaysia’s general

population.

The thesis aims to identify the factors that are enabling the current production

of terraced housing developments for Malaysia’s general population which

are lacking environmentally sustainable elements. Doing so will allow for

possible solutions to be put forward to improve the relationship between

these housing developments and the surrounding natural environment.

1.2 Research Approach

The data analysis for this study involves information gathered from primary

sources and secondary sources comprising house plans, papers, journals,

newspaper articles, reports, a questionnaire, interviews and case studies.

The questionnaire was created to obtain personal opinions and perceptions

of home owners, developers and industry professionals on the topic of

terraced housing design in Malaysia with a focus on environmental

sustainability.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the willing participants in the

form of further discussions on the responses given in the questionnaire.

Introduction

4

Categories of case studies were formed to group the various housing

projects that were looked at in order to understand terraced housing in

Malaysia. The categories consist of typical terraced housing developments,

terraced housing developments purporting to adopt environmentally

sustainable elements and alternatives to the current form of terraced

housing.

1.3 Outline of Thesis

The Literature Review chapter begins with discussing housing for Malaysia’s

masses by providing a brief introduction to Malaysia, which is followed by a

concise historical overview of the country’s housing and a section on the

Malaysian terraced house and its origins.

Theoretical issues pertaining to regionalism and architectural identity are

briefly discussed in the Malaysian context. The definitions and principles of

green and sustainable design are discussed towards the end of this chapter.

This section ends with outlines and aims of the Malaysian government in

relation to environmentally sustainable design. A hypothetical statement

concludes this chapter.

The Methodology chapter discusses the methods employed to tackle the

hypothesis. Mixed methodologies comprising qualitative and quantitative

approaches are used to gather data. The nature of the questionnaire,

interviews and case studies are addressed before the chapter concludes with

a discussion of the data analysis process.

The Results chapter compiles and analyses the outcomes of the

questionnaire and interviews. The case studies are analysed and compared

using four categories : Greenery, Spatial Organisation, Thermal Comfort and

Energy Consumption.

Introduction

5

The Discussion chapter summarises the outcomes of the Results chapter

and elaborates on the various factors that will enable a better relationship

between housing developments for Malaysia’s general population and the

natural environment.

The Conclusion chapter states the findings of this thesis and discusses its

implications. This thesis draws its conclusions primarily from the

questionnaire and interview results as well as the analysis of data from the

case studies.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature Review

7

2.1 Housing Malaysia’s Masses

2.1.1 Malaysia – A Brief Introduction

Situated in the South East Asian region, the Federation of Malaysia

comprises Peninsula Malaysia and the states of Sabah and Sarawak on the

island of Borneo. Located between 2º and 7º north of the Equator, Peninsula

Malaysia is separated from the states of Sabah and Sarawak by the South

China Sea.3 Peninsular Malaysia shares its northern border with Thailand and

has Singapore as its southern neighbour. Sabah and Sarawak both share its

borders with Indonesia while Sarawak also shares a border with Brunei.

The tropical climate provides warm, humid weather all year round.

Temperatures in the lowlands range from 21ºC to 32ºC, and in the highlands

range between 15°C to 25°C.4 The mean monthly humidity range is 70% to

90%.5 Coastal areas are exposed to trade winds, while inland areas are

windless, resulting in thermal stress during the day.6 Annual rainfall, usually

in the form of thunderstorms varies from 2000mm to 2500mm.7

Malaysia is considered one of Asia’s most culturally diverse nations with its

multi-ethnic, multicultural population comprising Malays, Chinese, Indians

and more than 200 tribal indigenous ethnic groups.8 Over 27 million9 people

live in this country, with seventy per cent concentrated in Peninsular

Malaysia.10 The average household comprises 4.6 persons.11

3 Tourism Malaysia, About Us-Fast Facts, retrieved 14 November 2008, <http://www.tourism.gov.my/en/about/facts.asp> 4 Ibid.5 Malaysia Meteorological Department, retrieved 14 November 2008, <http://www.met.gov.my/english/education/climate/climate04.html> 6 Ahmad, SS 2008, ‘Kuala Lumpur: A Hot Humid Climate’, in R Hyde (ed), Bioclimatic Housing – Innovative designs for warm climates, Sterling, London, pp.269. 7 Tourism Malaysia, About Us-Fast Facts, retrieved 14 November 2008, <http://www.tourism.gov.my/en/about/facts.asp>8 UNICEF Malaysia, Malaysia – Nationhood in Progress, retrieved 14 November 2008, <http://www.unicef.org/malaysia/overview.html> Refer to Appendix 1 for further information on the people of Malaysia. 9 Tourism Malaysia, About Us-Fast Facts, retrieved 14 November 2008, <http://www.tourism.gov.my/en/about/facts.asp>10 UNICEF Malaysia, Malaysia – Nationhood in Progress, retrieved 14 November 2008, <http://www.unicef.org/malaysia/overview.html> 11 UNDP in Malaysia, retrieved 14 November 2008, <http://www.undp.org.my/index.php?navi_id=8>

Literature Review

8

Manufacturing constitutes the largest single component of Malaysia's

economy, which has tourism and commodities such as petroleum, palm oil,

natural rubber and timber as other major contributors.12

2.1.2 A Concise Historical Overview

This section aims to briefly discuss Malaysia’s history of housing for the

general population. Malaysia’s vernacular houses, with the exception of the

simple makeshift shelters of nomadic groups, are in essence post and beam

structures raised on stilts, with gabled roofs and permeable walls and

flooring.

These vernacular houses are built by the occupants or members of the

community to suit their socioeconomic, cultural and environmental

requirements. Besides being flexible with their design and the use of the

interior spaces, these houses accommodate the tropical climate fairly well.

The types of vernacular houses found in Malaysia generally consist of three

main types: Orang Asli dwellings, the Malay house, and the longhouse.

Vernacular homes in Malaysia take on a range of forms with subtle

differences. The process of seeking the origins of these vernacular homes

leads to the Austronesian-speaking seafarers whose migrations through

South East Asia and Oceania began at least 6000 years ago13. The use of

the post-and-beam method of construction, with raised floors is probably the

most distinct features of the Austronesian house architecture.

12 Tourism Malaysia, About Us-Fast Facts, retrieved 14 November 2008, <http://www.tourism.gov.my/en/about/facts.asp> 13 Fee, CV 1998, The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Vol. 5: Architecture, Archipelago Press, Singapore, pp.14.

Literature Review

9

Figure 2.1 Houses with Austronesian influences. Source : Fee, CV 1998, The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Vol. 5: Architecture, Archipelago

Press, Singapore, pp.17.

There are 18 distinct Orang Asli groups which live on the Malay peninsula.

The three main groups are the Negritos in the north, the Senoi in the centre

and the Proto-Malays in the south.14 The Orang Asli traditional forest

dwellings are basic timber shelters with thatch roofs. These dwellings are

built to perform as basic shelters as the Orang Asli regard the forests as their

home and they do not have to store material goods.

