Consociationalism in Consociationalism in Malaysian PoliticsMalaysian Politics

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Consociationalism during the Consociationalism during the Alliance EraAlliance Era

Alliance as a political party was Alliance as a political party was formally registered in 1958.formally registered in 1958.

Although Malaya’s politics did not Although Malaya’s politics did not fully conform to Lijphart’s fully conform to Lijphart’s consociationalism, it involved the consociationalism, it involved the articulation of the characteristics of articulation of the characteristics of consociationalism.consociationalism.

The Structure of the Alliance: The Structure of the Alliance: Proportionality and Mutual BalancingProportionality and Mutual Balancing

Proportionality means that all groups Proportionality means that all groups influence a decision in proportion to their influence a decision in proportion to their numerical strength.numerical strength.

The Alliance had two supreme bodies: The Alliance had two supreme bodies: National Council and National Executive National Council and National Executive Committee.Committee.

National Executive Committee comprised National Executive Committee comprised of 6 UMNO, 6 MCA and 3 MIC leaders.of 6 UMNO, 6 MCA and 3 MIC leaders.

The Structure of the Alliance: The Structure of the Alliance: Proportionality and Mutual Balancing Proportionality and Mutual Balancing

The National Council consisted of 16 The National Council consisted of 16 UMNO, 16 MCA and 6 MIC leaders.UMNO, 16 MCA and 6 MIC leaders.

UMNO leaders were allotted important UMNO leaders were allotted important posts, but MCA was given influential posts posts, but MCA was given influential posts too, e.g., Minister of Finance, and Minister too, e.g., Minister of Finance, and Minister of Commerce and Industry.of Commerce and Industry.

MCA was also influential in persuading MCA was also influential in persuading UMNO not to nominate certain leaders UMNO not to nominate certain leaders perceived to be anti-Chinese [as perceived to be anti-Chinese [as ministers], e.g., Syed Jaafar Albar and ministers], e.g., Syed Jaafar Albar and Syed Nasir Ismail.Syed Nasir Ismail.

The Structure of the Alliance: The Structure of the Alliance: Proportionality and Mutual BalancingProportionality and Mutual Balancing

However, proportionality did not give However, proportionality did not give non-Malays matching power in non-Malays matching power in governance.governance.

Key posts in cabinet and the civil Key posts in cabinet and the civil service were predominated by the service were predominated by the Malays. Malays.

Consociational Practices: Consociational Practices: Compromise and ConcessionCompromise and Concession

Intense bargaining was done behind Intense bargaining was done behind closed doors.closed doors.

Public discussion of controversial Public discussion of controversial communal issues was deliberately communal issues was deliberately avoided.avoided.

““Avoidance model” of conflict Avoidance model” of conflict management.management.

Consociational Practices: Consociational Practices: Compromise and ConcessionCompromise and Concession

1.1. The Package Deals of Constitutional The Package Deals of Constitutional Contract.Contract.

Malay special rights received specific Malay special rights received specific constitutional status in Article 153, non-constitutional status in Article 153, non-Malays were given liberal citizenship Malays were given liberal citizenship regulations.regulations.

Malay was to become sole official Malay was to become sole official language from 1967, but the teaching or language from 1967, but the teaching or learning of Chinese and Tamil languages learning of Chinese and Tamil languages were not prohibited.were not prohibited.

Consociational Practices: Consociational Practices: Compromise and ConcessionCompromise and Concession

2.2. National Language Bill 1967National Language Bill 1967 As 1967 approached, many Chinese As 1967 approached, many Chinese

were reluctant to accept Malay were reluctant to accept Malay Language as the sole national Language as the sole national language. They wanted their rights to language. They wanted their rights to learn their language be continued. learn their language be continued. Malay ultras wanted Malay language to Malay ultras wanted Malay language to be declared the sole official language be declared the sole official language as per constitutional contract.as per constitutional contract.

Consociational Practices: Consociational Practices: Compromise and ConcessionCompromise and Concession

On the initiative of the Tunku, the National On the initiative of the Tunku, the National Language Bill was introduced on 24 Language Bill was introduced on 24 February 1967.February 1967.

