38 Management Process and Organization Behaviour

8/3/2019 38 Management Process and Organization Behaviour

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MB0038MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND

ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR

ASSIGNMENT

Q.1 Write a note on the managerial roles and skills?

ANS:

A) According to Mintzberg (1973), managerial roles are as follows:

1. Informational roles

2. Decisional roles

3. Interpersonal roles

1. INFORMATIONAL ROLES: This involves the role of assimilating and

disseminating information as and when required. Following are the main sub-roles, which

managers often perform:

a. Monitorcollecting information from organizations, both from inside and outside of the

organization

b. Disseminatorcommunicating information to organizational members

c. Spokespersonrepresenting the organization to outsiders

2.DECISIONAL ROLES: It involves decision making. Again, this role can be sub-

Divided in to the following:

a. Entrepreneurinitiating new ideas to improve organizational performance

b. Disturbance handlerstaking corrective action to cope with adverse situation

c. Resource allocatorsallocating human, physical, and monetary resources

d. Negotiatornegotiating with trade unions, or any other stakeholders


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3. INTERPERSONAL ROLES: This role involves activities with people working in

the organization. This is supportive role for informational and decisional roles.

Interpersonal roles can be categorized under three sub-headings:

a. FigureheadCeremonial and symbolic role

b. Leadershipleading organization in terms of recruiting, motivating etc.

c. Liaisonliasoning with external bodies and public relations activities.

B) Management Skills: Katz (1974) has identified three essential management skills:

Technical Human Conceptual.

TECHNICAL SKILLS: The ability is to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. All

jobs require some specialized expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on

the job. Vocational and on-the-job training programs can be used to develop this type of

skill.

HUMAN SKILL: This is the ability to work with, understand and motivate other people

(both individually and a group). This requires sensitivity towards others issues and concerns.

People, who are proficient in technical skill, but not with interpersonal skills, may face

difficulty to manage their subordinates. To acquire the Human Skill, it is pertinent to

recognize the feelings and sentiments of others, ability to motivate others even in adverse

situation, and communicate own feelings to others in a positive and inspiring way.

CONCEPTUAL SKILL: This is an ability to critically analyze, diagnose a situation and

forward a feasible solution. It requires creative thinking, generating options and choosing the

best available option.

Q.2 Explain the social learning theory in details?

ANS: One of the most influential learning theories, the Social Learning Theory (SLT), was

formulated by Albert Bandura. It encompasses concepts of traditional learning theory and the

operant conditioning of B.F. Skinner.

However, the theory strongly implies that there are types of learning wherein direct

reinforcement is not the causal mechanism; rather, the so called social element can result to

the development of new learning among individuals. Social Learning Theory has been useful

in explaining how people can learn new things and develop new behaviours by observing


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other people. It is to assume, therefore, that Social Learning Theory is concerned on

observational learning process among people.

A. BASIC CONCEPTS

1. Observational Learning The Social Learning Theory says that people can learn bywatching other people perform the behaviour. Observational learning explains the nature of

children to learn behaviours by watching the behaviour of the people around them, and

eventually, imitating them With the .Bobo Doll. Experiment, Bandura included an adult who

is tasked to act aggressively toward a Bobo Doll while the children observe him. Later,

Bandura let the children play inside a room with the Bobo Doll. He affirmed that these

children imitated the aggressive behaviour toward the doll, which they had observed earlier.

After his studies, Bandura was able to determine 3 basic models of observational learning,

which include

a. A Live Model, which includes an actual person performing a behaviour.

b. A Verbal Instruction Model, which involves telling of details and descriptions of a

behaviour.

c. A Symbolic Model, which includes either a real or fictional character demonstrating the

behaviour via movies, books, television, radio, online media and other media sources.

2. The state of mind (mental states) is crucial to learning. In this concept, Bandura stated thatnot only external reinforcement or factors can affect learning and behaviour. There is also

what he called intrinsic reinforcement, which is in a form of internal reward or a better

feeling after performing the behaviour (e.g. sense of accomplishment, confidence,

satisfaction, etc.)

3. Learning does not mean that there will be a change in the behaviour of an individual.

B. MODELLING PROCESS

The Modelling Process developed by Bandura helps us understand that not all observed

behaviours could be learned effectively, nor learning can necessarily result to behavioural

changes. The modelling process includes the following steps in order for us to determine

whether social learning is successful or not:

Step 1: Attention

Social Cognitive Theory implies that you must pay attention for you to learn. If you want tolearn from the behaviour of the model (the person that demonstrates the behaviour), then you


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should eliminate anything that catches your attention other than him. Also, the more

interesting the model is, the more likely you are to pay full attention to him and learn.

Step 2: Retention

Retention of the newly learned behaviour is necessary. Without it, learning of the behaviourwould not be established, and you might need to get back to observing the model again since

you were not able to store information about the behaviour.

Step 3: Reproduction

When you are successful in paying attention and retaining relevant information, this step

requires you to demonstrate the behaviour. In this phase, practice of the behaviour by

repeatedly doing it is important for improvement.