It is uncertain what the future holds in regards to maintaining their cultural

identity because even though there are still some Orang Asli who continue to

live in their traditional dwellings in the forest, a growing number have moved

14 Fee, CV 1998, The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Vol. 5: Architecture, Archipelago Press, Singapore, pp.12.

Literature Review

10

to zinc-roofed raised houses on the outskirts of small towns as a result of

rapid modernisation.15

Figure 2.2 Orang Asli homes in the Taman Negara (National Park) forest. Source : S.Jayapalasingam’s photograph – 2007.

The Malay house styles differ slightly based on their locations throughout the

different states on the Malay peninsula. Evolving throughout the years, the

Malay house is typically constructed using local materials, methods and

craftsmanship.

Figure 2.3 A Malay House in Sandakan, Sabah. Source : S.Jayapalasingam’s photograph – 2008.

The generic features of the Malay house are the posts which support the

raised house, and its high steeply sloping roof with gables at both ends. The

15 Fee, CV 1998, The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Vol. 5: Architecture, Archipelago Press, Singapore, pp.12.

Literature Review

11

house is constructed with prefabricated timber components. The roofing

generally at present, has evolved from the thatch roof made of palm leaves,

to zinc sheets which fail to match the insulation properties of the thatch roof.

The thatch roof provided an acceptable level of thermal comfort.

In West Malaysia, on the island of Borneo, the common traditional vernacular

dwelling was the longhouse. The form and layout of the longhouse varied

according to the ethnic groups who built them, as well as the relationships

between families and the community. The longhouses housed hundreds of

people, ranging from 20 to 80 apartments per unit.16 With several families

being accommodated in each longhouse, generally, each family has its own

private unit but shares communal areas such as the area for drying crops or

the gallery for social activities.17These houses were built on stilts, using the

materials from the surrounding environment such as timber and bamboo. The

houses had pitched roofs made with thatched leaves or bamboo.

Figure 2.4 An illustration of a longhouse belonging to the Orang Ulu ethnic group.

Source: Fee, CV 1998, The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Vol. 5: Architecture, Archipelago

Press, Singapore, pp.35.

The raised floor being a key element of the local vernacular architecture, has

its advantages. Some of these advantages are as follows18:

(i) Using stilts enables the building to work better with the natural

terrain, when it comes to creating a level floor.

(ii) In low lying, flood prone areas, raised dwellings will not be

seriously affected by flash floods.

16 Fee, CV 1998, The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Vol. 5: Architecture, Archipelago Press, Singapore, pp.34. 17 Ibid.18 Chai, ML 2007(18 March), ‘Houses on stilts exude a rustic charm’, New Sunday Times, pp.31.

Literature Review

12

(iii) The raised floor also provides the occupants with an increased

level of privacy as there is no direct visual connection at eye level

from the streets.

(iv) Levels of internal thermal comfort are increased as direct heat from

the ground is diffused and the raised level optimises the

opportunity for the interiors to be naturally ventilated with land

breezes.

The following table comprises relevant extracts from S.Vlatseas’s Malaysian

architectural chronology.19

Period Architectural Origins / Influences Pre-16th

Century

c. 40000-2500

BCE

c. 2800-500

BCE

500-1300 CE

500-1300 CE

-The earliest inhabitants of the region (the Orang Asli

Negritos) build temporary shelters of saplings and

palm leaf thatch, the prototype of the first indigenous

dwelling.

-Houses built on posts are probably introduced to

Sabah and Sarawak via Austronesian sea migrations.

-Orang Asli Senoi houses are constructed with poles,

bamboo, palm thatch and rattan.

-Hindu-Buddhist beliefs introduced through trade

contacts are incorporated into existing indigenous

beliefs, Permanent architecture in brick, stone and

laterite blocks appear in the form of Buddhist and

Hindu shrines.

-The arrival of Islam in the 14th Century greatly

influences Malay culture and tradition.

-A new state, Malacca, is formed. Chinese and

Portuguese accounts describe wooden palaces, watch

towers and palisades located in Malacca.

16th 1500 -The Spice Trade between the East and West

19 Fee, CV 1998, The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Vol. 5: Architecture, Archipelago Press, Singapore, pp.8-9. Refer to Appendix 2 for detailed chronology.

Literature Review

13

Century

1511

develops Malacca into a vast, cosmopolitan trading

centre in which Tamils, Arabs, Chinese, Persians,

Javanese and others each live in their own quarters in

the town.

-In the countryside, the houses of the Malays are

raised off the ground on trees trunks or bamboo posts.

Immigrants and traders from Minangkabau, Sumatra,

introduce their house-building techniques and forms,

such as the shallow ‘U’ shaped curved roof.

-Chinese settlers introduce traditional elements such

as courtyards and masonry staircases.

-On the east coast of the peninsula, immigrants from

southern Thailand introduce their artistic traditions and

house styles which include high-pitched roofs.

-The Portuguese conquer Malacca and it becomes the

centre of their eastern trading empire.

17th

Century

1641 -The Dutch take over Malacca from the Portuguese

and control it as a trade emporium until 1824.

-A permanent settlement of shopkeepers, craftsmen

and farmers from southern China establishes itself in

the early 17th Century, although Chinese traders came

and settled as early as the 14th Century. Many of these

early settlers come without their families and form

marriage and working ties with the local population.

The Baba-Nyonya culture is formed. They develop a

distinctive brand of the Malay language, dress, food

and customs, but maintain the traditional Chinese

urban house form.

-The earliest types of townhouses, or row houses in

Malacca are built during the Dutch occupation. They

are much deeper than elsewhere in the country, often

extending from one street back to the next. Some of

these houses had their back out to the sea allowing

goods to be loaded and access to water transportation.

18th 1786 -Captain Francis Light founded Penang. This signals

Literature Review

14

Century

1795

the start of British involvement in the Malay Peninsula,

which is to have a profound influence on the political

system, administration, architecture and lifestyle of the

country.

-The Malayan bungalow emerges, a mixture of

European and local features, such as timber posts and

thatched roofs.

-The British disembark in Malacca where they

establish a joint Anglo-Dutch administration. Malacca

goes into a decline as Penang and Singapore emerge

as trading posts.

19th

Century

1824

1869

1877

1885

1896

-The Dutch are assigned Indonesia while the British

set up the Straits Settlements of Penang, Malacca and

Singapore in 1826, and continue their process of

expansion in the country.

-New tin mines open in Perak and Selangor and lead

to the growth of small towns. There is a mass

migration of Chinese labourers to the tin mines, who

bring with them their traditional dwelling design. Two-

storey shophouses become common in all new towns.

-Indentured labourers from South India and Ceylon are

brought in to work on rubber plantations.

-The narrow-fronted townhouse becomes the prototype

house of the urban Chinese in major towns. In 1884,

the British introduce formal building by-laws.

-Kuala Lumpur, located in Selangor is made the capital

of the Federated Malays States. Tremendous growth

and a building boom ensues, due to the colonial

government and private enterprise.

