51-behavior text.ppt

8/21/2019 51-behavior text.ppt

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Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

PowerPoint Lectures forBio logy, Seventh Edit ion

Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero

Chapter 51

Behavioral Ecology


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Overview: Studying Behavior

Humans have probably studied animalbehavior

For as long as we have lived on Earth

As hunters

Knowledge of animal behavior was essential to

human survival


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Cranes are birds that have captivated peoples

interest Possibly because they are large and their

behavior is easily observed

Figure 51.1


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The modern scientific discipline of behavioral

ecology Extends observations of animal behavior by

studying how such behavior is controlled and

how it develops, evolves, and contributes to

survival and reproductive success


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Concept 51.1: Behavioral ecologists distinguish

between proximate and ultimate causes ofbehavior

The scientific questions that can be asked

about behavior can be divided into two classes

Those that focus on the immediate stimulus

and mechanism for the behavior

Those that explore how the behavior

contributes to survival and reproduction


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What Is Behavior?

Behavior

Is what an animal does and how it does it

Includes muscular and nonmuscular activity

Figure 51.2

Dorsal fin

Anal fin


7/105Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Learning

Is also considered a behavioral process



Proximate and Ultimate Questions

Proximate, or how, questions about behavior

Focus on the environmental stimuli that triggera behavior

Focus on the genetic, physiological, and

anatomical mechanisms underlying abehavioral act



Ultimate, or why, questions about behavior

Address the evolutionary significance of abehavior



Ethology

Ethology is the scientific study of animal

behavior Particularly in natural environments



Mid 20th-century ethologists

Developed a conceptual framework defined bya set of questions

These questions

Highlight the complementary nature of

proximate and ultimate perspectives



F ixed Action Patterns

A fixed action pattern (FAP)

Is a sequence of unlearned, innate behaviorsthat is unchangeable

Once initiated, is usually carried to completion



A FAP is triggered by an external sensory

stimulus Known as a sign stimulus


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In male stickleback fish, the stimulus for attack

behavior Is the red underside of an intruder

Figure 51.3a

(a)A male three-spined stickleback fish shows its red underside.


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When presented with unrealistic models

As long as some red is present, the attackbehavior occurs

Figure 51.3b

(b)The realistic model at the top, without a red underside, produces no

aggressive response in a male three-spined stickleback fish. The

other models, with red undersides, produce strong responses.


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Proximate and ultimate causes for the FAP

attack behavior in male stickleback fish

Figure 51.4ULTIMATE CAUSE: By chasing away other male sticklebacks, a male decreases

the chance that eggs laid in his nesting territory will be fertilized by another male.

BEHAVIOR: A male stickleback fish attacks other male sticklebacks that invade its nesting

territory.

PROXIMATE CAUSE: The red belly of the intruding male acts as a sign stimulus

that releases aggression in a male stickleback.


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Imprinting

Imprinting is a type of behavior

That includes both learning and innatecomponents and is generally irreversible


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Imprinting is distinguished from other types of

learning by a sensitive period A limited phase in an animals development

that is the only time when certain behaviors

can be learned


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An example of imprinting is young geese

Following their mother


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Konrad Lorenz showed that

When baby geese spent the first few hours oftheir life with him, they imprinted on him as

their parent


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There are proximate and ultimate causes for

this type of behavior

Figure 51.5

BEHAVIOR: Young geese follow and imprint on their mother.

PROXIMATE CAUSE:During an early, critical developmental stage, the young

geese observe their mother moving away from them and calling.

ULTIMATE CAUSE:On average, geese that follow and imprint on their mother

receive more care and learn necessary skills, and thus have a greater chance of

surviving than those that do not follow their mother.


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Conservation biologists have taken advantage

of imprinting

In programs to save the whooping crane from

extinction

Figure 51.6


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Concept 51.2: Many behaviors have a strong

genetic component

Biologists study the ways both genes and the

environment

Influence the development of behavioralphenotypes

Behavior that is developmentally fixed

Is called innate behavior and is under strong

genetic influence


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Directed Movements

Many animal movements

Are under substantial genetic influence

These types of movements

Are called directed movements


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Kinesis

A kinesis

Is a simple change in activity or turning rate inresponse to a stimulus


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Sow bugs

Become more active in dry areas and lessactive in humid areas

Figure 51.7a

Dry open

area

Moist site

under leaf

(a) Kinesis increases the chance that a sow bug will encounter and

stay in a moist environment.

