Date post: | 29-Nov-2014 |
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Communication always takes place in a context
Context could be social, cultural, political, technological…..
Utilization of communication is context specific
In a nutshell, contexts give perspective to communication
Communication Perspectives
Academically the following communication perspectives are identified
1.Basic Communication2.Development Communication3.Information & Communication Technology4.International Communication& Globalization5. Communication Management6.Business Communication Practices7. Communication Research
Communication Perspectives
Complexity and constant change mark the communication process
To analyze the structure and function of these changes and complications, a generalized and simple representation becomes imperative.
Communication Models offer this simplification.
Models of Communication – WHY?
Organize the various elements and processes of communication in a more structured way
Help in discovery of new facts about communication (generate research functions)
Help focus on ‘patterns’ rather than ‘individual messages’ and on ‘interactions’ rather than ‘movement of messages’ from one place to the other
Functions of communication models
Can lead to oversimplificationCan lead to confusion between the model and
the behavior it portrays
Limitations of communication models
Communication reduced to a question of transmitting information
Source-Message/Channel-Receiver as the basic process of communication
Traditional social-scientific paradigm/ process school
Linear or Transmission Models
Aristotle’s Model
Laswell’s research area – Political Communication and propaganda
Takes for granted that communicator intends to influence receiver
Treats communication as a persuasive process
Assumes that messages always have effectsRaises issue of effect rather than meaningOmits the feedback element
Laswell’s Formula – explanation
Very significant in the technical side of communication research
Applied to human communication though a bit misleading
Came out of research at the Bell telephone Laboratory
Shannon and Weaver’s Mathematical Model
Level A. The Technical ProblemConcerned with the accuracy of transference of symbols of communication from sender to receiver, the accuracy depending on the technical efficacy of the medium (e.g. a telephone set) and of the channel (e.g. a telephone cable).Level B. The Semantic ProblemIt is concerned with identity or satisfactorily close approximation of the intended meaning of the sender and the interpretation of meaning by the receiver.Level C. The Effectiveness ProblemIt is concerned with the extent to which the received meaning affects the conduct of the receiver in the way desired by the sender
Explanation
To reduce noise and increase capacity requires –
i)Decreased entropy (uncertainty) ii)Increased redundancy (predictability)
Effective communication needs right balance between entropy and redundancy – Shannon and Weaver
Concepts of entropy and redundancy
Towards non-linearityCommunication process is not one way in nature.Human communication consists of mutual causation
rather than one-way mechanistic causation.Patterns of interaction, self-generation, mutual
exchange and sharing characterize communication. Presence of communication network circuits indeed!In nutshell, communication is about information,
feedback, networks and purpose.Various loops lend non-linearity.
Non-linear modelsSchramm’s Model of CommunicationOsgood-Schramm Model of CommunicationGerbner’s ModelThe triangular model of NewcombWestley and Mc Lean’s Model
Wilbur Schramm’s Model
1. Schramm provided the additional notion of a “field of experience,” or the psychological frame of reference.2. Communication is reciprocal, two-way, even though the feedback may be delayed. 3. Limitation: Doesn’t go beyond the bilateral interactions in communication.
Image Source: http://www.shkaminski.com/Classes/Handouts/Communication%20Models.htm#SchrammsInteractiveModel1954
FIELD OF EXPERIENCE
Osgood- Schramm Model
(Image Source: eldar.cz/mishutka/mn/%9Akola/.../Osgood.doc)
1. Evolved from the previous model.
2. The ‘Field of Experience’ is substituted with PERSONALITY
Model to be read from left to right beginning at ‘E’.
‘E’: event (reality)‘M’: Receiver‘E 1’: Perceptual
Dimension‘SE’: Communicating
Dimension
Image Source: http://madanmaniadhikary.blogspot.com/2008/08/gerbners-general-model-1956.htmlGERBNER’
S MODEL
Gerbner’s Model: An AnalysisInsight into media institutions, messages, and
impacts.Acknowledges media (hence a mass
communication model)Comments on media’s role as both a
perceiver and communicator of an event.Highlights the gatekeeping function of the
media.
Newcomb’s Model : Co-orientation Model for Relational analysis
A&B:Communicators
X: Object of communication
Features of Newcomb’s ModelBased on psychological view of
communication.Communication restores balance in the
process.Earlier models to introduce the role of
community in society or a social relationship.
Model of Public Service Programming
Westley and Mc Lean’s Conceptual Model for Communication ResearchDeveloped with the intention to order
existing findings of researchProvides a more systematic treatmentOriginates from social psychologyBased on ideas of cognitive dissonanceImmediate Predecessor – Newcomb’s Model
of Communication
Basic ConceptsC stands for Channel roles - GatekeeperB represents the "behavioral system roles“A stands for advocacy roles, or those people, institutions,
or organizations that have something to sayX's represent all the events, topics or ideas that Advocates
might want to want to make a message about
X1 A2X2 A1 >>>>> C >>>>>BX 3 A3 <fca<< << fbc<
(FEEDBACK LOOPS)
What does it mean?
Several selection stagesSelf-regulating character of channelDistinction between purposive and non-
purposive communicationImportance of feedback
Applications of the modelHelps to pose several research questions like
–1.What criteria is applied by C to choose from
X’s or A’s?2.How adequately are needs of B interpreted?3.In what ways are messages from X altered as
they pass vis C?‘This model has been cited in several
gatekeeping and other empirical/conceptual studies’.
LimitationsPractically the relationship between the three
main participants can be very imbalanced.Political relationship between A and C
sometimes – so A can have a control over C – hence may not be non-purposive
Similar relationship between C and B – the model overstates the independence of communicator from society
Model bit more idealist and normative than the reality