-Although solid masonry replaces timber and thatch in

the towns, the Malays and indigenous groups continue

to live in their own style of housing. Civil servants and

Literature Review

15

colonial entrepreneurs live in spacious wooden

bungalows raised on brick piers.

20th

Century

1920s-1930s

1950s-1960s

1980s-1990s

-European and Chinese merchants, the nouveau riche

of the time, build vast, opulent mansions. Ornate

facades are grafted onto traditional Chinese

shophouses.

-Most urban dwellers live in modest link houses ( also

known as row houses or terraced houses), and in most

rural areas, timber dwellings continue to reflect local

styles.

-Mass migration to the cities results in the creation of

new towns. Terraced housing developments increase.

-Increased urban migration and a growing middle class

result in a demand for mass residential housing on the

outskirts of towns. The traditional urban shophouse is

no longer the choice of residence for the general urban

population.

Table 2.1 Malaysian Architectural Chronology - Extracts (Refer to Appendix 2 for full chronology)

2.1.3 The Terraced House

Origins of the Terraced House Moving on to another typology; the Malaysian terraced house has its origins

associated with the Malaccan townhouses which date back to the

seventeenth century and the Chinese shophouses which date back to the

nineteenth century.

The earliest types of townhouses or row houses were built in Malacca during

the Dutch occupation in the seventeenth century. The architectural influences

on these townhouses were Chinese and Dutch. The Chinese influences were

identified by the unique roofs with rounded gabled ends, which originated in

Literature Review

16

China, and they were tiled with Chinese clay tiles. As for the Dutch

influences, according to Chun, Hassan and Noordin, from the Universiti Sains

Malaysia’s School of Housing, Building and Planning, these townhouses

were very similar to the traditional Dutch row houses as:

“ (i) The brickwork of the drainage system has its own characteristics.

(ii) The material used for the steps at the main entrance and at the doorway

of the passage leading into the air well, indicated the social status of the

owner.

(iii) The hood which existed above the kitchen was made of wood.”20

A number of the Chinese traders who stopped by at the Malaccan port chose

to settle down in Malacca as early as the fourteenth century. In the early

seventeenth century, a settlement of shopkeepers, craftsmen and farmers

from southern China was established.21 As these Chinese migrants were all

men, they married the local Malay women, resulting in a community of Sino-

Malayans also known as Baba-Nyonya people.

The dwellings of these settlers were in the form of the Malaccan townhouse,

which was of Chinese origin, fused with Malay and European influences. In

the mid seventeenth century, Malacca, which was a Portuguese colony, was

taken over by the Dutch. The Dutch remained until the British took over in the

late eighteenth century.

20 Chun, HK, Hassan, AS & Noordin, NM, An Influence of Colonial Architecture to Building Styles and Motifs in Colonial Cities in Malaysia, 8th International Conference of the Asian Planning Schools Association, 11-14th September 2005, retrieved 3 February 2008, <http://www.apsa2005.net/FullPapers/PdfFormat/Full%20Paper%20(AH)/Ho%20Kah%20Chun.pdf> 21 Fee, CV 1998, The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Vol. 5: Architecture, Archipelago Press, Singapore, pp.8.

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Figure 2.5 The Malaccan townhouse. Source : Fee, CV 1998, The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Vol. 5: Architecture, Archipelago

Press, Singapore, pp.92.

Figure 2.6 An axonometric illustration of a Malaccan townhouse. Source : Vlatseas, S 1990, A History of Malaysian Architecture, Longman, Singapore, pp.99.

The Malaccan townhouse is generally 10 meters wide and stretches to a

depth of about 68 meters.22 These houses have internal courtyards which

allow for air and light to enter the long narrow edifice which is otherwise

closed off from the outside world. According to Ismail, a Universiti Teknologi

22 Fee, CV 1998, The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Vol. 5: Architecture, Archipelago Press, Singapore, pp.93.

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Malaysia lecturer with an architectural background, this townhouse typology

reflected the desire of the Chinese settlers to copy dwellings in China. She

states that it is surprising the townhouses occupied such narrow elongated

sites, when there was an abundance of land in Malacca at the time they were

constructed.23

Ismail concludes that it is possible that the Chinese settlers simply wanted to

replicate the houses in their homeland, which occupied such narrow plots.

The influences of the Malay house can be seen in the form of the external

main front door which is only half solid, a pintu pagar (fence door) allowing

light and air through when the internal main front doors were open.24 The

European influences appear in the form of decorative elements such as the

Palladian and Baroque details on the pediments and pillars.

Malaysia became a British colony in the early nineteenth century.25 The

opening of tin mines caused the growth of small towns. People from China

came to work in the mines, and they brought with them their traditional

building designs. The architectural influences of the Chinese were

materialised in the form of the two-storey shophouse or the townhouse.

The Chinese mine workers who formed a significant part of the new mining

towns, initially lived and worked in atap (thatched leaves) shophouses26,

constructed with elements derived from the Malay vernacular typologies. In

Kuala Lumpur, one of the early mining towns, these atap shophouses were

replaced with two-storey brick shophouses due to a major fire in 1881. The

brick buildings with tiled roofs were seen as a lesser form of a fire hazard.

23 Ismail, WHW 2005, Houses In Malaysia – Fusion of the East and the West, Penerbit Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, pp.24. 24 Fee, CV 1998, The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Vol. 5: Architecture, Archipelago Press, Singapore, pp.92. 25 Malaysia, formerly known as Malaya, gained her independence from the British in 1957. Population and Housing Census 2000, retrieved 1 March 2008, <http://www.statistics.gov.my/english/census/pressdemo.htm> 26 “Atap shophouses were the first physical mark of the Chinese n all major settlements of Malaya.” Kohl, DG 1984, Chinese architecture in the Straits Settlements and western Malaya : temples, kongsis, and houses,Heinemann Asia, Kuala Lumpur, pp.179.

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Figure 2.7 The early settlements in Kuala Lumpur-1884. Source : Fee, CV 1998, The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Vol. 5: Architecture, Archipelago

Press, Singapore, pp.75.

The shophouse was a common type of dwelling in Southern China, and

similarities to the Malaysian shophouse can be drawn from the elongated

plans, ornamentation and external facades.27 The Malaysian shophouse also

featured internal courtyards, which were a typical feature of the homes in

Southern China.

The British may have influenced certain elements based on the English

terraced houses which were, at that point in time, a common form of housing

in England. The lower levels of these Malaysian shophouses were used for

business, and the upper levels served as residences. They had an average

width of 6 meters and a depth of 30 meters. Like their Malaccan townhouse

counterparts, the Chinese shophouses in Malaysia featured European

decorative elements on their facades.

27 Ismail, WHW 2005, Houses In Malaysia – Fusion of the East and the West, Penerbit Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, pp.21-23.

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Figure 2.8 An axonometric illustration of a shophouse. Source : Vlatseas, S 1990, A History of Malaysian Architecture, Longman, Singapore, pp.92.