T i


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Taxis

A taxis

Is a more or less automatic, orientedmovement toward or away from a stimulus


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Many stream fish exhibit positive rheotaxis

Where they automatically swim in an upstreamdirection

Figure 51.7b

Direction

of river

current

(b) Positive rheotaxis keeps trout facing into the current, the direction

from which most food comes.

Mi ti


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Migration

Many features of migratory behavior in birds

Have been found to be geneticallyprogrammed

Figure 51.8

A i l Si l d C i ti


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Animal Signals and Communication

In behavioral ecology

A signal is a behavior that causes a change inanother animals behavior

Communication

Is the reception of and response to signals


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Animals communicate using

Visual, auditory, chemical, tactile, andelectrical signals

The type of signal used to transmit information

Is closely related to an animals lifestyle and

environment

Ch i l C i ti


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Chemical Communication

Many animals that communicate through odors

Emit chemical substances called pheromones


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When a minnow or catfish is injured

An alarm substance in the fishs skin dispersesin the water, inducing a fright response among

fish in the area

Figure 51.9a, b

(a) Minnows are widely dispersed in an aquarium

before an alarm substance is introduced.(b) Within seconds of the alarm substance being

introduced, minnows aggregate near the

bottom of the aquarium and reduce their movement.

Auditory Communication


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Auditory Communication

Experiments with various insects

Have shown that courtship songs are undergenetic control

Charles Henry, Luca Martnez, and ent Holsinger crossed males and females of Chrysoperla plorabunda and Chrysoperla johnsoni, two

morphologically identical species of lacewings that sing different courtship songs.

EXPERIMENT

SONOGRAMS

Chrysoperla plorabundaparent

Vibration

volleysStandard

repeating

unit

Chrysoperla johnsoniparent

Volley period

crossed

with

Standard repeating unit

The researchers recorded and compared the songs of the male and female parents with

those of the hybrid offspring that had been raised in isolation from other lacewings.

Volley

period


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The F1hybrid offspring sing a song in which the length of the standard repeating unit is similar to that sung by the Chrysoperla plorabunda parent, but the

volley period, that is, the interval between vibration volleys, is more similar to that of the Chrysoperla johnsoniparent.

RESULTS

The results of this experiment indicate that the songs sung by Chrysoperla plorabunda and Chrysoperla

johnsoni are under genetic control.CONCLUSION

Standard repeating unit

Volley

period

F1hybrids, typical phenotype

Genetic Influences on Mating and Parental Behavior


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Genetic Influences on Mating and Parental Behavior

A variety of mammalian behaviors

Are under relatively strong genetic control


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Research has revealed the genetic and neural basis

For the mating and parental behavior of male prairievoles

Figure 51.11


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Concept 51.3: Environment, interacting with an

animals genetic makeup, influences the

development of behaviors

Research has revealed

That environmental conditions modify many ofthe same behaviors

Dietary Influence on Mate Choice Behavior


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Dietary Influence on Mate Choice Behavior

One example of environmental influence on

behavior

Is the role of diet in mate selection by

Drosophila mojavensis


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Laboratory experiments have demonstrated

That the type of food eaten during larval developmentinfluences later mate choice in females

Figure 51.12

William Etges raised a D. mojavensispopulation from Baja California

and a D. mojavensis population from Sonora on three different culture media: artificial

medium, agria cactus (the Baja host plant), and organ pipe cactus (the Sonoran host

plant). From each culture medium, Etges collected 15 male and female Baja D. mojavensis

pairs and 15 Sonoran pairs and observed the numbers of matings between males and

females from the two populations.

EXPERIMENT

When D. mojavensis had been raised on artificial medium, females from the

Sonoran population showed a strong preference for Sonoran males (a). When D. mojavensis had been raised on cactus medium, the Sonoran females mated with Baja and Sonoran

males in approximately equal frequency (b).

RESULTS

The difference in mate selection shown by females that developed on

different diets indicates that mate choice by females of Sonoran populations of D. mojavensis

is strongly influenced by the dietary environment in which larvae develop.