The bill provided for the implementation of The bill provided for the implementation of Malay as the sole official language, but it Malay as the sole official language, but it also allowed the continued use of English also allowed the continued use of English for official purposes and a liberal use of for official purposes and a liberal use of the non-Malay languages for non-the non-Malay languages for non-governmental and non-official purposes.governmental and non-official purposes.

Towards the Breakdown of Towards the Breakdown of ConsociationalismConsociationalism

Singapore’s challenge to Malaysian Singapore’s challenge to Malaysian political scheme,political scheme,

The end of external threat—1967 The end of external threat—1967 resumption of diplomatic relations resumption of diplomatic relations between Malaysia and Indonesia,between Malaysia and Indonesia,

Controversies over the National Controversies over the National Language Bill,Language Bill,

Challenge to the Tunku’s leadership.Challenge to the Tunku’s leadership.

The Decline of The Decline of Consociationalism in MalaysiaConsociationalism in Malaysia

The 13 May 1969 ethnic riot.The 13 May 1969 ethnic riot. Causes?Causes?

1.1. Tunku: Communism,Tunku: Communism,

2.2. Tun Dr. Ismail: Opposition partiesTun Dr. Ismail: Opposition parties

3.3. NOC:NOC:1.1. Malay dissatisfaction over policies,Malay dissatisfaction over policies,

2.2. Non-Malay provocation of Malay sensitivities,Non-Malay provocation of Malay sensitivities,

3.3. Malays’ growing sense of insecurity.Malays’ growing sense of insecurity.

Growing Ethnic SentimentGrowing Ethnic Sentiment

Political mood in 1969 was different.Political mood in 1969 was different. Two Chinese-based parties with wide Two Chinese-based parties with wide

appeal emerged—DAP and Gerakan.appeal emerged—DAP and Gerakan. First time Alliance faced well-mobilized First time Alliance faced well-mobilized

Chinese parties.Chinese parties. Alliance’s challenge—communal parties. Alliance’s challenge—communal parties.

PAS accused UMNO of selling Malay rights. PAS accused UMNO of selling Malay rights. DAP and Gerakan accused MCA of selling DAP and Gerakan accused MCA of selling Chinese rights.Chinese rights.

Hence, politicization of ethnic issues.Hence, politicization of ethnic issues.

1969 Elections1969 Elections

Alliance lost control of Penang [4/24], Alliance lost control of Penang [4/24], Perak [19/40] and Kelantan [11/30].Perak [19/40] and Kelantan [11/30].

It involved in a tie [14/28] in Selangor.It involved in a tie [14/28] in Selangor. Why did the riot happen in Selangor, not Why did the riot happen in Selangor, not

in Penang or Perak?in Penang or Perak?1.1. In Selangor, it involved transfer of power In Selangor, it involved transfer of power

from Malays to Chinese [Perak’s ethnic from Malays to Chinese [Perak’s ethnic tension was rather low],tension was rather low],

2.2. In Selangor, the Malays felt that the Chinese In Selangor, the Malays felt that the Chinese had betrayed the consociational bargain,had betrayed the consociational bargain,

3.3. Political processions.Political processions.

Ethnic PolarizationEthnic Polarization

The government did help the Malays, The government did help the Malays, through FLDA (1956), RIDA (1950—through FLDA (1956), RIDA (1950—later MARA, 1965), FAMA (1952), and later MARA, 1965), FAMA (1952), and Bank Bumiputera (1965). Bank Bumiputera (1965).

Their capacities, however, were low. Their capacities, however, were low. E.g., Total commercial loan in 1969 E.g., Total commercial loan in 1969 was RM 1.8 b. From 1951-70, total was RM 1.8 b. From 1951-70, total loan from RIDA (MARA) was only RM loan from RIDA (MARA) was only RM 70 m.70 m.