Figure 2.9 English terraced houses in Reading- c.1900. Source : Muthesius, S 1982, The English Terraced House, Yale University Press, London,

pp.191.

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Figure 2.10 Early Chinese shophouses (L) & the earliest form of the terraced house (R)

Source : Ahmad, AG, Southern Chinese Architecture, retrieved 6 February 2008, <http://www.hbp.usm.my/conservation/chinese__architecture.htm>

In the early twentieth century, most urban dwellers occupied shophouses

which became a common feature in all the new towns. The Malays and

indigenous groups outside the towns, continued to live in their own style of

housing. Tihough these masonry shophouses did not tread lightly on the

ground like the vernacular architecture did, they had architectural design

elements which allowed the occupants to live comfortably with the tropical

climate.

Some of the key features were the jack roofs, air wells and courtyards which

kept the interiors well ventilated. The sheltered veranda also known as the

‘five foot way’ in front of the main entrances which allowed for pedestrians to

access the shops without being affected by the elements of nature, such as

the harsh direct sunlight or rain.

According to historian Kohl, the shophouses made possible the combination

of high population density and intensity of economic activity in the Chinatown

areas of Malaysian towns28. During the latter half of the twentieth century, as

the cities expanded, and levels of rural-urban migration increased, the

shophouse eventually became used purely for businesses and urban housing

28 Kohl, DG 1984, Chinese architecture in the Straits Settlements and western Malaya : temples, kongsis, and houses, Heinemann Asia, Kuala Lumpur, pp.172.

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took on the form of the single or double storey terraced house, also known as

the row house or link house.

Terraced Housing : 20th – 21st Century Though Malaysia’s terraced house plans have been drawn and re-drawn

over the years, the lot size has remained the same averaging 20’x65’ (6

meters x 19.5 meters) to 22’x70’ (6.6 meters x 21 meters). The variations of

these lot sizes range from anything between 16’x50’ (4.8 meters x 15 meters)

for housing at the lower end of the market to 24’x100’ (7.2 meters x 30

meters) for more residences at the upper end of the market.29 The typical

single storey terrace contains 3 rooms and 2 bathrooms, and the typical

double storey terrace contains 5 rooms and 3 bathrooms.

This terraced house typology, found in the major cities and towns across the

country, appears to have evolved from the early shophouse. Key elements

relating to thermal comfort and the relationship of the spaces with the

surrounding natural environment have not been carried through. They include

the amount of natural light that fills the interior spaces and adequate cross

ventilation. These elements which are lacking in the current terraced house

typology affect the quality of the occupants’ life. Figure 2.11, representing a

generic terraced house, illustrates the exclusion of a courtyard; an

architectural design element present in the early shophouse and Malaccan

townhouse.

The ever increasing number of housing developments in and around major

cities in Peninsular Malaysia have been fuelled by rural-urban migration. The

obvious result of this rural-urban migration is an increasing urban population,

which consists mainly of a burgeoning middle class and the industrial working

class with a strong purchasing power.30 Twenty-first century terraced housing

developments in major towns and cities cater to a varying range of

socioeconomic backgrounds, leaning more towards the middle to high-end

29 Davis, MP, Ghazali, M & Nordin, NA 2006, Thermal Comfort Honeycomb Housing, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, pp.99. 30 Ibid, p.98.

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Figure 2.11 A generic terraced housing developmentwith 24’x80’ homes in Selangor scheduled for completion in June 2009. Source : SPK Homes brochure – Cahaya SPK Superlink @ Precinct 2A.

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sector. Low cost housing developments are usually sidelined by housing

developers because of the relatively low profits to be gained.

In dealing with the rapid pace of development over the last few decades, the

task of drafting up a more relevant set of by-laws has been ignored. On one

hand the existing by-laws have not encouraged innovation in regards to the

layout and architectural design of the terraced house typology. On the other

hand, not keeping up with the technologies affecting the Malaysian

population’s current life style has prevented the by-laws from encouraging

the production of environmentally sustainable buildings.

The use of the existing building by-laws has resulted in housing

developments with homes based on the adaptations of the housing codes

and regulation introduced by the British. One example would be the 6 meter

wide back lane which is still a standard requirement for nearly all local

housing authorities.31This lane was introduced by the Sanitary Board in the

late nineteenth century as the ‘sanitary lane’ to allow for the collection of

night soil.32

With today’s modern sanitation, the purpose of the back lane fails to be

justified.33 The current housing developments with the back lanes, have them

assigned for garbage collection. In a society where all windows and doors on

the external facades of homes are fitted with security grills, to prevent theft,

the back lane is seen by some of the general population as a negative

feature in terms of security. A possible approach to this situation could

involve increasing the dimensions of the rear building setback and removing

the lane, thus creating a larger backyard for the houses.

31 Hassan, AS, Towards Sustainable Housing Construction in Southeast Asia, retrieved 6 September 2007, <http://www.sustainablesettlement.co.za/docs/a21_hassan.pdf> 32 Fee, CV 1998, The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Vol. 5: Architecture, Archipelago Press, Singapore, pp.74. 33 Hassan, AS, Towards Sustainable Housing Construction in Southeast Asia, retrieved 6 September 2007, <http://www.sustainablesettlement.co.za/docs/a21_hassan.pdf>

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The following section presents an example of how the terrace house has

evolved from its initial form to its present state. Bangsar is a residential

suburb located about four kilometers southwest of Kuala Lumpur’s city

centre. Terraced houses mushroomed in this suburb during the 1970’s.

Internal courtyards were a feature of the houses when they were built. There

are just a fraction of the houses at present, which have maintained the

internal courtyard or air well (smaller courtyards) as a source of fresh air and

natural light. This analysis is based on an observation of the ratio of

renovated houses versus the original houses in this suburb as shown in

Figure 2.13.

Figure 2.12 Rows of terraced housing dominate the residential scene in Bangsar.

Source : S.Jayapalasingam’s photograph -2007.

The 1984 Uniform Building By-laws state that any alterations to existing open

spaces would only be allowed, if the local authority under its own discretion

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issued a permit on the condition that the free movement of air was not

hindered as a result of this alteration.34

Looking at the houses in Bangsar, many courtyards have been closed. This

allowed the occupants to gain more enclosed internal floor area more now

that it was sheltered from the rain. The high volumes of the courtyards were

generally maintained, and operable clerestory windows were fitted to these

altered spaces. Appendix 6 contains guidelines provided by the Kuala

Lumpur City Hall for extensions allowed for the typical terraced house.

Figure 2.13 General modifications to the terraced house. Source : S.Jayapalasingam’s photograph -2007.

In the National Property Information Centre’s (NAPIC) 2007 Residential

Property Stock Report35, produced quarterly, the residential units available in

Malaysia have been listed as the following types :single storey terraced

house, double/triple storey terraced house, single storey semi-detached

house, double/triple storey semi-detached house, detached house, town

house, cluster, low cost house, low cost flat, flat, serviced apartment and

condominium or apartment.