CONCLUSION

100

75

50

25

0

Artificial Organ pipe cactus Agria cactus

Culture medium

With Baja males

With Sonoran

males

(b)

Proportionofmatings

bySonoranfemales

(a)


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Therese Markow and Eric Toolson proposed

That the physiological basis for the observedmate preferences was differences in

hydrocarbons in the exoskeletons of the flies

Figure 51.13

Social Environment and Aggressive Behavior


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Social Environment and Aggressive Behavior

Cross-fostering studies in California mice and

white-footed mice

Have uncovered an influence of social

environment on the aggressive and parental

behaviors of these mice


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Influence of cross-fostering on male mice

Table 51.1

Learning


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Learning

Learning is the modification of behavior

Based on specific experiences

Learned behaviors

Range from very simple to very complex

Habituation


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Habituation

Habituation

Is a loss of responsiveness to stimuli thatconvey little or no information

Spatial Learning


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Spatial Learning

Spatial learning is the modification of behavior

Based on experience with the spatial structureof the environment


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In a classic experiment, Niko Tinbergen

Showed how diggerwasps use landmarks

to find the entrances

to their nests

After the mother visited the nest and flew away, Tinbergen

moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest.

Figure 51.14CONCLUSION

A female digger wasp excavates and cares for four

or five separate underground nests, flying to each nest daily with food

for the single larva in the nest. To test his hypothesis that the wasp

uses visual landmarks to locate the nests, Niko Tinbergen marked onenest with a ring of pinecones.

EXPERIMENT

Nest

When the wasp returned, she flew to the center of

the pinecone circle instead of to the nearby nest. Repeating the

experiment with many wasps, Tinbergen obtained the same results.

RESULTS

The experiment supported the hypothesis

that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of their nests.

NestNo Nest

Cognitive Maps


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Cognitive Maps

A cognitive map

Is an internal representation of the spatialrelationships between objects in an animals

surroundings

Associative Learning


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Associative Learning

In associative learning

Animals associate one feature of theirenvironment with another


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Classical conditioning is a type of associative

learning

In which an arbitrary stimulus is associated

with a reward or punishment

Figure 51.15

Before stimulus

Influx of water alone

Influx of alarm substances

Influx of pike odor

Day 1 Day 3

Control

group

Control

group

Experimental

groupExperimental

group

Relativeactivitylevel


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Operant conditioning is another type of

associative learning

In which an animal learns to associate one of

its behaviors with a reward or punishment

Figure 51.16

Cognition and Problem Solving


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Cognition and Problem Solving

Cognition is the ability of an animals nervous

system

To perceive, store, process, and use

information gathered by sensory receptors

7


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7

Problem solving can be learned

By observing the behavior of other animals

Figure 51.17

Genetic and Environmental I nteraction in Learning


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Genetic and Environmental I nteraction in Learning

Genetics and environment can interact

To influence the learning process


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Concept 51.4: Behavioral traits can evolve by

natural selection

Because of the influence of genes on behavior

Natural selection can result in the evolution of

behavioral traits in populations

Behavioral Variation in Natural Populations


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p

When behavioral variation within a species

Corresponds to variation in the environment, itmay be evidence of past evolution

Variation in Prey Selection


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y

Differences in prey selection in populations of

garter snakes

Are due to prey availability and are evidence of

behavioral evolution

Figure 51.18a, b

(a) A garter snake (Thamnophis

elegans)

(b) A banana slug (Ario l imus

cal i forn icus); not to scale

Variation in Aggressive Behavior


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gg

Funnel spiders living in different habitats

Exhibit differing degrees of aggressiveness indefense and foraging behavior

Figure 51.19

50

40

30

20

10

0

Timetoattack(seconds)

Field Lab-raised

generation 1

Lab-raised

generation 2

Desert

grassland

population

Riparian

population

60

Population

Experimental Evidence for Behavioral Evolution


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p

Laboratory and field experiments

Can demonstrate the evolution of behavior

Laboratory Studies of DrosophilaForaging Behavior


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p

Studies of Drosophilapopulations raised in high-

and low-density conditions

Show a clear divergence in behavior linked to

specific genes

Figure 51.20

14

12

10

8

6

2

0

A

veragepathlength(cm)

4

L1 L2 L3 H1 H2 H3 H4 H5

D. Melanogasterlineages

Low population

density

High population

density

Migratory Patterns in Blackcaps


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g y p

Field and laboratory studies of Blackcap birds

Have documented a change in their migratorybehavior


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Birds placed in funnel cages

Left marks indicating the direction they weretrying to migrate

Figure 51.21a

(a) Blackcaps placed in a funnel cage left marks indicating the

direction in which they were trying to migrate.


