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jonathan herzog

Americas Spiritual-Industrial Complex

and the Policy of Revival in the Early Cold

War

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338 | Americas Spiritual-Industrial Complex

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jonathan herzog | 339

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notes

1. T w wk I d Dvd Rm, b wReuel Denney and Nathan Glazer, Te Lonely Crowd: A Study o the Changing American

Character(New Haven, 1950), and William H. Whyte, Te Organization Man (Garden

City, N.Y., 1957).

2. F wk xm w g vv , , d -

m g mvm m bm , Richard L. Bushman, From Puritan

to Yankee: Character and the Social Order in Connecticut, 16901765 (Cambridge, Mass.,

1967); Nathan O. Hatch, Te Democratization o American Christianity (New Haven,

1989); and Christine Leigh Heyrman, Southern Cross: Te Beginnings o the Bible Belt

(New York, 1997). Bushman told not so much a story of the Great Awakening as a tale

of how a revival could challenge and eventually attenuate the law and authority of the

colonys governing institutions. For his part, Hatch studied the Second Great Awakening

and saw reflected a host of larger societal issues, such as democratization, populism, class,

and, as did Bushman, a crisis of authority. Likewise, in her exploration of evangelical

culture during the Second Great Awakening, Christine Leigh Heyrman used religion to

explore questions of class, order, gender, and social compromise. For the single best study

of Americas religious economy that traces the rise and fall of denominations across time,

see Roger Finke and Rodney Stark, Te Churching o America, 17762005: Winners and

Losers in Our Religious Economy(New Brunswick, 2005).

3. I g dg m bw g d ,Journal o Policy Historydvd 2001. F g d

w , Stanley W. Carlson-Thies, Charitable Choice: Bringing Religion Back

in American Welfare,Journal o Policy History13, no. 1 (2001): 10932; John Aloysius

Coleman, American Catholicism, Catholic Charities U.S.A., and Welfare Reform,

Journal o Policy History 13, no. 1 (2001): 73108; and Kimberly J. Morgan, Working

Mothers and the Welare State: Religion and Politics in Work-Family Policies in Western

Europe and the United States (Stanford, 2006). For work on policy and faith-based or-

ganizations, see Maria Roberts-DeGennaro, Executive Orders for the Faith-Based and

Community Initiatives, Journal o Policy Practice 5, no. 4 (2006): 5568; and Michael

R. Sosin and Steven Rathgeb, New Responsibilities of Faith-Related Agencies, PolicyStudies Journal 34, no. 4 (2006): 53362. For religion and foreign policy, see William

Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 19451960: Te Soul o Containment

(New York, 2008); Jody C. Baumgartner, Peter L. Francia, and Jonathan S. Morris,

A Clash of Civilizations? The Influence of Religion on Public Opinion of U.S. Foreign

Policy in the Middle East, Political Research Quarterly61, no. 2 (2008): 17179; and Paul

Froese and Carson F. Mencken, A U.S. Holy War? The Effects of Religion on Iraq War

Policy Attitudes, Social Science Quarterly90, no. 1 (2009): 10316. For the influence of

religious ideas or institutions on the making of public policy, see D. G. Hart, Mainstream

Protestantism, Conservative Religion, and Civil Society,Journal o Policy History13, no. 1

(2001): 1939; A. James Reichley, Faith in Politics, Journal o Policy History 1, no. 1

(2001): 15780; Joe Micon, Limestone Prophets: Gauging the Effectiveness of Religious

7/28/2019 52702908

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Influence of Parties, Institutions, Economic Interests, and Religion on Embryo Research,

Comparative Political Studies41, no. 12 (2008): 163156.

4. Hugh Heclo, Religion and Public Policy: An Introduction, Journal o PolicyHistory1, no. 1 (2001): 46.

5. Harold Denny, Slowly Religion Is Starving in Russia, New York imes, 12

May 1935, SM7. For studies of American attitudes toward Bolshevik Russia, including

its persecution of religion, see Peter G. Filene, Americans and the Soviet Experiment,

19171933 (Cambridge, Mass., 1967); Peter G. Filene, American Views o Soviet Russia,

19171965 (Homewood, Ill., 1968); Richard J. Cooke, Religion in Russia Under the Soviets

(New York, 1924); and George Mecklenburg, Russia Challenges Religion (New York, 1934).