Figure 2.14 clearly illustrates that the terraced house is the dominant form of

housing in Malaysia. The terraced house typology is most common in the

34 Legal Research Board 2000, Uniform Building By-Laws 1984 (as at 20th November 2000), International Law Book Services, Kuala Lumpur, pp.14-15. 35 NAPIC is a Malaysian government body attached to the Valuation and Property Services Department.

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form of a single storey or double storey unit. Singapore, a neighbouring

island nation with the same tropical climate, does not have the terraced

house as its dominant form of housing due to the lack of land area for such

residential developments in relation to the size of the country’s population.

Figure 2.14 Summary of Supply of Residential Units by Type in Malaysia – Existing Stock.

Source : Chart data obtained from: Residential Property Stock Report – Second Quarter 2007, published by NAPIC.

The Developer’s Role Associate Professor Abdul Rashid Abdul Aziz and Ho Shiew Yi from the

Universiti Sains Malaysia’s School of Housing, Building and Planning,

conducted a research project to find out what it takes to succeed in the

housing development sector.36 This sector is a highly competitive one, in

which terraced housing plays a significant role. The results showed that

prime location, cash flow and understanding the market potentials were

among the highly regarded factors in the housing development sector.37

36 Aziz, ARA & Ho, SY 2007(7 April), ‘Built to Compete’, Property-New StraitsTimes, pp.6-7. 37 Ibid.

0

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

1,400,000

1,600,000

Terr

aced

Sem

i-Det

ache

d

Det

ache

d

Tow

n H

ouse

Clu

ster

Low

Cos

t Hou

se

Low

Cos

t Fla

t

Flat

Serv

iced

Apa

rtmen

t

Con

dom

iniu

m

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On the other hand, factors such as the skill of the developers’ employees,

which would include design skills, and project innovation were the least

highly regarded. The low level where the project innovation factor sits is

probably a major reason why the new terraced housing developments

available today are not much different from earlier versions. The lot sizes and

building facades are fairly similar to early terraced houses, but there is a

significant loss in regards to the design elements that contribute towards

achieving acceptable levels of indoor thermal comfort without depending on

active cooling systems.

Innovative design is embraced by developers especially when it will not affect

sales profits negatively. While a handful of developers strive to be innovative,

many developers are content with just marketing conventional styles of

housing which they think suits the needs of the public.38 With factors such as

a rising population, affluence and rural-urban migration, the demand for

housing in the country’s towns and cities will continue to be strong, and

conventional style houses will still sell, so long as the location is acceptable.39

The developers who see no need to be innovative and creative with their

product, are generally those who have the location of their developments to

use as the key selling point. When it comes to innovation, all it takes is for

one developer to be successful with a new design, and imitators will

immediately emerge to compete. This situation places the innovative

developers in the position of a trend-setter.40

In his book ‘Housing Crisis’, Mohd.Tajuddin Mohd. Rasdi conveys that the

concept of ‘worker housing’ which came about due to the industrial revolution

in the western world, which appeared in the form of terraced housing has not

been successfully translated to suit the present day environment in

Malaysia.41Trend-setting developers should be aware of their significance in

38 Aziz, ARA & Ho, SY 2007(7 April), ‘Built to Compete’, Property-New StraitsTimes, pp.6-7.39 Ibid. 40 Ibid.41 Rasdi, MTM 2007, Housing Crisis – Back to a Humanistic Agenda, Penerbit Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, pp.7-8.

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regards to providing the general public with the affordable versions of their

‘dream home’.42 Typically, members of the general public cannot afford to

hire architects to provide them with homes that are designed to

accommodate their individual life styles.

Conclusion Though followed closely by condominiums, as shown in Figure 2.15, based

on the figures of the existing residential stock in Malaysia, as per Figure 2.14,

the terraced house typology will continue to dominate the residential scene

for years to come.

Figure 2.15 Summary of Supply of Residential Units by Type in Malaysia – Scheduled for Completion.

Source : Chart data obtained from: Residential Property Stock Report – Second Quarter 2007, published by NAPIC.

The objective of this thesis is to examine the terraced house typology and

ways in which it can move towards a greener form as it continues to be

42 Wong, A 2007(23 June), ‘Giving life to style’, Property-New StraitsTimes, pp.2.

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

Terr

aced

Sem

i-De

tach

ed

Deta

ched

Tow

n Ho

use

Clus

ter

Low

Cos

tHo

use

Low

Cos

t Fla

t

Flat

Ser

vice

dAp

artm

ent

Cond

omin

ium

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developed and mass produced. A greener approach is most crucial when it

comes to the methods of land development and construction, as a significant

amount of damage to the environment happens at this stage.

In the words of architect Ernesto Rogers, “To consider the environment

means to consider history.”43 There are lessons which can be learnt from

earlier forms of vernacular housing which were built by the occupants or

members of the community to suit their socioeconomic, cultural and

environmental requirements. Key elements involving the integration of natural

light and ventilation into the spatial configuration of the house layouts are

what future housing developments should draw from the early shophouses,

terraced houses and other traditional vernacular dwellings.

2.2 Regionalism – Architectural Identity

Regionalism is a term used to categorize the balance of architectural identity

between globalization and creating a local identity.44 The exposure to various

architectural cultures over the years has resulted with Malaysia’s architecture

comprising eclectic styles. Brazilian architect Severiano Porto practices in the

tropical climate with these underlying key factors: to understand and utilize

the local climate and strengths of the local construction industry in terms of

workmanship and building materials, resulting in buildings which could not

suit its locality any better. In term of design approach, Porto argues:

“The search for quality, good design, beauty, technical solutions, is

something we have to assume as an important task of our time. And for this

you only need coherence: coherence with possible technology, with available

materials, with the workmanship of our people. More than searching in the

examples of great masterpieces, of the great ideas, sometimes we should

43 Lefaivre, L & Tzonis, A 2001, ‘The Supression and Rethinking of Regionalism and Tropicalism After 1945’, in Tzonis, A, Lefaivre, L & Stagno, B (ed), Tropical Architecture – Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization,Wiley-Academy, Great Britain, pp.30. 44 Lefaivre, L & Tzonis, A 2003, Critical Regionalism – Architecture & Identity in a Globalized World, Prestel, Munich, pp.10.

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look back to popular houses, to the opinion of the people who live in them, to

the voice of the community.”45

One if the issues this study reveals is that today’s Malaysian “community”

has adapted their lifestyle to accommodate dwellings which fail to work in

harmony with the surrounding natural climate, in comparison with their

predecessors.