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Migratory orientation of wintering adult birds

captured in Britain

Was very similar to that of laboratory-raised birds

Figure 51.21b

(b) Wintering blackcaps captured in Britain and their laboratory-raised

offspring had a migratory orientation toward the west, while

young birds from Germany were oriented toward the southwest.

N

E

S

W

Adults from

Britain and

F1 offspring

of British

adults

N

E

S

WYoung

from SW

Germany

Mediterranean

Sea

BRITAIN


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Concept 51.5: Natural selection favors

behaviors that increase survival and

reproductive success

The genetic components of behavior

Evolve through natural selection

Behavior can affect fitness

Through its influence on foraging and matechoice

Foraging Behavior


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Optimal foraging theory

Views foraging behavior as a compromisebetween the benefits of nutrition and the costs

of obtaining food

Energy Costs and Benefits


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Reto Zach

Conducted a cost-benefit analysis of feedingbehavior in crows

The crows eat molluscs called whelks

But must drop them from the air to crack the

shells


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Zach determined that the optimal flight height

in foraging behavior

Correlated with a fewer number of drops,

indicating a trade-off between energy gained

(food) and energy expended

Figure 51.22

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Averagenum

berofdrops

2 3 5 7 15

Average number of drops

Drop height

preferred

by crows

125

100

25

75

50

Total flight height

Totalflightheight(numb

erofdrops

d

ropheight)

Height of drop (m)


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In bluegill sunfish

Prey selection behavior is related to prey density

Figure 51.23

Low prey density High prey density

33%33%

33%

32.5%32.5%

35%

2%40%

57%

100%

50%35%

14%

33%

33%33%

Small prey

Medium prey

Large prey

Small prey

Medium preyLarge prey

Small prey

Medium prey

Large prey

Percentage available

Predicted percentage in diet

Observed percentage in diet

Large prey at

far distance

Small prey at

middle distanceSmall prey at

close distance

Risk of Predation


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Research on mule deer populations

Has shown that predation risk affects wherethe deer choose to feed

Figure 51.24

70

60

40

30

20

10

0

Pre

dationoccurrence(%)

50

Relativedeeruse

Relative deer use Predation

risk

Open Forest edge

Habitat

Forest interior

0

5

10

15

20

Mating Behavior and Mate Choice


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Mating behavior

Is the product of a form of natural selection callsexual selection

Mating Systems and Mate Choice


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The mating relationship between males and

females

Varies a great deal from species to species


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In many species, mating is promiscuous

With no strong pair-bonds or lastingrelationships


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In monogamous relationships

One male mates with one female

Figure 51.25a

(a) Since monogamous species, such as these trumpeter swans, are

often monomorphic, males and females are difficult to distinguish

using external characteristics only.


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In a system called polygyny

One male mates with many females

The males are often more showy and larger

than the females

Figure 51.25bAmong polygynous species, such as elk, the male (left) is

often highly ornamented.

(b)


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In polyandrous systems

One female mates with many males

The females are often more showy than the males

Figure 51.25c

(c) In polyandrous species, such as these Wilsons phalaropes, females

(top) are generally more ornamented than males.


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The needs of the young

Are an important factor constraining theevolution of mating systems

The certainty of paternity

Influences parental care and mating behavior


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In species that produce large numbers of

offspring

Parental care is at least as likely to be carried

out by males as females

Figure 51.26

Eggs

Sexual Selection and Mate Choice


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In intersexual selection

Members of one sex choose mates on thebasis of particular characteristics

Intrasexual selection

Involves competition among members of one

sex for mates


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Mate Choice by Females

Male zebra finches

Are more ornate than females, a trait that may

affect mate choice by the females

Figure 51.27


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Imprinting of female chicks on males with more

ornamentation

Affects mate

selection as

adults

Figure 51.28

Experimental Groups Control Group

Parents notornamented

Both parentsornamented

Malesornamented

Femalesornamented

Results

Females reared byornamented parents

or ornamented fathers

preferred ornamented

males as mates.

Females reared by

ornamented mothers or

nonornamented parentsshowed no preference

for either ornamented or

nonornamented males.

