4 - 12 July 2004International School of Cosmic Ray Astrophysics - L. R. Sulak 1 discovering...

4 - 12 July 2004 International School of Cosmic Ray Astrophysics - L. R. Sulak

1

discovering neutrinos:

from the earth...the sun... our sister galaxy...

...next a galactic center?

L. R. Sulak

CPPM Marseille and Boston University


2

from Dumand & IMB... thru Super K

...and onto Antares today, the first of two talks

…an experimenter’s tribute to Maury Shapiro...

L. R. Sulak



3

...homage to Maury, godfather to Dumand, IMB, & the legacy of detectors that followed

...even those still on their way

for precocious support of neutrino astrophysics... water Cherenkov and acoustic detection techniques, proton decay & neutrino oscillation searches

MS born the year of Einstein’s General Relativity...destined for physics off to Los Alamos in ’44, with all the greats, + Val Fitch

Cosmic Ray Lab at Naval Research Lab...Navy funds my PhDstimulating water Č detection since ’76 study of Dumand

inspiring young scientists for > 28 years when I met him


4

...a retrospective on detection by Cherenkov light in water,

and a perspective for the next 4 years

invention of technology: massive, pixellated, time and amplitudeDumand IMB

evolution Kamioka to Super-K

astro discoveries! terrestrial neutrinos confirmed IMB

extra-terrestrial neutrinos...solar Kextra-galactic neutrinos...Magellanic Cloud IMB & K

particle physics! neutrino oscillation and massyet to come?

AGN & BZS neutrinos (Amanda) & Antares (IceCube & Km3)

proton decay, CP violation (Megaton)

...a personal commentary...evolution of neutrino astrophysics...

Retrospective of 4 ring-imaging Cherenkov Detectors:

muon telescope, prematurely terminated (with SSC), then reborn

Dumand ’76-’93 0.1 km2 1 km3 7 countries, off Hawaii

Antares ’05 8 countries, off France

world’s largest calorimeters IMB ’81 10 kilotons 2k pms salt mine, Ohio Kamiokande ’83 3 kilotons 1k pms heavy metal mine, Japan

Super-K ’96 50 kilotons 13k pms 2nd Kamioka site

detectors color-coded throughout talks

see other talks for details and other experiments: e.g. Goodman, Kuzmin, Mikheyev, Migneco, Postnov, Silvestri, Stanev...


6

IMB 1981

2000 - 5” EMI pms, time & pe

25 Mev threshold

reverse osmosis water, world’s purist water, > 50m


7

Kamiokande 1983:

1000 - inch pms40% photocathode coverageouter veto

7 MeV threshold, for sun

1 km underground...for sun = 2.7 km of water,

Antares depth, 2x Amanda

initially no timing, minimal water filtering

remedied in Kamioka III, 1986

Super-K 1996

half way up first filling

inner detector:

11,000 20 inch pms

outer detector (not visible):

reconfigured IMB III

2,000 8 inch pms with

wavelength-shifting

light collectors


9

Dumand (1987) : 7 - 15” photomultipliers in 17” Benthos spheres

short prototype string deployment

1 week operation

to 4.5 km depth


10

Antares (2004-6): 900 pms, 12 lines, 25 stories/line, 3 pms/story

~70 m

350 m

100 m

14.5 m

Submarine links

JunctionBox

40 km toshore

Line anchor

“Proc. Dumand Summer Workshop,” 1976, LRS

with Markov & Zheleznykh’s inspiration,

ultra high energy neutrino signatures

for Dumand (and successors)

1) long penetrating muon tracks,

mostly with minimal light

2) short bright hadronic showers

if vertex “nearby”

signature, & light attenuation length,

set spacing & size of light sensors

the challenge...

reconstructing energy and direction of particle tracks using

light intensity

arrival time

Proc. Dumand Summer Workshop, 1976, LRS

Dumand array concept:

~ the same in Antares

similar in IMB, Amanda...