Ethnic PolarizationEthnic Polarization

Imbalance was apparent in two Imbalance was apparent in two areas:areas:

1.1. Economy—Malay ownership was far Economy—Malay ownership was far behind the Chinese, and overseas, behind the Chinese, and overseas, interests,interests,

2.2. Education—low number in professional Education—low number in professional areas.areas.

Ethnic IssuesEthnic Issues

Major issues were:Major issues were:1.1. The struggle over political power and the The struggle over political power and the

material benefits that flow from it,material benefits that flow from it,2.2. The question of identity.The question of identity.Economic disparitiesEconomic disparities can be tackled by can be tackled by

measures to reduce the disparity. measures to reduce the disparity. Political rivalriesPolitical rivalries can be tempered by can be tempered by power-sharing. power-sharing. Cultural perceptionsCultural perceptions are are less susceptible to bargaining and less susceptible to bargaining and compromise.compromise.

Ethnic PerceptionsEthnic Perceptions

Generally, the Malays perceived Generally, the Malays perceived Malaya as their homeland, non-Malaya as their homeland, non-Malays as immigrants. Non-Malays Malays as immigrants. Non-Malays also perceived Malaya as their also perceived Malaya as their homeland, and they had little homeland, and they had little attachment to the countries their attachment to the countries their forefathers came from. [this explains forefathers came from. [this explains why the concept of Malaysian why the concept of Malaysian Malaysia appealed to some segments Malaysia appealed to some segments of the non-Malay society.of the non-Malay society.

Language and EducationLanguage and Education

Access to education depends on language. Access to education depends on language. English deprived many Malays to good English deprived many Malays to good education.education.

The switch to Malay as medium of The switch to Malay as medium of instruction (1970) saw many Chinese instruction (1970) saw many Chinese opted for Chinese schools (although they opted for Chinese schools (although they were prepared to enter English-medium were prepared to enter English-medium schools before).schools before).

Between 1971-78, percentage of Chinese Between 1971-78, percentage of Chinese who went to Chinese schools rose from who went to Chinese schools rose from 78% to 88%.78% to 88%.

Sensitive Educational IssuesSensitive Educational Issues

1.1. 1973, huge number of failures in 1973, huge number of failures in Malay language among Chinese in Malay language among Chinese in the MCE examination,the MCE examination,

2.2. 1982, introduction of 3Rs—1982, introduction of 3Rs—materials were in Malay,materials were in Malay,

3.3. 1987, appointment of non-Mandarin 1987, appointment of non-Mandarin teachers as administrators in teachers as administrators in Chinese schools.Chinese schools.

Sensitive Educational IssuesSensitive Educational Issues

1960s, Chinese (DJZ, DZ) demanded a 1960s, Chinese (DJZ, DZ) demanded a Chinese-medium university—Chinese-medium university—Universiti Universiti Merdeka.Merdeka.

MCA was in an awkward position.MCA was in an awkward position. Then, government allowed the Then, government allowed the

establishment of TAR College.establishment of TAR College. Quota? From 1978, quota for non-Malays Quota? From 1978, quota for non-Malays

were increased, to be 55-45 by 1988.were increased, to be 55-45 by 1988.

Cultural IssuesCultural Issues

1.1. National culture must be based on National culture must be based on indigenous regional culture,indigenous regional culture,

2.2. Suitable elements from others may be Suitable elements from others may be included,included,

3.3. Islam as important component in the Islam as important component in the molding of the national culture.molding of the national culture.

Chinese reactions: policies tainted with Chinese reactions: policies tainted with communalism; policies tended towards communalism; policies tended towards forced assimilation. The Chinese called forced assimilation. The Chinese called for cultural pluralism.for cultural pluralism.

Religious IssuesReligious Issues

ConversionConversion Halal-haramHalal-haram IslamizationIslamization

Population Growth and Population Growth and ImmigrationImmigration

Indonesians got easier chance to be Indonesians got easier chance to be citizens than the Vietnamese.citizens than the Vietnamese.

Population growth favored the Population growth favored the Malays.Malays.

This may help reduce Malay This may help reduce Malay insecurity.insecurity.