Isaac F. Marcosson, After LenineWhat? The Future of Russia, Saturday Evening Post,

14 February 1925, 31, 129, 133.

6. F xm v v, Whittaker Chambers,Witness (New York, 1952); Elizabeth Bentley, Out o Bondage (New York, 1951); Richard

Crossman, ed., Te God Tat Failed(New York, 1949); Louis F. Budenz, Tis Is My Story

(New York, 1947); Reinhold Niebuhr, The Religion of Communism,Atlantic Monthly,

April 1931, 46270; Abba Gordin, Communism Unmasked(New York, 1940), 31, 5051,

5557; Eugene Kevane, The Depths of Bolshevism, Commonweal, 3 September 1937,

43335. For examinations of the American Catholic response to early Cold War events in

Europe, see Peter C. Kent, Te Lonely Cold War o Pope Pius XII(Montreal, 2002); Thomas

A. Kselman and Steven Avella, Marian Piety and the Cold War in the United States,

Catholic Historical Review72, no. 3 (1986): 40324; Thomas B. Morgan, Faith Is a Weapon

(New York, 1952); and David L. OConnor, Deenders o the Faith: American Catholic LayOrganizations and Anticommunism, 19171975 (Ph.D. diss., State University of New York

at Stony Brook, 2000).

7. John Foster Dulles, Thoughts on Soviet Policy and What to Do About It, Lie, 10

June 1946, 120; The Challenge, ime, 17 March 1947, 7179; C. T. Lanham, The Moral

Core of Military Strength, 16 February 1949, Box 33, Folder 2-c, Records of the Presidents

Committee on Religion and Welfare in the Armed Forces (Truman Presidential Library,

Independence, Mo.), hereafter cited as PCRW Papers; Science Without Conscience

Menaces Man, Bradley Says, Washington Post, 11 November 1948, 1.

8. H S. m, Sm b Pd, 16 Smb 1948, Bx 1, Fd

2-b; P R, 27 Ob 1948, PCRW P, Bx 1, Fd 2-. F m d W Cmm d m g, Anne C. Loveland, Character

Education in the U.S. Army, 19471977,Journal o Military History64 (July 2000): 795

818; and Lori Lyn Bogle, Te Pentagons Battle or the American Mind (College Station,

Tex., 2004).

9. H S. m, Rg Am L, 30 Ob 1949, Rg 76,

O F (m Pd Lb, Idd, M.); P R, 16 J1953, Bx 8, Ig Cmm 1953 Rd (Dwg D. Ew Pd

Lb, Ab, K.); Gods Float Will Lead the Inaugural Parade, New York imes,

19 January 1953. For an accounting of these tacit policies, see David S. Foglesong, Te

American Mission and the Evil Empire (New York, 2007); T. Jeremy Gunn, Spiritual

Weapons: Te Cold War and the Forging o an American National Religion (Westport,

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10. Bd Am Hg Fd, b, 27 M 1947,

Bx 22, Fd 10, H R. L P (Lb Cg, Wg, D.C.), -

d L P; Am Hg Pgm, b, .d., Bx 18, m C.Ck P (m Pd Lb, Idd, M.), d Ck

P; Am Hg Fd, Dm Fdm , b,

Bx 22, Fd 10, L P; Rb . E A Gv, 27 M 1947, Bx 22, Fd

10, L P. T m mv xm Fdm d

Wendy Lynn Wall, Inventing the American Way: Te Politics o Consensus rom the New

Deal to the Civil Rights Movement(New York, 2008), 20140. Wall argues that the project was

supported by businessmen for the purpose of reselling Americans in the postwar period

on the promise of free enterprise. See also Stuart J. Little, The Freedom Train: Citizenship

and Postwar Culture, 19461949,American Studies34, no. 1 (1993): 3567.

