Sense relations: Collocation and Idioms

Lexical semantics tries to understand the meaning of words in terms of their association with other words1. in terms of value (Saussures notion, in Palmer, 67-68) :Sheep (in English) has different value from Mouton (in French), because English also has muttonSimilarly, nasi has different value from rice in English, because BI also has beras which is also rice in EnglishDifferent languages deal with fields of color, kinships, etc differently

2. Paradigmatic vs syntagmatic relationsParadigmatic theory (by Trier) and Syntagmatic theory (by Porzig in Palmer,75)Paradigmatic relations are those into which a linguistic unit enters through being contrasted or substitutable, in a particular environment, with other similar units.Syntagmatic unit relations are those that a unit contracts by virtue of its co-occurrence with similar unitsE.g. red door vs. green door Red and green are paradigmatic relation to each otherEach is in a Syntagmatic relation with door:

From the Saussurian proposition that the individual symbol is arbitrary and dependent for its comprehensibility on the language system (langue) of which it is a part, it follows that the inter-relationships of symbols within this system is of crucial concern. Saussure argued that these relationships could be classified into a horizontal - linear - sequential arrangement - thesyntagmatic; and a vertical - non-linear - associative one that relies on links forged by memory, custom, and culture - theparadigmatic.

At phonological levelparadigmatic (vertical) axis/ bat /batkIppd syntagmatic axis we are obliged to utter the the particular phonemes in that order; any other order would make the sequence unacceptable or entirely different in meaning

At lexical levelparadigmatic (vertical) axisreddoorgreendoorblonde*doorsyntagmatic (horizontal) axisRed, green, blonde, etc belong to the same semantic field of color, yet syntagmatically, blonde is restricted to combine with door---RANGE of meaning

at syntactical levelparadigmatic (vertical) axisThe catsat on the matThe dogsathim*The cat meowThe dogmeow*blue and red/silently*syntagmatic (horizontal) axis

At syntactical levelparadigmatic (vertical) axisHefrightenedthe man on the cornerthe micethe stone*purple*in*syntagmatic (horizontal) axis

Another explanation....... The syntagmatic relations which define the constituenthe frightenedpermit it to be followed only by certain types of constituent. Our knowledge of syntagmatic relations enables us to define forhe frighteneda paradigmatic class of items which can follow it. These items are in paradigmatic contrast with one another, and to choose one is to produce meaning by excluding others. (Culler, J. (1976)SaussureLondon: Fontana, p. 49.)

Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations together constitute the identity of an item within the linguistic systems as a whole. In other words, every linguistic item (phoneme, morpheme, word, etc.) can be characterized or identified by:1. Where it is able to occur sequentially with other units (its distribution), and 2. referring to the set of terms with which it can be interchanged (substituted).

Paradigmatic relations create Semantic fields.It is defined as an area of meaning containing words with related sense. For example, the following terms which come in the sense of income or earnings form one semantic field: pay, wage, salary, fee, stipend, pension, retainer, etc.

All these terms form a semantic field since they are paradigmatically related to each other:-John received his salary/ wage /stipend /pension, etc.Thus, there are two major criteria for a set of words to form a semantic field: 1. The words must be paradigmatically related.2. They must be close in meaning (they must hold lexical or sense relations).

However.....The paradigmatic units (often called class/semantic field) are incompatible to the real world; the same referent cannot use different words of the same classShe went there on Sunday / MondayBut in reality you cannot say She went on Monday for a fact that she went on SundayA red door is a red door

Syntagmatic relations refer to a word ability to combine with other words; they are the collocational relations: the company that a word keepsis also a part of the meaning of word (Firth)Bite and teeth; bark and dog; or blond and hairDog barks but not dog meowsBlond hair but not blond door (although the color of the door is like that of the hair)

Collocation is not simply a matter of association of ideas; although collocation is largely determined by meaning, it is sometimes cannot easily be predicted in terms of the meaning of the associated wordscannot easily be explained semantically :

Milk is white; but, we hardly say white milkCoffee is brown or black (?), but, we may say white coffee, similarly with white wine which is not white, but with the lightest of the normal colors associated with the entityIs this similar in meaning with that white coffee in Indonesian context ?

Note: to discuss further later the difference of compound and phrase. Consider this: white-collar and white collar

several different types of collocation. Below you can see seven main types of collocation in sample sentences.