When it comes to the issue of defining or describing a cultural identity, in his

article on Regional Transformations, Chris Abel suggests that “things

become more realistic and manageable if it is allowed that the sought-for

continuities are not the all-or-nothing relations of identity, but more tolerant

connections of some sort between different states of existence, most usefully

described in terms of relations of analogy.”46 He explains this further in a

Malaysian context by stating that as opposed to a romantic ideal of pure

culture, looking at how the archetypal mosque, the Malay house and the

colonial villa originate in diverse precedents and come to function in their own

respective roles as models of architectural form, is more relevant to

understanding the nature of architectural continuities.47

As a way of summary, Abel aptly concludes that “…the true gist of regional

architecture lies in a creative process of cultural cross-fertilization and

localization of imported models…”48 On a similar note, Lefaivre and Tzonis in

their paper on Tropical Critical Regionalism conclude a discussion on the

environmentally successful approach by colonialists in Costa Rica stating

that “instead of trying to invent a new architecture appropriate to a region

from scratch, one should rely rather on syncretic recombination of solutions

accumulated over time.”49

45 Porto, S 2001, ‘Architecture and National Identity’, in Tzonis, A, Lefaivre, L & Stagno, B (ed), Tropical Architecture – Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization, Wiley-Academy, Great Britain, pp.108. 46 Abel, C 2000, Architecture & Identity, 2nd edn, Architectural Press, Oxford, pp.169. 47 Ibid. 48 Ibid.49 Lefaivre, L & Tzonis, A 2001, ‘Tropical Critical Regionalism: Introductory Comments’, in Tzonis, A, Lefaivre, L & Stagno, B (ed), Tropical Architecture – Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization, Wiley-Academy, Great Britain, pp.11.

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The cultural cross-fertilization and the interwoven solutions mentioned above

place such architecture under the ‘hybrid’ label. This issue of hybrid

architecture is addressed by William Lim and Tan Hock Beng as a part of one

of their strategies aimed at avoiding the “homogenizing effect of globalization

and to preserve the richness of local traditions.”50 The strategy labeled

‘Reinventing Tradition’ entails the search for new paradigms via hybridization,

in the same manner the British colonials applied in Singapore and Malaysia:

drawing lessons from the Malay house into their colonial bungalows, in order

to have buildings that work with the local climate.51

Figure 2.16 A colonial bungalow: the Agnes Keith house, Sandakan, Sabah. Source : S.Jayapalasingam’s photograph -2008.

Though situated in a tropical region, not all of Malaysia’s buildings fall under

the category of Tropical Architecture. Figure 2.17, a showunit comprising two

end lots of a terraced housing development, illustrates this point. The

Amanda Superlink home is one of the housing types offered by developer

Lebar Daun in their D’Kayangan township. This 26’ x 80’ home is one version

of the terraced house typology currently filling up housing developments in

Malaysia.

50 Bay JH, P 2001, ‘Three Tropical Design Paradigms’, in Tzonis, A, Lefaivre, L & Stagno, B (ed), Tropical Architecture – Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization, Wiley-Academy, Great Britain, pp.247. 51 Ibid.

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Figure 2.17 The Amanda Superlink Home – D’Kayangan Township. Source : D’Kayangan, Kumpulan Lebar Daun, retrieved 1 August 2008,

<http://www.lebardaun.com.my>

Figure 2.18 The Amanda Superlink Home Floor Plan. Source : D’Kayangan, Kumpulan Lebar Daun, retrieved 1 August 2008,

<http://www.lebardaun.com.my>

The house, built with standard construction methods and materials

comprising a reinforced concrete frame, brick and plaster walls topped with a

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clay-tiled roof, is being marketed by the developers with the following

description:

“D'Kayangan, a low-density township with its unique and refreshing

difference giving homes a fusion of both European and Asian elements that

reflects distinct exquisiteness. With the touch of Andalusian architectural

design surrounded by 10 acres of vast landscape, our tropical Andalusian

township will be the ideal place to call home.”52

The term ‘tropical Andalusian township’ has to be questioned, as there

appears to be nothing tropical about the house. The surrounding landscape

is presumably what the word tropical would be referring to.

In his paper, ‘Three Tropical Design Paradigms’, after briefly discussing a

range of viewpoints on tropical architecture by various writers, Bay Joo Hwa

identifies three key aspects of tropical architecture:

“(i) Regional expression – as a result of responding to needs related to the

tropical climate.

(ii) Performance – in providing climatic comfort and convenience for social

and cultural requirements.

(iii) Materials and means of building – appropriate to the tropical zone.”53

Environmental sustainability would be assured if those key aspects are used

as a guideline for all built environments in the tropics. At present, a significant

amount of Malaysia’s urban built environment consists of buildings which

provide its occupants with acceptable levels of thermal comfort in isolation

from the surrounding climate with the aid of active cooling systems.

52 D’Kayangan, Kumpulan Lebar Daun, retrieved 1 August 2008, <http://www.lebardaun.com.my> 53 Bay JH, P 2001, ‘Three Tropical Design Paradigms’, in Tzonis, A, Lefaivre, L & Stagno, B (ed), Tropical Architecture – Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization, Wiley-Academy, Great Britain, pp.230.

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2.3 Green Design

2.3.1 Definitions

Words such as ‘green’ and ‘sustainability’ are loosely applied in relation to

the current environmental concerns. These words have been given various

definitions by various authors in not only the context of the built environment,

but also the social, political and economic context.54 In an attempt to define

what is ‘green’, in his book titled A New Eco-Architecture, Colin Porteous

claims that with such generic terminology, the variety of definitions available

is a problem whereby the definition becomes illusive.55

In the context of the built environment, Porteous, defines the scope of

‘green’, stating that at one end issues include fundamental planning

strategies, policies and dilemmas such as ‘greenfield’ versus ‘brownfield’

development, suburban versus urban housing, mixed versus zoned

development, and on the architectural end, it includes the size and shape of

buildings, their usefulness, their materiality, their embodied and recurring

energy loads and output of pollution, their longevity and vulnerability to

disrepair; their recyclability and reusability, and their contribution or disruption

to microclimate and biodiversity.56

In her editorial for Architectural Design’s issue on Green Architecture, Helen

Castle highlights the ambiguity involved with defining ‘green’:

“As sustainability enters the mainstream, becoming the accepted goal if not

always practice of governments and architects alike, it seems to be slipping

through our fingers. No longer an alternative route out in the cold, green

architecture is, as a result, ever more elusive and difficult to define. With

increasing numbers claiming it for themselves, it is no longer possible to

describe it in counterpoint – purely in terms of what it clearly is not. It seems

54 Porteous, C 2003, The New Eco-Architecture, Spon Press, London.55 Ibid, pp.47.56 Ibid, pp.48.

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to be everything for everyone who wants it – the Queen and President of the

RIBA included.”57

Porteous and Castle both agree upon the illusiveness of defining ‘green’.

Throughout this thesis, the portrayal of ‘green’ will be based upon Daniel

Williams’s definitions from his book titled Sustainable Design.