Step 4: Motivation

Feeling motivated to repeat the behaviour is what you need in order to keep on performing it.

This is where reinforcement and punishment come in. You can be rewarded by demonstrating

the behaviour properly, and punished by displaying it inappropriately

Q.3 Explain the Big 5 model of personality?

Ans : The big five model of personality is designed to bring out behaviours an individual

expresses in his dealings with people as well as in their response to changes in circumstances

as well as the environment. Generally, these five factors of personality are used to come up

with a description of the human personality. In this text, I explain Tishas findings as well aslook at how the predictions could be used to come up with a prediction of her success as a

manager.

The big five model of personality

1. OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE

This factor acts to distinguish conventional individuals from those who are in one way or the

other imaginative. Traits linked to individuals who are open to experience include intellectual

curiosity, sensitivity to beauty as well as responsiveness to art. According to Cattell, H.E.P etal. (2007), such people are very creative and they are very likely to be more accommodating

to beliefs considered unconventional. Such people are hence more likely to be

accommodating to the views of others in the organizational setting and they are more likely

to encourage innovation at the workplace. Tishas high score shows that she will be more

straightforward and more likely see the simple aspects of complex situations.

2. CONSCIENTIOUSNESS

This factor shows an individuals ability and drive to achieve goals and strive for

achievement. It also indicates that an individual has self discipline and prefers plannedbehaviour as opposed to spontaneous behaviour. Grucza et al. (2007) notes that individuals


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who score highly in conscientiousness have a good impulse control and tend to be goal

oriented. Tishas very high performance in Conscientiousness shows that she is organized

and very attentive to detail. In an organizational setting, Tisha would be more likely to strive

to ensure that organizational goals and objectives are met.

3. EXTRAVERSION

This factor consists of emotions that can be said to be positive as well as an industrious

personality and ability to relate well with others. Cattell, H.E.P et al. (2007) notes that

extraverts enjoy other peoples company and tend to be very active in group efforts. Tishas

high score in extraversion indicates that in the work setting as a manager, she would tend to

encourage team work. She will also dominate board and other meetings and have a high

chance of pushing her proposals and suggestions forward.

4. AGREEABLENESS

This factor is characterized by compassion and cooperation towards others as opposed to

antagonism tendencies. Cattell, H.E.P et al. (2007) notes that such individuals are easy to get

along with and are more likely to be very accommodating to the views of others.

Tishas moderately high score on this factorshows that though she will be accommodate

others view, she will expect her views also to be taken into consideration. She is likely to

trust her subordinates more.

5. NEUROTICISM

This factor involves a high likelihood to get angry and have other negative emotions like

anxiety. In most cases, this characteristic is linked to emotional instability. Individuals

scoring low on neuroticism will experience bouts of mood swings triggered by frustrations by

minor issues at the workplace (Grucza et al. 2007). Tishas low score on this factor shows she

will be more likely to cope with problems as a manager and she will tend to be calmer while

handling difficult situations.

Q.4 What are the different factors influencing perception?

Ans : Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the

recognition of environmental stimuli and action in response to these stimuli. Through the

perceptual process, we gain information about properties and elements of the environment

that are critical to our survival.

A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception these factors can

reside:

i ) In the perceiver

ii) In the Object or target being perceived or


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iii) In the context of the situation in which the perception is made.

1. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERCEIVER: Several characteristics of the

perceiver can affect perception. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret

what he or she stands for, that interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics

of the individual perceiver. The major characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception

are:

a) Attitudes: The perciver's attitudes affect perception. For example, Mr. X is interviewing

candidates for a very important position in his organization - a position that requires

negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male. Mr. X may feel that women are

not capable of holding their own in tough negotiations. This attitude with doubtless affect his

perceptions of the female candidates he interviews.

b) Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think

differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition, we remember

information that is consistent with our mood state better than information that is inconsistent

with our mood state. When in a positive mood, we form more positive impressions of other.

When in a negative mood, we tend to evaluate others unfavourably.

c) Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong

influence on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, a boss who is

insecure perceives a sub ordinate's efforts to do an outstanding job as a threat to his or her

own position. Personal insecurity can be translated into the perception that others are out to

"get my job", regardless of the intention of the subordinates.

d) Self - Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers self-

concept. An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in

another person. In contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative

traits in another person. Greater understanding of self allows us to have more accurate

perceptions of others.

e) Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. Because our

individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can differ from

what other perceive. For example, the supervisor who has just been reprimanded by his boss

for coming late is more likely to notice his colleagues coming late tomorrow than he did last

week.

f) Cognitive structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also affects

perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height, weight,

and appearance, more readily. Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple

characteristics of another person rather than attending to just a few traits.

g) Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what

you expect to see. The research findings of the study conducted by Sheldon S Zalking and

Timothy W Costello on some specific characteristics of the perceiver reveal


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i) Knowing one self makes it easier to see others accurately.

ii) One's own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in other.

iii) People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favourable aspects of

other people.

iv) Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill.

These four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives other environmental

situation.