1. adverb + adjectiveInvading that country was an utterly stupid thing to do. We entered a richly decorated room. Are you fully aware of the implications of your action?2. adjective + nounThe doctor ordered him to take regular exercise. The Titanic sank on its maiden voyage. He was writhing on the ground in excruciating pain.3. noun + nounLet's give Mr Jones a round of applause. The ceasefire agreement came into effect at 11am. I'd like to buy two bars of soap please.

4. noun + verbThe lion started to roar when it heard the dog barking. Snow was falling as our plane took off. The bomb went off when he started the car engine.5. verb + nounThe prisoner was hanged for committing murder. I always try to do my homework in the morning, after making my bed. He has been asked to give a presentation about his work.

6. verb + expression with prepositionWe had to return home because we had run out of money. At first her eyes filled with horror, and then she burst into tears. Their behaviour was enough to drive anybody to crime.7. verb + adverbShe placed her keys gently on the table and sat down. Mary whispered softly in John's ear. I vaguely remember that it was growing dark when we left.

(source: www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/collacation-samples.htm

3 kinds of collocational restrictionA. based wholly on the meaning of the item which is completely unlikely: green cow , beautiful test, etcB. some are based on range a word may be used with a whole set of words that have some semantic features in common: The Rhododendron passed away, the unlikeliness is understoodC. some restrictions are collocationally strictest, neither meaning nor range: white wine are acceptable, but not white milk

IdiomsAn idiom or idiomatic expression refers to a construction of words or expression different from the ordinary meaning of the words.The context can help you understand what an idiom means. Example: "She has a bee in her bonnet," meaning "she is obsessed," cannot be literally translated into another language word for word.

Idioms involve collocation which is not related to the meaning of the individual words. Idioms is semantically like a single wordE.g. kick the bucket equal to dieBut it does not function like oneSemantic restrictionnot kick the pailsyntactic restrictions in idioms:not kick the bucketed but kicked the bucket(in terms of past tense)spill the beans but not spill the bean (in terms of singular/plural)

Nor passivethe bucket was kicked; but some idioms are possible: the beans have been spilled The restrictions vary from idiom to idiom: some are more restricted or frozen than othersFind out the restrictions of raining cats and dogs !

Idioms (continued)An expression that carries a different meaning because of the context in which it is usedslang terms

ExamplesUp the creek without a paddleOn top of the worldFingers crossedShake a leg or Break a legPut a lid on itIts raining cats and dogs

Phrasal verbs(a) A combination of verb + adverb: make up; give in; put down;(b) A combination of verb + preposition: look after; go for; ..(c) A combination of verb + adverb + preposition: put up with; do away with;

Some of these combinations are idiomatic some are notThe meaning of idiomatic phrasal verbs can not be predicted from the individual verb and adverb; it is less idiomatic when the meaning of the phrases can be predicted from the elements of the phraseit has literal sense

PHRASAL VERBS WITH LITERAL AND IDIOMATIC MEANINGI always put out the cat at night.Put out the cigarette,please.(extinguish)

Group assignment-4Find one sentence using collocation of each of the 7 types of collocation Which phrasal verbs are idiomatic and which are literal?Please pick up the CD for me !I picked up some new slang words in that filmTake off that funny hat! You look stupid in it!The plane took off 10 minutes ago 3. Find 5 examples of idiomatic phrasal verbsHow would you find their meanings in dictionary ?How are they restricted in usage ?

4. Analyze the following :let their hair down;bite your tongueeat my hat; throw her weight aroundput his foot in his moutha. How would you find them in your dictionary?b. What do these idioms equal to/mean ?c. What syntactic/semantic restrictions are applied to them?

5. Find 3 idiomatic expressions in bahasa Indonesia. And analyze their syntactic/semantic restriction?

referencesPalmer, F.R., 1981, Chapter 4: Lexical Semantics: Fields and Collocation in Semantics, Cambridge University Press: pp. 67 82.http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/paradigmatic_and_syntagmatic.aspxhttp://www2.winchester.ac.uk/edstudies/courses/level%20one%20sem%20one/sssynpar.htmhttp://www.slideshare.net/hoshangfarooq/paradigmatic-vs-syntagmatic-relations-2Espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:205374/chaper 1_6pdf. The study of collocationsParadigmatic vs Syntagmatic: Fredinand de Saussure (1916); www.fb10.uni-bremen.de/anglistik/ws08/close-materials/paradigmatic-syntagmatic.pdf

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