11. m C. Ck, Add N Hg Fd, 22 M 1947, Bx 18,Ck P; m C. Ck, Add Sd N C Cz,10 M 1947, Bx 18, Ck P; m C. Ck, Add 215 Av

Gg Wg B, 22 Fb 1947, Bx 18, Ck P; m C. Ck,

Add B N C C Y Wk, 21 M 1947, Bx 18,

Ck P.

12. m C. Ck, Add B I Sd S Cv, 24

J 1947, Bx 18, Ck P.13. Freedom Train Dedicated Amid Attack on Reds, Chicago Daily ribune, 18

September 1947, 7; Am Hg Fd, Am Hg Pgm.

14. Am Hg Fd, Hgg N RddPgm Am Hg Fd, b, 1947, Bx 22, Fd 10, L

P.

15. Ibd.; Wall, Inventing the American Way,222.16. Ad Council Turns to Housing Issue, New York imes, 3 January 1946, 30.

17. Advg C, Advg P, 1949, Bx 52, Fd 11, L P.

18. Advertising Group Sets Peace Drives, New York imes, 6 June 1946, 42.

Advertising Council, The Advertising Council: What It Is and What It Does, brochure,

1950, Box 52, Folder 11, Luce Papers. Go-to-Church Ads Win Wide Support, New York

imes, 5 December 1949, F5.

19. m, Rg Am L. F dd d AdvgC v Cd W mg, dg RIAL, Daniel L. Lykins, From otal

War to otal Diplomacy: Te Advertising Council and the Construction o the Cold War

Consensus (Westport, Conn., 2003). Religions Revival Sought for Nation, New York

imes, 29 October 1950, 45; Wilson Is Praised for Religious Gain, New York imes, 19

January 1951, 5.20. Church Advertising Raises Attendance, New York imes, 8 February 1952, 15;

Cmm Rg Am L, Annual Report, 1956, Jm M. Lmb P,

Bx 38, Fd R (Ew Lb).

21. A Spiritual Airlift, New York imes, 22 October 1950, 23; N Cd

Fdm C, R, 24 J 1950, Bx 33, Fd 11, L P.

22. Rd F E w md b g Am Hg

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Sig Mickelson, Americas Other Voice: Te Story o Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty

(New York, 1983). Freedom Crusade Will Begin September 4, New York imes, 28 July

1950, 23; N Cd Fdm C, Join the Crusade or Freedom, 1950,Bx 33, Fd 11, L P.

23. Freedom Crusade Seeks Volunteers, New York imes, 31 August 1950, 35;

Crusade For Freedom Petitions Draw Area Signatures, Washington Post, 3 October 1950,

B1; Scrolls at Fire Houses, New York imes, 13 October 1950, 41; Editorial, Crusade

for Freedom, New York imes, 28 July 1950, 20; Editorial, Crusade for Freedom,

Washington Post, 13 August 1950, B4; Editorial, Enlist in the Crusade for Freedom,

Los Angeles imes, 23 August 1950, A4. Text of Eisenhower Call for Crusade, New York

imes, 5 September 1950, 14.

24. Cd Fdm, Cd Fdm Sm P, , 1950,

Bx 33, Fd 11, L P; Cd Fdm F S, , 1950, Bx 33,Fd 11, L P; Sermons to Stress Religious Liberty, New York imes, 8 October

1950, 50; Freedom Sunday Is Set, New York imes, 6 October 1950, 22.

25. So. Cal Set for July Fourth Dedication to Liberty, Los Angeles Herald-Express, 2

July 1951, B1; Committee to Proclaim Liberty, Proclaim Liberty, brochure, 1953, Box 737,

Folder 144-F (1), Dwight D. Eisenhower Papers, Official File (Eisenhower Library); James C.

Ingebretsen, Hailing Freedom Under God,Los Angeles imes, 18 June 1951, A4; Committee

to Proclaim Liberty Formed to Celebrate July 4, Los Angeles imes, 8 June 1951, A1.26. T Cmm Pm Lb dd v dm m

N Dm, Hvd, d S Md. S Cmm Pm Lb,

Pm Lb. E W, Pm, 29 J 1953, Bx 737, Fd 144-F (1),Ew P O F.