2) Characteristics of the Target : Characteristics in the target that is being observed

can affect what is perceived. Physical appearance pals a big role in our perception of others.

Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group than

ordinary looking individuals. Motions, sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the

way we see it. Verbal Communication from targets also affects our perception of them.

Nonverbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The

perceiver deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all in a

attempt to form an impression of the target.

3) Characteristics of the Situation: The situation in which the interaction between the

perceiver and the target takes place, has an influence on the perceiver's impression of the

target. The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception. Some situations

provide strong cues as to appropriate behaviour. In this situation, we assume that + i.e

individual's behaviours can be accounted for by the situation, and that it may not reflect theindividual's disposition.

Q.5 Write a note on contemporary work cohort?

ANS: Contemporary Work Cohort

Contemporary Work Cohort, proposed by Robbins (2003) divides the work force into

different groups depending on the era or period in which they have entered into work. It

stresses upon individuals values which reflect the societal values of the period in which they

grew up.

The cohorts and the respective values have been listed below:

1. VeteransWorkers who entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early

1960s and exhibited the following value orientations:

1. They were influenced by the Great Depression and World War II

2. Believed in hard work

3. Tended to be loyal to their employer

4. Terminal values: Comfortable life and family security


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2. BoomersEmployees who entered the workforce during the 1960s through the mid1980s

belonged to this category and their value orientations were:

a. Influenced heavily by John F. Kennedy, the civil rights and feminist movements, theBeatles, the Vietnam War, and baby boom competition.

b. Distrusted authority, but gave a high emphasis on achievement and material success.c. Organizations who employed them were vehicles for their careers.d. Terminal values: sense of accomplishment and social recognition.

3. Xersbegan to enter the workforce from the mid1980s.

They cherished the following values:

a. Shaped by globalization, two career parents, MTV, AIDS, and computers.b. Value flexibility, life options, and achievement of job satisfaction.c. Family and relationships were important and enjoyed team oriented work.d. Less willing to make personal sacrifices for employers than previous generations.e. Terminal values: true friendship, happiness, and pleasure

4. Nextersmost recent entrants into the workforce.

a. Grew up in prosperous times, have high expectation, believe in themselves, andConfident in their ability to succeed.

b. Never ending search for ideal job; see nothing wrong with job hopping.c. Seek financial success.d.

Enjoy team work, but are highly self reliant.

e. Terminal values: freedom and comfortable life.Q.6 What are the special issues in motivation? Discuss

Ans : Some of the special issues in motivation are discussed below.

Motivating Professionals

The professional employees likely to seek more intrinsic satisfaction from their work than

blue-collar employees. They generally have strong and long term commitments to their field

of expertise are perhaps more loyal to their profession than to their employer. They need toregularly update their knowledge, and their commitment to their profession. Therefore,

extrinsic factors such as money and promotions would be low on their priority list. Rather,

job challenge tends to be ranked high. They like to tackle problems and find solutions.

Managerial Implications:

A. Provide them with ongoing challenging projects.B. Give them autonomy to follow their interests and allow them to structure their

work.

C.

Reward them with educational opportunities.D. Also reward them with recognition.


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Motivating temporary Workers:

Temporary workers may be motivated if:

E. They are provided with permanent job opportunityF. The opportunity for training is provided to themG. Provide equitable pay.

Motivating Low Skilled Service Workers:

One of the most challenging managerial tasks in to motivate low skilled workers who are

involved in repetitive physical work, where higher education and skills are not required. For

this category of people, flexible work schedules and higher pay package may be proved

effective motivational factors. Motivating Low-Skilled

Service Workers involves:-

a. Recruit widely.b. Increase pay and benefits.c. Make jobs more appealing.

Motivating People Doing Highly Repetitive Tasks:

a. Recruit and select employees that fit the job.b. Create a pleasant work environment.c. Mechanize the most distasteful aspects of the job.


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Assignment Set- 2

Q.1 Explain the theories of emotion?

ANS: Psychologists have proposed a number of theories about the origins and function of

emotions. The theorists behind the dissenting views do agree on one thing, however: emotion

has a biological basis. This is evidenced by the fact that the amygdala (part of the limbic

system of the brain), which plays a large role in emotion, is activated before any direct

involvement of the cerebral cortex (where memory, awareness, and conscious "thinking" take

place).

In the history of emotion theory, four major explanations for the complex mental and

physical experiences that we call "feelings" have been put forward. They are: the James-

Lange theory in the 1920's, the Cannon-Bard theory in the 1930's, the Schacter-Singer theory

in the 1960's, and most recently the Lazarus theory, developed in the 1980's and =90's.

THE JAMES-LANGE THEORY

The James-Lange theory proposes that an event or stimulus causes a physiological arousal

without any interpretation or conscious thought, and you experience the resulting emotion

only after you interpret the physical response.

Example: You're late leaving work, and as you head across the parking lot to your car, you

hear footsteps behind you in the dark. Your heart pounds and your hands start to shake. You

interpret these physical responses as fear.