“Proc. Dumand Summer Workshop,” 1976

4 - 12 July 2004 International School of Cosmic Ray Astrophysics L. R. Sulak

14

the Dumand site:

same distance to shore

as Antares

4.8 km deep: atm shielding

2x Antares, 4x Amanda

...we were conservative in ’76 “Proc. Dumand Summer Workshop,” 1976


15

an optical module:

photomultipler housing,

precursor for Amanda, Antares

without Benthos spheres,

similar for IMB, then

Kamioka and Super-K

Dumand concept:

line deployment

...conclusion of Dumand ’76 Workshop:

...stage was set...for a massive “land-based” prototype...IMB

...when PDK impetus came,

10 kiloton prototype design study

immersed hemispherical pms single photoelectrons (1/4 pe lsb)

2-scale “waveform digitization” 1 ns for directionality

0.1 s, muon decaydeadtimeless

calibration

LED ball, N2 laser, muon decay

Cortez, Foster, Levi, LoSecco

LRS: “Madison Meeting on Proton Stability,” D. Cline, ed., December 1978

LRS: Erice 1980, “Neutrino ’79,” Bergen & “FWOGU,” 1980

...a 0.5 MeV muon track...

what does it look like?

LRS: Erice 1980, “Neutrino ’79,” Bergen & “FWOGU”, 1980

...why is timing so important?

Cherenkov light is directiona

~ 1 ns resolution few degrees

IMB Status at Erice 1980:

Proton decay detector details

and

First proposal of neutrino oscillation search over baseline of earth via up/down /e asymmetry

critical in securing DOE funding

LRS: also “FWOGU” 1980

IMB I:

after 1 year operation,

5% of pms crack

...reverse osmosis

too clean

IMB II:

replace 5” EMI pms

with 8” Hamamatsu pms...

designed using IMB

photoelectron tracing code

IMB III:

add wavelength shifting

light collector plates


23

IMB III (1983) 2000 - 8 inch pms and light collectorsdry suit diver/physicist


24

IMB: best proton decay candidate...pm code = timing in color, 1 pe/slash


25

26

Nucleon Lifetime Limits

IMB: 45 decay modes

mass is everything,

MEGATON is needed

McGrew 2003


27

atm s: up-going , as well as contained events...red entry, yellow exit...

IMB: Do the neutrino-induced up-going muons point back to a source?

…sun, moon, galactic center? with 496 IMB events, no...with Super-K? no, see Shantanu Desai’s recent PhD

too small! need Amanda, Antares, IceCube, Km3

Galactic

Latitude

Galactic Longitude

“Supersymmetry... has generated so many thousands of papers it must be correct” Shelly Glashow

…at 07:35:35 UT…bam…b-bam bam bam…8 times in IMB …11 in Kamioka

…an entire sun implodes, explodes...in 13 seconds

Super Nova…all heavy elements are born....iodine, silver, gold...

the night before 23 Feb > 4 hours after neutrino burst

…all detectors hit at the same time…time encoded in color

…each with a beautiful Cherenkov ring

…with your eye at the vertex of the 3rd event...

...100 billion neutrinos per cm2

SuperNova!

Cover Story

...but Kamioka found no muon anomaly (e.g.Kajita PhD ’86)...until ‘88

IMB “anomaly:” see only 75% of expected muon-neutrinos...

conclusion...

Technology driven by the science:pixelated, ring-imaging Cherenkov calorimetry...proven

submersible, depth-tolerant pms and electronicssingle photoelectron operationpattern recognition and directionality

Astro-neutrino physics discoveries:first physics beyond standard model

neutrino mass and oscillation...most cited paper of all timefirst extra-terrestrial neutrinos, imaging sun with themfirst extra-galactic neutrinos – SN 1987A

grand unification still the ultimate goal,

...and annihilations, high energy point sources etc. await discovery!