Williams claims that green design is an element of sustainable design,

whereby green buildings and communities that integrate the local climate and

building resources, create healthy interior spaces with natural light, and

complete recycling and reuse of materials are critical to the development of a

sustainable future.58 Williams goes on to clearly explain how sustainable

design differs from green design:

“Sustainable design differs from green design in that it is additive and

inclusive – it includes continuing, surviving, thriving, and adapting. Green

design incorporates ecologically sensitive materials and creates healthy

buildings and processes that do not negatively affect the environment before,

during or after manufacture, construction, and deconstruction. Green design

incorporates efficient mechanical systems and high-performance

technologies but still functions primarily through the use of fossil fuels.

Sustainable design integrates the principles of green design and goes further

to become a passive and active structure that is designed to maximise the

use of sites’ natural renewable resources. When buildings are conceived as

organisms instead of objects, they become part of the ecological

neighbourhood, and since they operate off existing site and regional

renewable energies, they are sustainable.”59

To conclude defining sustainable and green design, Williams states that

there are varying degrees of green design, but sustainable design is an

absolute, whereby the building can function “unplugged”.60 Designers

57 Castle H 2001(July), ‘Editorial’, Architectural Design : Green Architecture, Vol.71, John Wiley & Sons, United Kingdom, pp.5. 58 Williams, D 2007, Sustainable Design: ecology, architecture & planning, John Wiley & Sons, USA, pp.16. 59 Ibid. 60 Ibid, pp.17.

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choosing to take on the “unplugged” challenge will create sustainable

buildings.

Sustainability comes from design. Design is a powerful process which can

satisfy a need as well as add value to its creations when correctly infused

with knowledge on sustainable systems.61 Such creations empower design

with the potential to change how buildings, communities and societies

function.62 The awareness of this potential will enable designers of the built

environment to successfully create buildings and environments which exist

and function in synchronicity with its natural surroundings.

The rating and measurement systems related to sustainability existing at

present, measure energy efficiency instead of sustainability, and typically that

measurement of efficiency is in the use of non-renewable energy.63 Efficient

use of non-renewable energy alone, is not a path to sustainability, as when

the proverbial plug mentioned above is pulled due to a natural disaster, a

sustainable design has to be able to function and comfortably accommodate

its occupants.64

Williams claims that if the imperative is to be sustainable, the design program

for buildings and communities is as simple as ensuring that the projects meet

the following criteria:

(i) “Be developed within existing urban boundaries and within walking

distance to transit options.

(ii) New projects would preferably be built on a cleaned-up brownfield.

(iii) Use green energy and be “unplugged” from nonrenewables.

(iv) Be fully useful for intended function in a natural disaster, a

blackout, or a drought.

(v) Be made of materials that have a long and useful life – longer than

its growth cycle – and be anchored for deconstruction (every

design should be a store-house of materials for another project).

61 Williams, D 2007, Sustainable Design: ecology, architecture & planning, John Wiley & Sons, USA, pp.15. 62 Ibid, pp.18. 63 Ibid. 64 Ibid.

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(vi) Use no more water than what falls on the site.

(vii) Connect impacts and wastes of the building to useful cycles on the

site and in the environment around it. Be part of a cycle.

(viii) Be compelling, rewarding and desirable.” 65

On a broader note, Williams discusses sustainable design at the regional

scale which begins with gaining a working knowledge of the ecological

system at that larger scale.66 Urban and regional planning practices that

incorporate ecological thinking form the foundation of community, economic

and environmental sustainability, therefore it is crucial to pay attention to

sustainable design at the regional level.67

Another point brought about by Williams on the statement above is that

designing future development patterns on a regional scale creates a win-win

situation for the business world, as the developer would no longer have to

make assumptions on whether a project site is buildable or whether the

environmental impacts are significant enough to cause delays or, worse,

litigation.68 Such regional planning would delineate buildable locations, water

recharge areas, best transit locations, agricultural preservation zones, open

space, conservation zones, soil reclamation zones, and livable, pedestrian-

friendly communities, taking into account the best mixes to simultaneously

improve the economy, the communities, and the environment.69

A paper titled ‘Taking Cues From the Past : Increasing the Livability of

Terrace Housing in Malaysia Through the Raised Floor Innovation’ by

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia’s Architectural Research Group

acknowledges the terrace house as the key form of housing for the

Malaysian general population, and highlights the fact that little has changed

in terms of its design innovation for the last 25 years.70

65 Williams, D 2007, Sustainable Design: ecology, architecture & planning, John Wiley & Sons, USA, pp.20. 66 Ibid, pp.23. 67 Ibid.68 Ibid, pp.26-27. 69 Ibid. 70 UKM Architectural Research Group, Taking Cues From the Past: Increasing the Livability of Terrace Housing in Malaysia through the Raised Floor Innovation, retrieved 8 July 2008,

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Labeling the present mass housing condition as one with an unacceptable

living culture, the group claims that designs of the terraced housing currently

being produced are devoid of design principles and generally aesthetically

offensive, noting significant negative issues such as the inflexibility of interior

and exterior spaces, inappropriate renovations, poor levels of ventilation,

lighting and thermal comfort.71 The group has associated the conditions of the

present typical housing developments which lack a connection with

orientation and climate, with the profit-oriented planning methods which result

in grid-iron layouts that maximise land use.72

The government plays a significant role in ensuring the application of

sustainable planning methods that would prevent such conditions. Tackling

the issue of sustainable design at the regional scale would presumably

encourage the creation of housing and other developments which work better

with the environment.

2.3.2 The Malaysian Government’s Involvement

The Ninth Malaysia Plan (NMP) which covers 2006 to 2010, is the first of

three 5 year blueprints for the National Mission spanning 2006 to 2020.73

Malaysia is aiming to attain the status of a developed nation by the year 2020

with the implementation and delivery of the National Mission. One of the

steps taken to aid in achieving this goal was the introduction of Islam

Hadhari74 in 2004 as a comprehensive and universal development framework

<http://www.fab.utm.my/download/ConferenceSemiar/ICCI2006S5PP13.pdf> 71 UKM Architectural Research Group, Taking Cues From the Past: Increasing the Livability of Terrace Housing in Malaysia through the Raised Floor Innovation, retrieved 8 July 2008, <http://www.fab.utm.my/download/ConferenceSemiar/ICCI2006S5PP13.pdf> 72 Ibid.73 Ninth Malaysia Plan, The Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010, The National Mission, pp.19, retrieved 25 July 2007, <http://www.epu.jpm.my/rm9/html/english.htm> 74 The Islam Hadhari framework emphasises development, consistent with the tenets of Islam with focus on enhancing the quality of life through the mastery of knowledge and the development of the individual and the nation; the implementation of a dynamic economic, trading and financial system; and the promotion of integrated and balanced development that creates knowledgeable and pious people who hold to noble values and are honest, trustworthy, and are prepared to take on global challenges. Islam Hadhari is an effort to bring the people back to basics and back to the fundamentals, as prescribed in the Quran and the Hadith that form the foundation of Islamic civilisation.