THE CANNON-BARD THEORY

The Cannon-Bard theory, on the other hand, suggests that the given stimulus evokes both a

physiological and an emotional response simultaneously, and that neither one causes the

other.

Example: You're home alone and hear creaking in the hallway outside your room. You begin

to tremble and sweat, and you feel afraid.

THE SCHACTER-SINGER THEORY

The Schachter-Singer theory takes a more cognitive approach to the issue. Schacter and

Singer believe that an event causes physiological arousal, but that you must then identify a

reason for the arousal before you label the emotion.

Example: You're taking the last bus of the night, and you're the only passenger. A single man

gets on and sits in the row behind you. When your stop comes around, he also gets off the

bus. He's walking behind you. You feel tingles down your spine with a rush of adrenaline.

You know that there have been several muggings in your city over the past few weeks, so you

feel afraid.


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THE LAZARUS THEORY

The Lazarus theory builds on the Schacter-Singer theory, taking it to another level. It

proposes that when an event occurs, a cognitive appraisal is made (either consciously or

subconsciously), and based on the result of that appraisal, an emotion and physiological

response follow.

Example: You're buying a few last-minute items at the gas station, when two young men in

hooded sweatshirts enter the store in a hurry, with their hands in their jacket pockets. You

think perhaps they're here to rob the place, so you get scared, and your feel like you might

throw up.

While each of these theories is based in research, there is no absolute proof as yet how

emotions arise in our bodies and minds, or what determines our own individual experiences

of them. What we do know is that feelings are a powerful force to be reckoned with, and

should never be belittled.

Q.2 Discuss the techniques of decision making in groups?

ANS : Planning for Decision Making

While decision making without planning is fairly common, it is often not pretty. The terms

used to describe it--crisis management, putting out fires, seat-of-the-pants governing--all

reveal the inelegance and awkwardness of this way of life. Planning allows decisions to bemade in a much more comfortable and intelligent way. Planning even makes decisions easier

by providing guidelines and goals for the decision. We might even say that planning is a type

of decision simplification technique (see the discussion of these techniques below).

Decision makers will find four major benefits to planning:

1. Planning allows the establishment of independent goals. The vision which will shape

the decisions is set apart from surrounding events. Decisions are not made only as reactions

to external stimuli. "Management by firefighting" is replaced by a conscious and directed

series of choices. Managers now steer the organization, individuals now steer their lives,

rather than being steered by external forces. Sometimes the difference between planning and

not planning is described as "proactive" (taking control of the situation) versus "reactive"

(responding to stimuli).

2. Planning provides a standard of measurement. A plan provides something to measure

against, so that you can discover whether or not you are achieving or heading toward your

goals. As the proverb says, If you don't know where you're going, it doesn't matter which way

you go.

3. Planning converts values to action. When you are faced with a decision, you can consult

your plan and determine which decision will help advance your plan best. Decisions made


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under the guidance of planning can work together in a coherent way to advance company or

individual goals.

Planning is useful in emergency situations, too. When a crisis arises, a little thought about the

overall plan will help determine which decision to make that will not only help resolve the

crisis but will also help advance the overall plan. Without a plan, crises are dealt with

haphazardly and decisions are made which may ultimately be in conflict with each other.

4. Planning allows limited resources to be committed in an orderly way. Budgets, time,

effort, manpower--all are limited. Their best use can be made when a plan governs their use.

A simple example would be planning to buy a house or a car. Rather than having to decide

between buying the item right now with all cash or never having it, you can plan to buy it

over several years by making payments. Or, you might combine this plan with the plan to buy

a smaller house and add rooms later as they could be afforded. By planning you can thus

accomplish things that might otherwise look impossible.

DECISION LEVELS

We all recognize that some decisions are more important than others, whether in their

immediate impact or long term significance. As a means of understanding the significance of

a decision so that we can know how much time and resources to spend on it, three levels of

decision have been identified:

1. Strategic. Strategic decisions are the highest level. Here a decision concerns general

direction, long term goals, philosophies and values. These decisions are the least structuredand most imaginative; they are the most risky and of the most uncertain outcome, partly

because they reach so far into the future and partly because they are of such importance.

For example: Decisions about what to do with your life, what to learn, or what methods to

use to gain knowledge (travel, work, school) would be strategic. Whether to produce a low

priced product and gain market share or produce a high priced product for a niche market

would be a strategic decision.

2. Tactical. Tactical decisions support strategic decisions. They tend to be medium range,

medium significance, with moderate consequences.

For example: If your strategic decision were to become a forest ranger, a tactical decision

would include where to go to school and what books to read. Or if your company decided to

produce a low priced product, a tactical decision might be to build a new factory to produce

them at a low manufacturing cost.

3. Operational. These are every day decisions, used to support tactical decisions. They are

often made with little thought and are structured. Their impact is immediate, short term, short

range, and usually low cost. The consequences of a bad operational decision will be minimal,

although a series of bad or sloppy operational decisions can cause harm. Operationaldecisions can be pre-programmed, pre-made, or set out clearly in policy manuals.