37

Maury, on behalf of your experimental friends, and me,

from Dumand, IMB, Super-K and Antares,

we thank you for your seminal cosmic ray work and for your intellectural support of our experiments

…pursuing cosmic ray and neutrino astrophysics...


38


39


40


41

...dedicated to you, the new generation of astrophysicists...

discovering neutrinos:

from the earth...the sun... our sister galaxy...

...next a galactic center?

L. R. Sulak



42

from Dumand & IMB... thru Super K

...and onto Antares today, the second of two talks

…an experimenter’s view of technical details

L. R. Sulak


...a retrospective on detection by Cherenkov light in water,

and a perspective for the next 4 years

invention of technology: massive, pixellated, time, amplitude IMB

Dumand to Antares evolution

Kamioka and Super-K astro discoveries! terrestrial neutrinos confirmed IMB extra-galactic neutrinos...Magellanic Cloud IMB & K

extra-terrestrial neutrinos...solar K particle physics! neutrino oscillation and mass yet to come?

AGN & BZS neutrinos Amanda, IceCube Silvestri Km3 Migneco acoustic detection

proton decay, CP violation Megaton

Kamioka II 1987: with timing by U. Penn & Cortez, & Rn purification

...low energy electron-neutrino events point back to the sun!

...with hi statistics, Super-K sees only 47% of expected solar model flux

22,400 solar neutrino events

15 events/day

Direction cosine to the sun

pointing neutrinos from the peak back to find their origin...

…Kamioka and Super-K “see” the sun…a neutrino heliographfrom Svoboda


46

...but tubes from Kamioka not tested at Super-K depth!!!

Super-K II (2003): a typical muon-neutrino event

...in time with beam pulse from KEK accelerator 300 km away

...sharp ring edges characteristic of a muon track


48

typical electron track...fuzzy at edges


49


50

but 30% of muon neutrinos missing...those coming up through the earth

...six other different samples of neutrino data behave similarly

neutrinos are missing with high statistical significance...

...consistent with original IMB anomaly and later Kamiokande results ...but not with much smaller iron detectors


53

Dumand 1987:

Optical Module Fabrication ...magnetic shielding and

Boston electronics visible


54

Dumand Short Prototype String Assembly:

0.5 km optical and electrical cables

kevlar support cables


55

String controller distribution box...power (black) and optic fibers (red)

Dumand ’87

deployment of string controller

view of middle of string with

power converters

1 GHz digitizer

optical multiplexer/demultiplexer

1 of the 7 optical modules seen in front

Dumand ‘87:

laying of cable


58

Dumand: winch laying cable and junction box


59

Junction box deployment,

with cable to shore

Dumand ’87:

junction box resting

on the bottom

at 4.8 km

now

...fast forward to Antares


61

...why 2 detectors? viewing the heavens below each detector...

AMANDA (South Pole)ANTARES (43° North)

Never seenPSR B1706-44

RXJ 1713.7-39

Mkn 421

Mkn 501

PKS 2155-30

SN1006

VELA

CRAB

CasA

1ES2344+514

galactic center only seen by Antares, but good overlap...sun, and any SUSY anihilations from it, always at Amanda’s horizon

...complementary telescopes necessary in both hemispheres

~Never seen

PSR B1706-44

RXJ 1713.7-39

Mkn 421

Mkn 501

PKS 2155-30

SN1006

VELA

CRAB

CasA

1ES2344+514

master local control module

buoy

LED beacon local control module

string control module andstring power module

interlink cable withwet-mateable connector

acoustic beacon

acoustic receiver

3 optical modules

acoustic receiver

12m

100m

acousticreleases

anchor

Antares preproduction prototype (2002-3)...1 of ~ 20 sea campaigns


63

deployment of Antares preproduction prototype 2002


64

underwater connection to prototype:

manned sub 1 of 4 from Ifremer based at Toulon, FR

Antares

prototype:

spool out cable

from string

bottom to

junction box


66

plugging the pre-production string at 2.4 km depth


67

plugging line from prototype string into the junction box


68

junction box at depth, with prototype string connected

Neutrino 2004 - L. Sulak 69

Nestor prototype...off of Greece“Star” Deployment March 2003

6 blue optical modules

2 pm’s each

6 yellow floats

above pix:

white lines to bouy

red line to LED beacon

below, unseen:

lines to junction box

17 June 2004 70

Run: 63_37 Event: 396

Track Candidate

Number of Hits

Number of Used

Hits

Number of Degrees

of Freedom

Zenith Angle

(Degrees)

Azimuth Angle

(Degrees)

Impact Parameter

(m)

Pseudovertexχ2 -lnLch

Vx (m) Vy (m) Vz (m)

1 7 7 2 30 (± 35)

82 ±3) 11 11(± 21)

30 (± 23)

42(± 9)

3 36.5

2 7 7 2 101(± 10)

33(± 29)

9 43(± 15)

32(± 16)

-4(± 8)

2.7 30.3

Nestor: 800 events from 106 4-fold triggers


71

Zenith Angle (degrees)

(1/N

)dN

/dco

s(θ)

M.C. Prediction

Data Points

Angular Fits to Nestor Raw DataAngular Fits to Nestor Raw Data

Nestor measurement of atmospheric muon flux

...another existence proof for deep underwater technology

conclusions for the water Cherenkov detectors...

Technology driven by the science:pixelated, ring-imaging Cherenkov calorimetry...proven

submersible, depth-tolerant pms and electronicssingle photoelectron operation to maximize sensitivitydirectionality from timingpattern recognition for electron/muon discrimination

Astro-neutrino physics discoveries:first physics beyond standard model

neutrino mass and oscillation...most cited paper of all timefirst extra-terrestrial neutrinos, imaging sun with themfirst extra-galactic neutrinos – SN 1987A

grand unification still an ultimate goal,

...and annihilations, high energy point sources etc await discovery too!

a new era since 1998, the discovery of neutrino mass and oscillations

now a panoply of key, very difficult, neutrino physics experiments

precision neutrino oscillation parameters

...search for CP violation in a new sector of nature

neutrinoless double beta decay: is the neutrino its own antiparticle? absolute mass scale of neutrinos...the problem of mass

neutrino astronomy

all point to a high energy scale, possibly Grand Unification scale

each goal has very different needs

neutrino sources...flux, energy, baseline

detectors...shielding, depth, volume

neutrino physics: as important as searching for electroweak scale at LHC!

... neutrinos merit the many required new facilities

...

...in your future...

Evolution of Neutrino Research Worldwide

Facility Detectors Neutrino Source

SNOLab SNO→SNO+ →SNO++ Bruce Reactor

, Dark Matter + ...

Soudan Lab Minos → NOA NuMI → p driver

Kamioka Lab SK → Hyper-K K2K → T2K KEK → JPARC

Kamland → new reactor

Gran Sasso Lab Opera, Icarus CNGS → SPL

Modane Lab → Megaton CERN → SPL

South Pole Amanda → IceCube astro-neutrinos

Mediterranean Antares/Nemo/Nestor → Km3 astro-neutrinos


76

...time limits talk to selected future operations

SNOLab... “new” international lab, in transition

$50 M expansion program to accommodate many experiments

SNO detector evolution

Km3 astrophysical observatory... 3 sites and 2 technologies Migneco

first data from Nestor prototype “star”

construction of 12 “string” Antares underway

Km3 engineering, site study (10 M Euro) in approval process

Frejus Lab...a home for Megaton...an Italian/French initiative

potentially with ideal beams from CERN


77

beside “my back yard,” why so many facilities?

for Megaton... the bigger the cavity better, deeper not necessarily better

for solar & sensitive exp’ts the deeper, the better e.g. spallation from muons impossible for IMB to do solar neutrinos