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for the nation, which outlined 10 principles75 to empower the people to face

global challenges, while ensuring that its approach and implementation are

acceptable to all groups in the country.76 Safeguarding of the environment is

listed as one of these 10 principles.77

Improving the standard and sustainability of the quality of life is one of the

National Mission’s key thrusts.78 It is stated that the quality of life of the

population, which is intrinsically linked to fulfilling basic needs as well as

maintaining peace, security and harmony, will not be sustainable without a

concerted effort to manage resources more wisely, especially in an

environment of rising energy prices.79 In relation to addressing this issue, the

actions highlighted are as follows :

(i) “ensuring better protection of the environment and more efficient

usage of natural resources

(ii) enhancing energy sufficiency and efficiency, including diversifying

sources of energy

(iii) increasing the efficiency of water services delivery

(iv) providing better public transportation to relieve congestion and

reduce fuel usage

(v) improving access to and quality of healthcare and affordable

housing

(vi) ensuring public safety and security

(vii) enhancing the development and promotion of Malaysian culture,

arts and heritage.” 80

75 The 10 principles are: 01-Faith in and piety towards Allah, 02-A just and trustworthy government, 03-Free and liberated people, 04-A rigorous pursuit and mastery of knowledge, 05-Balanced and comprehensive economic development, 06-A good quality of life for the people, 07-Protection of the rights of minority groups and women, 08-Cultural and moral integrity, 09-Safeguarding of the environment & 10-Strong defence capabilities. 76 Ninth Malaysia Plan, The Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010, The National Mission, pp.9, retrieved 25 July 2007, <http://www.epu.jpm.my/rm9/html/english.htm> 77 Ibid. 78 Ninth Malaysia Plan, The Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010, The National Mission, pp.17, retrieved 25 July 2007, <http://www.epu.jpm.my/rm9/html/english.htm> In order to obtain the highest level of performance and the maximum impact from Malaysia’s national development efforts, the National Mission identifies 5 key thrusts : 01- To move the economy up the value chain, 02-To raise the capacity for knowledge and innovation and nurture ‘first class mentality’, 03-To address persistent socio-economic inequalities constructively and productively, 04-To improve the standard and sustainability of the quality of life & 05-To strengthen the institutional and implementation capacity. 79 Ninth Malaysia Plan, The Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010, The National Mission, pp.17, retrieved 25 July 2007, <http://www.epu.jpm.my/rm9/html/english.htm>80 Ninth Malaysia Plan, The Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010, The National Mission, pp.17-18, retrieved 25 July 2007, <http://www.epu.jpm.my/rm9/html/english.htm>

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The section in the NMP which briefly describes progress from 2001 to 2005,

there is mention of a Local Agenda 21 that was launched in 2000.81 This

program which focused on enhancing understanding and cooperation

between the community, local authorities and the private sector was

implemented in 47 local authorities, out of which 16 launched their

comprehensive plan of action pertaining to sustainable development covering

social, economic and environmental aspects.82

The subsequent section which outlines prospects from 2006 to 2010, lists the

following strategic thrusts of housing development and urban services:

(i) “providing adequate, affordable and quality houses, particularly to

meet the needs of the low-income group, with greater emphasis on

appropriate locations and conducive living environment

(ii) reviewing laws and regulations to ensure proper development of

the housing sector

(iii) encouraging private sector participation in the construction of low-

and low-medium-cost houses

(iv) improving the efficiency and capability of local authorities

(v) ensuring provision of quality urban services

(vi) encouraging greater community participation in urban

development.” 83

The Kuala Lumpur City Hall(KLCH) released the Draft KL City Plan 2020 in

June 2008. The following points are listed in the plan outlining directions to

be taken to ensure a greener future:

(i) “Draft KL City Plan 2020 will adopt greener standards, where

environmental sustainability will be a priority.

(ii) The Plan calls for optimum growth where land use development

integrates and co-exists with environment.

81 Ninth Malaysia Plan, The Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010, Chapter 21 pp.443, retrieved 25 July 2007, <http://www.epu.jpm.my/rm9/html/english.htm> 82 Ibid. 83 Ninth Malaysia Plan, The Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010, Chapter 21 pp.444, retrieved 25 July 2007, <http://www.epu.jpm.my/rm9/html/english.htm>

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(iii) Water resource management is promoted in the city, where water

recycling and rainwater harvesting will be encouraged.

(iv) Energy efficient city will be one key feature of this Plan, Kuala

Lumpur will promote alternative use of energy and renewable

energy in the City.

(v) Encourage reduction in green house gas emission by planning for

public transportation.

(vi) Reduce household waste generation and encourage reuse and

recycling of waste materials.” 84

From the perspective of a sustainable housing scene, it is encouraging to see

that the Draft KL City Plan 2020 highlights the commitment of the KLCH to

the policy of encouraging responsible parties in the housing sector to develop

good quality housing and living environments under the Kuala Lumpur

Structure Plan.85On the issue of Housing Technology and Research and

Development, the NMP states that efforts will be made to encourage the use

of alternative construction materials and technology under the Industrialised

Building System (IBS) and designs based on the modular coordination

concept in housing construction, as the use of this technology will result in

less labour, increased productivity and enhanced quality of houses while

creating a safer and cleaner working environment.86

The implementation of IBS consists of strategies such as having local

authorities enforce the use of modular coordination concepts in the

construction of affordable homes and government building projects via the

Uniform Building By-laws.87 Besides providing incentives for users of

standard plans which are designed based on modular coordination and

standard building components, the government will focus on research and

development related to sustainable building services and cleaner technology

in the construction industry based on the “3R” concept (reduce, reuse and

84 Draft KL City Plan 2020, Kuala Lumpur City Hall, 2008, p.23. 85 Ibid p.91. 86 Ninth Malaysia Plan, The Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010, retrieved 25 July 2007, <http://www.epu.jpm.my/rm9/html/english.htm> 87 Ibid.

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recycle), encouraging wastewater recycling and energy efficiency.88The

plans, strategies and policies laid out above allow for one to conclude that

the Malaysian government is heading in the right direction towards creating

an environmentally sustainable future in the housing development sector.

2.4 Hypothesis

The scope of literature discussed in the above sections of this chapter, focus

the topic of inquiry. This thesis hypothesises that the terraced housing

presently being built to accommodate Malaysia’s general population does not

contain environmentally sustainable elements. Consequently, for housing

developers to produce housing developments for Malaysia’s general

population which incorporate environmentally sustainable elements, there is

a need to establish if the lack of such elements is perceived as a problem by

members of the general population, building and construction industry

professionals, housing developers and the government. If this lack of

environmentally sustainable elements is perceived as a problem, action plans

and strategies can be developed to address it.

The hypothesis was developed from identifying gaps of knowledge which

comprise:

(i) How can Malaysia’s terraced housing developments evolve to

become a typology that incorporates environmentally sustainable

design?

(ii) How can the process of greening the terraced housing

developments be a responsibility shared by members of the

general population, building and construction industry

professionals, housing developers and the government?

88 Ninth Malaysia Plan, The Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010, retrieved 25 July 2007, <http://www.epu.jpm.my/rm9/html/english.htm>