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For example: If your tactical decision is to read some books on forestry, your operational

decision would involve where to shop for the books. You might have a personal policy of

shopping for books at a certain store or two. Thus, the operational decision is highly

structured: "Whenever books are needed, look at Joe's Books."

An important comment should be made here. Issues should be examined and decisions should

be made at all of these levels. If you discover that nearly all of your thinking and decision

making is taking place at the operational level, then you are probably not doing enough

strategic thinking and planning. As a result you will lead a reactive life, responding only to

the forces around you and never getting control of your life, your direction or your goals.

SOME TECHNIQUES FOR DECISION MAKING

This is a list of easy, practical techniques that can be applied to simple or complex decisions.

They share the assumption that circumspect analysis is the key to making good decisions.

Many decisions are made with too little information and too little thought, in a non-deliberate

way. Think about it for a moment: how many people do you know who commonly spend

even five minutes structuring and analyzing a decision?

Note how these techniques provide a visible, structured, orderly set of factors involved in a

decision, so that the decision maker can consider them in a thoughtful and coherent way. The

first three techniques are especially for whether-type decisions, those involving yes/no,

either/or, or two-possibility decisions.

1. T-Chart. A T-Chart is an orderly, graphic representation of alternative features or points

involved in a decision. In one form, it can be a list of positive and negative attributes

surrounding a particular choice. Drawing up such a chart insures that both the positive and

negative aspects of each direction or decision will be taken into account.

For example, what are the pros and cons of deciding to buy a sport utility vehicle?

PRO CON

better visibility

safer structure

can take off road

higher insurance

poorer gas mileage

more expensive maintenance

In another form, two possible choices are listed, with the good points or arguments or effects

listed for each. Suppose your company is trying to decide whether to create its own

advertising or hire an agency.

USE OUTSIDE AGENCY WRITE ADS IN-HOUSE

professional work

expertise of ideasmedia connections

faster product

better knowledge of productuse same ad in flyers


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To fill out this latter form, more than two choices can be included, and a list of negatives for

each choice can be added as well.

2. PMI. Edward de Bono refines the T-Chart idea into a three part structure, which he calls

PMI for plus, minus, and interesting. Here you first list all the plus or good points of the idea,

then all the minus or bad points, and finally all the interesting points--consequences, areas of

curiosity or uncertainty, or attributes that you simply don't care to view as either good or bad

at this point (consequences that some people might view as good and others might view as

bad, for example). The "interesting" category also allows exploration of the idea or choice

outside the context of judgment--you don't have to evaluate the attribute into a positive or

negative category.

As simple as this technique seems to be, and as often as others will tell you, "Well, of course,everyone does that all the time," this is a very powerful but much neglected technique. Most

people believe they list the pluses and minuses of a decision before making it, but in actual

practice, many people make a decision or form an opinion before they consider the evidence

in an orderly way. Only after they make a decision do they hunt around for reasons to support

it.

Considering the evidence on both (or all) sides before you commit yourself emotionally and

psychologically to a position will have a major impact on the quality of your decisionmaking.

3. Buriden's Ass. This method of decision making is used when two or more equallyattractive alternatives are faced. (From an old fable of an ass placed between two equally nice

bales of hay. The ass couldn't decide which bale to turn to because they were both so

attractive, and so it starved to death from indecision.) The method is simply to list all the

negative points or drawbacks about each decision. That is, when two or more alternatives

seem very desirable, we become blinded to any drawbacks. The Buriden's Ass method simply

focuses on the drawbacks.

4. Measured Criteria. With this technique, you list the criteria you want your decision to

meet and assign points to each criterion based on its relative importance in the decision.

Then, each alternative is given a certain number of points according to how fully it meets the

criterion. For points you can use a scale of 1 to 10, 1 to 100, or any other range that makes

sense to you.

In the example below, travelling by train is rated at 25 out of 30 points for the "comfort"

criterion, while the plane is ranked a little less comfortable, at 21 out of 30. Once all the

alternatives have been assigned their due points for each criterion, all the points for each

alternative are added up and the alternative with the highest total points is the one chosen. In

the example below, that would be the plane.

5. Decision Matrix or Weighted Decision Table. This is a slightly more sophisticatedversion of the measured criteria technique. Here a table is set up with each criterion given a


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weight depending on its importance in the decision and with each alternative given a ranking

for that criterion.

Q.3 Elaborate the different stages in process of conflict?

ANS: The conflict process can be seen as comprising five stages:

(1) Potential opposition or incompatibility- The first step in the conflict process is the

presence on conditions that create opportunities for conflict to rise. These cause or create

opportunities for conflict to rise.

(2) Cognition and personalization -conflict must be perceived by the parties to it whether or

not conflict exists is a perception issue.

(3) Intentions -Intentions are decisions to act in a given way intentions intervene between

peoples perception and emotions and their overt behaviour. These intentions are Competing,

Collaborating, Avoiding, Accommodating or Compromising.

(4) Behaviour -This is a stage where conflict becomes visible. The behaviour stage includes

the statements, actions and reactions made by the conflicting parties.