...consider SNO at Sudbury


78

...Letters of Intent, presentations from May…

Prospective Experiments at New SNOLab International Facility

6 kmwe, deepest int’l facility: 70 muons/day vs. 26,000/day at Kamioka

2 new halls, 30m x 15m, approved (~1/2 size vs. Gran Sasso), $50 M upgrades

potentially in new halls, starting ‘07: Dark Matter Searches

CDMS vs Soudan, SNO depth minimizes muon-induced fast neutrons

ZEPLIN dark matter with liquid scintillator, if Boulby is not deep enough

CLEAN 1 T (10 T for solar ) self-shielded, scintillating liquid Ne/Xe*

XENON drifting charge dark matter search - R & D

DRIFT dark matter with pointing using low pressure TPC:

PICASSO acoustic detection of nuclear recoil with superheated bubbles in gel

Neutrino Experiments

HALO SNO 3He detectors with Pb, supernova neutrinos

Noble Liquid Tracking Detectors for solar neutrinos with He or Xe


79

Double Beta Decay searches

Majorana 500 kg of Ge detectors for : scale up of known technology

GERDA (~GENIUS) 1 T Ge crystals in clean Liq N2, no housings, self-shielded

EXO Xe TPC, with laser fluorescence tag of Ba upon decay

COBRA CdZnTe...semiconductor, all 3 candidates

with the SNO Detector or Cavity

after 3He neutral current work is done, SNO Phase III over, D2O comes out in ’07

SNO+ geo and reactor neutrinos: fill with scintillator

with n tag, get 700 kT fiducial

SNO++ Decay: scintillator + 1 Ton of Te or Nb nanocrystals

or + 2 Ton Xe dissolved gas

SNO best facility in world for almost all experiments?

...except cavity size too small for Megaton


80

...potential future of SNO+ Detector, for geo and reactor neutrinos...

A Closer Look at SNO+

infrastructure for low background work

e.g. low Rn cover gas (N2), 1 neutron capture/day from U&Th

1 kT of low background liquid scintillator, as in KamLAND w/ 10-17

Geo electron anti-neutrinos

energy = 3.4 MeV - 1.8 MeV Q = 1.6 MeV positron + 1 MeV e+e- annihilation = 2.6 MeV deposited

KamLAND at 180 km from reactors looks for geo at <2.6 MeV

but overwhelmed by 2nd oscillation minimum at 3 MeV

...hard to extract geo since reactor spectrum distorted just there

and only ~40 geoneutrinos per year


81

...geo-neutrinos and reactor neutrinos difficult to separate

...the geoneutrino signal to noise in KamLAND:


82

... SNO+ vs. KamLAND: how important is distance from reactor?

SNO+ is 240 km from 14 GW Bruce vs KamLAND at 180 km from 80 GW

2nd reactor oscillation minimum moves up x 1.5 to 5 MeVreactor flux is max

no geo signal >3.4 MeV ...clean for reactor neutrinosnarrower dip sharper spectral distortion

a notch at 5 MeV 80 events / year, if no reactor oscillations

note subtle difference in pattern with Casper’s Oscillator

for geo-neutrinos, look < 2.6 MeV, at SNO+ many fewer reactor neutrinos (1 reactor, further away)

oscillation pattern smeared out64 geo-neutrino events / year vs. 29 at KamLAND & 10 at Borexino

U/Th neutrino source thick continental crust, vs. the thin coastal crust in Japan

SNO+... ideal to separate geo from reactor neutrinos


83

KamLAND

D. Casper’s Oscillator


84

D. Casper’s Oscillator

SNO+


85

...again using the great depth...

SNO+ as low energy solar neutrino detector

7Be 0.86 MeV line

10% calculational, 40% experimental uncertainty...difficult

pep 1.44 MeV line...a precision measurement

1% predicted uncertainty...3000/year oscillated

muon-induced 11C → e+ gives 1 MeV within 20 minutes

untenable background in KamLAND and Borexino due to lack of depth

SNO+ : with only 70 muons/day

track muon and veto 1 m radius around it

17 June 2004

...the other lab with a rebirth...