Males reared by all experimental groups showed no

preference for either ornamented or nonornamented

female mates.


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The size of eyestalks in stalk-eyed flies

Affects which males the females choose tomate with

Figure 51.29


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Male Competition for Mates

Male competition for mates

Is a source of intrasexual selection that can

reduce variation among males


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Such competition may involve agonistic

behavior

An often ritualized contest that determines

which competitor gains access to a resource

Figure 51.30


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Morphology affects the mating behavior

In isopods of the same species that aregenetically distinct

Figure 51.31

Large Paracerceis males

defend harems of females

within intertidal sponges.

Tiny males are

able to invade

and live within

large harems.

males mimic female morphology and

behavior and do not elicit a defensive

reponse in males and so are able to

gain access to guarded harems.

Applying Game Theory


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Game theory evaluates alternative behavioral

strategies in situations

Where the outcome depends on each

individuals strategy and the strategy of other

individuals


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Mating success of male side-blotched lizards

Was found to be influenced by malepolymorphism and the abundance of different

males in a given area

Figure 51.32


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Concept 51.6: The concept of inclusive fitness

can account for most altruistic social behavior

Many social behaviors are selfish

Natural selection favors behavior

That maximizes an individuals survival and

reproduction

Altruism


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On occasion, some animals

Behave in ways that reduce their individualfitness but increase the fitness of others

This kind of behavior

Is called altruism, or selflessness


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In naked mole rat populations

Nonreproductive individuals may sacrifice theirlives protecting the reproductive individuals

from predators

Figure 51.33

Inclusive Fitness


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Altruistic behavior can be explained by

inclusive fitness

The total effect an individual has on

proliferating its genes by producing its own

offspring and by providing aid that enables

close relatives to produce offspring

Hamiltons Rule and Kin Selection


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Hamilton proposed a quantitative measure

For predicting when natural selection wouldfavor altruistic acts among related individuals


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The three key variables in an altruistic act are

The benefit to the recipient

The cost to the altruist

The coefficient of relatedness


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The coefficient of relatedness

Is the probabilitythat two relatives

may share the

same genes

Figure 51.34

Parent A Parent B

OR

Sibling 1 Sibling 2

1/2(0.5)

probability

1/2(0.5)

probability


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Natural selection favors altruism when the

benefit to the recipient

Multiplied by the coefficient of relatedness

exceeds the cost to the altruist

This inequality

Is called Hamiltons rule


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Kin selection is the natural selection

That favors this kind of altruistic behavior byenhancing reproductive success of relatives


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An example of kin selection and altruism

Is the warning behavior observed in Beldingsground squirrels

Male

Female

Age (months)

Meandistance

m

ovedfrom

n

atalburrow

(m)

300

200

100

00 2 3 4 12 13 14 15 25 26

Figure 51.35

Reciprocal Altruism


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Altruistic behavior toward unrelated individuals

Can be adaptive if the aided individual returnsthe favor in the future

This type of altruism

Is called reciprocal altruism

Social Learning

S


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Social learning

Forms the roots of culture

Culture can be defined as a system of

information transfer through observation or

teaching

That influences the behavior of individuals in a

population

Mate Choice Copying

M t h i i


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Mate choice copying

Is a behavior in which individuals in apopulation copy the mate choice of others

Thi t f b h i


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This type of behavior

Has been extensively studied in the guppyPoecilia reticulata

Figure 51.36

Male guppies

with varying

degrees of

coloration

Control Sample

Female guppies prefer

males with more orange

coloration.

Experimental Sample

Female model

engaged in

courtship with

less orange

male

Female guppies prefer less

orange males that are associated

with another female.

Social Learning of Alarm Calls

V t k


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Vervet monkeys

Produce a complex set of alarm calls

I f t k i di i i ti l


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Infant monkeys give undiscriminating alarm

calls at first

But learn to fine-tune them by the time they are

adults

Figure 51.37

N th i


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No other species

Comes close to matching the social learning andcultural transmission that occurs among humans

Figure 51.38

Evolution and Human Culture

H lt


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Human culture

Is related to evolutionary theory in the distinctdiscipline of sociobiology

H b h i lik th t f th i


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Human behavior, like that of other species

Is the result of interactions between genes andenvironment

However, our social and cultural institutions

May provide the only feature in which there is

no continuum between humans and other

animals

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