(5) Outcome- The action reaction interplay between the conflicting parties result in

consequences. These outcomes may be functional in that the conflict results in an

improvement in the groups performance, or dysfunctional in that it hinders group

performance.

Q.4 Write a note on GAS (General Adaptation Syndrome)?

ANS: GAS or General Adaptation Syndrome is a very common medical problem that can

have very serious repercussions if left unattended. It was psychologist Hans Selye who

discovered that prolonged and excessive stress can lead to infection, illness, disease and

death. He then named this condition General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).

n general, there are three stages of GAS. They are Alarm, Resistance and Exhaustion. Let's

talk a bit about each stage.

STAGE ONE: ALARM

Alarm is essentially the initiation of the "fight of flight" response which prepares the body for

life-threatening situations. Normal body activities such as the digestive and immune functions

are blunted or nearly shut down in order to supply resources to more immediate muscular and

emotional needs.

STAGE TWO: RESISTANCE

Now, if we're under a constant state of alarm, we are in essence living in constant state ofstress. At this point we start becoming used to these stress levels. The funny thing about this


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stage is that initially our body and immune system are becoming more resistance to stress and

disease.

However, this stage requires abnormally high levels of emotional and physical resources. If

things do not change for the better then the next stage of the GAS process is inevitable.

STAGE THREE: EXHAUSTION

Eventually reality kicks in and our bodies are unable to maintain high levels of stress

resistance. Parts of the body literally start to break down and we become very unwell.

To conclude this first section, please understand that Hans Selye and others experts are

convinced that out-of-control stress negatively influences a person's entire organism.

Furthermore, these authorities believe that if left untreated, run away stress can result in

disease and eventual death.

The point here is that as a hypnotist, your contribution as a stress management consultant is

far more important than most people realize. Unmanaged stress is not just an 'inconvenience'.

It is a health threaten By the way, remember to take some of your own medicine once in a

while and listen to stress reduction hypnosis CDs. It is much easier to convince a client of the

benefits of successful stress management when you are 100% congruent because of satisfying

experience.

By the way, remember to take some of your own medicine once in a while and listen to stress

reduction hypnosis CDs. It is much easier to convince a client of the benefits of successful

stress management when you are 100% congruent because of satisfying experience.

Now, let's look at a case history that shows how to help a client suffering from severe GAS.

When You're Client Has GAS --The Case of Bob

First of all, in order to help a client with G.A.S., they must learn how to F.A.R.T. and

B.U.R.P. so they can ultimately P.O.O.P.

Now, before a person can B.U.R.P. (Begin Utilizing Response Procedures) or P.O.O.P.

(Pursue Optimal Outcomes Persistently), they have to F.A.R.T. That is, they have to first

Formulate Appropriate Response Techniques.

This can be reduced to a simple statement. When a person starts to suffer from stress, they

must S.T.O.P. and B.E.A.N.O. That is, they must Start To Observe Purposefully so that they

can then Become Excited And Noticeably Optimistic. If they are unable to S.T.O.P and

B.E.A.N.O., then they will have to F.A.R.T., B.U.R.P. and most likely, P.O.O.P.

Let's look at a case history involving my client Bob. Bob has suffered for quite some time

from severe stress effects. When he first came to our office, we realized that he was

emotionally plugged up. In other words, his feelings were so bottled up that he absolutely

could not P.O.O.P. The reason became apparent when it was discovered that he had neverbefore learned how to properly F.A.R.T. and B.U.R.P. in response to stress. I knew this was


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not a case where the client could simply B.E.A.N.O. because that would not address the cause

of his inability to P.O.O.P.

What he needed was an E.N.E.M.A. (Entirely New Explicit Meaning Association). As the

reader may have guessed, this was a very sensitive situation because it involved reframing a

learned response that was created in response to a family of origin dynamic.

Apparently there was some S.O.B. (Subtle Obfuscating Behaviour) responsible for the onset

of the client's difficulty.

Defeating this without running into family loyalty conflicts and their accompanying

resistance effects is quite a job that requires deft handling and discernment.

However, since the client was extremely motivated to get past his problem and move on we

advanced a rather bold tactic.

We decided to initiate a reverse E.N.E.M.A. The client became quite excited at the idea. This

was because we explained to him that we would go back in time and teach him as a young

child how to P.O.O.P.

In summary, the client has been relieved of his GAS because after undergoing a reverse

E.N.E.M.A. he was able to B.E.L.C.H. (Begin Expurgating Lousy Childhood History) which

enabled him to successfully F.A.R.T., B.U.R.P. and P.O.O.P.

The point to this second section is that sometimes to heal, we just need to stop hanging onto

old 'stuff' from our past because doing so makes us much more prone to insidious medical

disorders such as General Adaptation Syndrome.

One must wonder that if GAS can cause such serious consequences then, what common

diseases are actually the results of prolonged, unhealed stress.

Finally, as you can probably tell, this article was meant to be tongue-in-cheek but the point is

very serious. Helping a client reduce stress is not just a "mental massage" that feels good in

the short term. It is an essential element of a good and happy life.