Modane Megaton detector: two possible cavities, both ~130 km to CERN

Fréjus I required second tunnel, near the present lab, ’05-’08

deep covering, 4800 mwe

dry rock, good quality, well known

Fréjus II 15 km experimental tunnel for new Lyon-Torino TGV train

(actual train tunnel to be longest and deepest in Europe)

endorsed by Chirac and Berlusconi last month

covering of 7000 mwe

rock expected to be hard, but not yet studied

potentially water, since glaciers above

13 km (12 870 m)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 2122 232425262728293031323334

70m x 70m x 250m

France Italy

Future Lab.

Present road Tunnel at Fréjus (grey)andfuture Tunnel (black) for safety with 34 bypasses (shelters)connecting the two Tunnels

EU: build Megaton for proton decay and supernova while tunneling;

super and beta beams later

JPARC/T2K: Hyper-K and 2 MW proton source upgrade tentative,

wait for proton decay hint at Super-K, or

favorable θ13 measurement in T2K

...Hyper-K could be much later than EU detector


88

Advantages of Frejus Sites

independent, horizontal access

neutrino super-beams and beta beams likely upgrades to CERN

at “magic distance” and right L/E (130 km / 0.3 GeV) for those beams

if LEP RF cavities recycled, 2.2 GeV protons give 0.3 GeV higher energy, muon/pion discrimination a problem

lower energy, muons don’t make enough Cherenkov light in water

(further away, higher E, as in US, e/o/ separation a problem for Č

Italian / French joint initiative

“extension” of Gran Sasso Lab... water prevents a Megaton cavity there

preliminary study of large cavity (106 m3) at both Fréjus sites

maximum possible size of cavity for each of 3 shapes?

cost and time of excavation?


89

...under study Modane “Megaton,” 2 detector technologies, 3 geometries

1 MT water Cherenkov à la Hyper-K

100 kT liquid argon


90

...conclusions...

new recognition of importance of neutrino physics relative to electroweak symmetry breaking

necessity of coupled source / detector facilities

synergism with proton drivers at CERN, FNAL, JPARC increased luminosity and intensity for other experimentsradioactive ion beams...nuclear, biology, medicinenaturally lead to hot neutrino beams

in next two years: results expected fromAntares, Minos...as well as many other experiments

longer term: significant promise for IceCube, Km3, Megaton, Hyper-K

...bright future for neutrino facilities, near, medium and long term


91

Acknowledgements

It is a pleasure to express my appreciation to my following collaborators for contributing material for this review

John Learned Dumand photographs

John LoSecco IMB historical documentation

Clark McGrew Proton Decay Limits, 2003

Masayuki Nakahata Kamiokande historical data and archives

Robert Svoboda Super-K neutrino heliograph

‘76 Dumand conceptually designed‘78 10 kTon design study ’79 IMB proposes PDK and e/ ratio‘81 IMB turns on‘83 IMB: no proton decay! no SU5 Grand Unification! Foster,Cortez PhD

Kamioka turns on ‘86 IMB anomaly: 25% of atmospheric muon-neutrinos missing‘87 Dumand string of 7 optical modules down to 4.5 km depth for week

IMB + Kamioka: neutrinos from Supernova 1987a ‘88 Kamioka image sun in neutrino light Nobel Prize ‘02 Kamioka confirms missing muon-neutrinos’89 Dumand funding approved for 0.1 km2 array‘93 Dumand funding lapses along with SSC

Antares R&D starts‘96 Super-K turn-on, outer detector = IMB ‘98 Super-K: establishes muon-neutrinos oscillate, have mass‘01 Super-K: solar electron-neutrinos oscillate too’04 Antares deployment starts

Cronological Milestones for the 5 Detectors

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