And, don't forget that the family members of your client are also benefiting from your

valuable and skilled assistance because they have longer to enjoy a healthier and happiermom, dad or other important person.

In closing I'd like to share a quote that can point a person toward a significantly more relaxed

state of mind and being:

Q.5 Discuss the power and influence tactics?

ANS: POWER TACTICS


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We review popular tactical options and the conditions under one may be more effective than

another. Discussion is based around,

Power tactics people use to translate power bases into specific action

Options individuals have for influencing their bosses, co-workers, or employees

Effective options out of these compared to others

1. COERCIVE POWERThe target person complies in order to avoid punishments he or she believes are controlled by

the agent.

Commitment Is Very Unlikely Complianceis Possible If used in a helpful, non-punitive way. Resistanceis Likely If used in a hostile or manipulative way

2. REWARD POWERThe target person complies in order to obtain rewards he or she believes are controlled by the

agent

3. LEGITIMATE POWERThe target person complies because he or she believes the agent has the right to make the

request and the target person has the obligation to comply

4. EXPERT POWERThe target person complies because he or she believes that the agent has special knowledge

about the best way to do something.

5. REFERENT POWERThe target person complies because he or she admires or identifies with the agent and wants

to gain the agents approval

INFLUENCE TACTICS

Research has identified nine distinct influence tactics:

1. Legitimacy: Relying on ones authority position or stressing that a request is in accordance

with organizational policies or rules.

2. Rational persuasion: Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate

that a request is reasonable.

3. Inspirational appeals: Developing emotional commitment by appealing to a targets

values, needs, hopes, and aspirations.

4. Consultation: Increasing the targets motivation and support by involving hi or her in

deciding how the plan or change will be done.


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5. Exchange: rewarding the target with benefits or favours in exchange for following a

request.

6. Personal appeals: Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty.

7. Ingratiation: Using flattery, praise, or friendly behaviour prior to making a request.

8. Pressure: Using warnings, repeated demands, and threats.

9. Coalitions: Enlisting the aid of other people to persuade the target or using the support of

others as a reason for the target to agree.

Some tactics are usually more effective than others. Specifically, evidence indicates that

rational, persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation tend to be the most effective. On

the other hand pressure tends to frequently backfire and is typically the least effective of the

nine tactics.

You can also increase your chance of success by using more than one type of tactic at the

same time or sequentially, as long as your choices are compatible. For instance, using both

ingratiation and legitimacy can lessen the negative reactions that might come from the

appearance of being by the boss.

But some influences tactics work better depending on the direction of influence. As shown in

the table below studies have found that rational persuasion is the only tactic that is effective

across organizational levels. Inspirational appeals works best as a downward influencing

tactic with subordinates. When pressure works almost always to achieve downward

influence. And the use of personal appeals and coalition are most effective with lateral

influence attempts.

In addition to the direction of influence, a number of other factors have found to affect which

tactics work best. These include the sequencing of tactics, a personal skill in using the tactic,

a persons relative power, the type of request and how the request is perceived, the culture of

the organization, and country-specific cultural factors.

Preferred Power Tactics by Influence direction

Upward influenceDownward influence Lateral influence

Rational persuasion Rational persuasion

Inspirational appeals

Pressure

Consultation Ingratiation

Exchange Legitimacy

Rational persuasion

Consultation Ingratiation

Exchange

Legitimacy Personal appeals

Coalitions

You are more likely to be effective if you begin with tactics that rely on personal power such

as personal and inspirational appeal, rational persuasion, and consultation. If these fail, youcan move to a harder tactics which emphasize formal power and involve greater costs and


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risks such as exchange, coalitions, and pressure. Interestingly, it has been found that using a

single soft tactic is more effective than a single hard tactic; and that combining two soft

tactics, or a soft tactic and rational persuasion, is more effective than any single tactic or a

combination of hard tactics.

Q.6 Explain the characteristics of organization Development?

ANS: Values of OD This model places human centred values above everything else. They

are the engine of its success. These values include mutual trust and confidence, honesty and

open communication, sensitivity and to the feeling and emotions of others, shared goals, and

a commitment to addressing and resolving conflict. There are organizations who value these

human attributes above all other quick fix benefits. Stephen Robbins expresses these human

values more concisely as follows:

a) The individual should be treated with respect and dignity.b) The organization climate should be characterized by trust, openness and

Support.

c) Hierarchical authority and control are not regarded as effective mechanisms.d) Problems and conflicts should be confronted, and not disguised or avoided.e) People affected by change should be involved in its implementation.

These values make OD a unique model and it will be shown later why it is the most suitable

approach in resolving human afflictions and problems such as poverty alleviation.

1. OD APPROACHESThere are at least three planned change models that have been identified by Cummings and

Worley) as shown in below. The first and the second are principally different but the third

one is an improved version of Action Research methodology which has taken centre stage in

the 1990s to take care of the trend of emerging mega organizations, strategic alliances,

mergers and publicprivate partnerships. The improved version named the Contemporary

Action Research model is of great interest to the workshop participants as it can be used to

promote projects in both public and private organizations. Later in this paper it will be shown

how it can be used to promote Poverty Reduction Strategies and gender mainstreaming in

local government.

The distinction between Lewins model and Action Research model is in the repetitive nature

of action research. Lewins model is a once only intervention. Buchanan and Huczynski,

(1997) give seven steps that are followed in this intervention.

1. Scoutingthe initial stages of consultant and client exchanging ideas on the problem and

the appropriate approach.

2. Entrycontract is entered into to formalize the relationship of consultant and client.


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3. Diagnosisinformation gathering to define the problem and identify causes.

4. Planningconsultant and client members jointly establish the goals of an OD intervention

and the proposed approach

5. Actionthe intervention strategies are implemented.

6. Stabilization and Evaluationthe change is stabilized (freezing takes place) and the

outcomes are assessed.

7. TerminationThe consultant withdraws from the assignment.

The action research model differs in several particular ways with the Lewins model. In

action research the outcomes are fed back so that further improvements and changes can be

made. This distinguishes this model as a cyclical and iterative process. The research aspect

connotes a search for knowledge that may be used elsewhere.

2. OD TOOLKITSThe above outlined procedure is the process through which results area achieved but action

research methodology has what are described as toolkits. These are used to address specific

areas of problem. Once diagnosis is complete and the problem identified one or more of these

kits or interventions are employed to solve the problem. Some of these include; process

consultation, change the structure, survey feedback, team building, inter-group development,

role negotiation and sensitivity training. These are just a number but action research allows

flexibility for the consultant to formulate a package of his own interventions to suit the

clients needs. Such flexibility was illustrated through an OD consultancy in a local

government organization.

3. ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONSThe Existence of certain conditions in an organization which may be described as the internal

environment is sometimes assumed. Those who have been in an organization for too long

cease to be conscious of such an environment and probably only newcomers notice such

conditions. Different interventions are used when a need arises to change those conditions.

Some of those interventions which are mentioned above deserve further explanation here.

4. CULTURAL ANALYSISThis is perhaps one of the most complex change actions. Corporate culture is the result of

long term social learning and constitutes of basic assumptions, values, norms and artefacts

that have worked well in an organization. These are passed on to succeeding generations of

employees .Some of these may have arisen from the principles of the founder and

subsequently reinforced by succeeding top hierarchies of the organization. They may have an

emphasis on product quality, customer care or employee relations. When problems arise the

first question which would arise is how do we do things here? The answer will inform the

type of solution that emerges. Therefore the organizational culture influences organizational


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strategy, performance and policies. To change organizational culture may be a traumatic

experience and will require careful analysis and handling. Such is the trauma that was

experienced by American companies in the 1980s when they adopted the Japanese approach

which was influence by a strong organizational culture of employee participation, open

communication, Security and equality.

5. PROCESS CONSULTATIONPeople conceive consultation as that situation where an expert is invited to advise an

organization that is experiencing a problem. Edger Schein has distinguished three types of

consultations as; the expertise model, the doctorpatient model and the process consultation

model. The first model assumes that the client purchases from the consultant some expert

information or service that he is unable to provide for himself. In the doctorpatient model

involves an activity similar to sickness diagnosis. The client who suspects or feels there is

something wrong in the organization invites the doctor (consultant) to diagnose theorganization so that he can advise on what is not right. The symptoms of the sickness may be

low sales, employee instability or falling product quality. The doctor (consultant) diagnoses,

prescribes and administers the cure. In this two models the knowledge and expertise remains

with the expert and leaves the client fully dependent on the expert for future problems. OD

advocates process consultation promoted by Schein who defines the process as:

The creation of a relationship with the client that permits the client to perceive, understands,

and act on the process events that occur in the clients internal and external environment in

order to improve the situation as defined by the client.

6. STRUCTURE CHANGEThis is an intervention that helps change the structure of an organization to make the work

more interesting, challenging or productive. It may involve such activities as job enrichment,

job enlargement, formation of autonomous work teams or business reengineering. Other

actions may involve decentralization/centralization in an organization, flattening or extending

of an organizations structure or even redesigning of focus from region to product or vice

versa.

7. TEAM BUILDINGTeam work is vital to the functioning of modern organizations. Members of teams bring

different strings to the group such as leader, investigator, motivator, finisher, clown,

coordinator, thinker, negotiator or politician. These roles are used at different stages of

production when such role play becomes essential in the groups work. Teams take over from

hierarchical systems where individuals are assumed to know everything depending on their

level in the authority ladder. This system denies the organization the cumulative advantage of

skills and strengths in different individuals.

8. ROLE NEGOTIATION


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A misunderstanding between two individuals in an organization or group can affect its

effectiveness. This is usually caused by lack of shared awareness, misunderstanding or lack

of trust. This intervention helps to clarify individual perceptions and mutual expectations so

that differences can be identified and reconciled or resolved.

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38 Management Process and Organization Behaviour

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