27. Cmm Pm Lb, Pm Lb; Igb, Hg

Fdm Ud Gd.28. S Len Travers, Celebrating the Fourth: Independence Day and the Rites o

Nationalism in the Early Republic (Amherst, Mass., 1997), 10754. One could make the

case that the Fourth of July was an example of civil religion, but still this conception car-

ried a different meaning than that proposed by CPL. See Diana Karter Appelbaum, Te

Glorious Fourth: An American Holiday, An American History(New York, 1989), 20.

29. Mayor Proclaims Week of Freedom Under God, Los Angeles imes, 17 June

1955, A8.30. Fd Rg A S d Cv Dd, b,

1954, Bx 37, Fd 1, L P; Fd Rg A, , 1954, Bx 738,

Fd 144-G-1, Ew P O F.

31. Moral Revival Pushed, New York imes, 10 June 1954, 33; President Urges

Self-Discipline, New York imes, 10 November 1954, 24; Edwd L. E Ew,

3 Ob 1954, Bx 738, Fd 144-G-1, Ew P O F; Hgg F N C S Fd Am Dm, ,

1954, Bx 738, Fd 144-G-1, Ew P O F; Fd Rg

A, Tg Y M Rmmb m Sd N C S

Fd, b, 1955, Bx 37, Fd 1, L P.

32. Kenneth Dole, News of the Churches, Washington Post and imes Herald, 12

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Cdg Bd C F (Ew Lb); Fd Rg A,

P OCB, , 1954, Bx 2, Fd 000.3, O Cdg Bd

C F.33. Dwg D. Ew, Rmk F N C S

Fd Am Dm, 9 Nvmb 1954, Public Papers o the Presidents

o the United States: Eisenhower, 1954 (Washington, D.C., 1961), 327; George Dugan,

Moslem Leader Asks Moral Gain, New York imes, 25 October 1955, 34; L S.

K C W. Lw, 11 J 1955, Bx 37, Fd 1, L P.34. Churchmen See Spiritual Gains, Washington Post and imes Herald, 12

January 1955, 15; George Dugan, American Data on Organized Faiths Emphasizes New

Widespread Growth in This Country, New York imes, 12 April 1954, A1.

35. F gd vvw dg 1950, James Hudnut-Beumler,

Looking or God in the Suburbs: Te Religion o the American Dream and Its Critics, 19451965 (New Brunswick, 1994), 4447; Gerald Weales, A Family That Prays Together

Weighs Together, New Republic, 25 March 1957, 1920; Phone Devotions Shared by

Thousands, Washington Post and imes Herald, 25 February 1956, 23; Survey by Gallup

Organization, 16 June21 June 1951, vb P Dbk, Uv C,

R C Pb O R. ://www...d/.m

(d 15 J 2010).

36. Gg Dg, Am D Ogzd F Emz Nw WddGw T C; Report Church Membership at All-Time High, Chicago Daily

ribune, 6 September 1955, A1.

37. Surveys by the Gallup Organization, 24 February1 March 1939; 21 November26November 1940; 17 June June 1942; 2 May7 May 1954; 15 March20 March 1957, avail-

able at iPoll Databank. One should note that the results of such polls vary according to

the time they were taken. But despite these minor variations, it is clear when examining

the polls from 1939 to 1958 that self-reporting of religious attendance among Americans

climbs by 1015 percent. For the tendency of Americans to exaggerate attendance, see C.

Kirk Hadaway, Penny Long Marler, and Mark Chaves, Overreporting Church Attendance:

Evidence That Demands the Same Verdict, American Sociological Review63 (February

1998): 12230; and Kirk Hadaway, Penny Long Marler, and Mark Chaves, What the Polls

Dont Show: A Closer Look at U.S. Church Attendance,American Sociological Review58

(December 1993): 74152. Surveys by the Gallup Organization, 7 November12 November1947; 28 M2 A 1953, vb P Dbk.

38. Idd, 1954, w d Pv, dm gv

m M mg mm, d bv d g

dgd. Dg d m 1939 1941, -

dd zb g g, , d g b. I w- , dd mb bv

Pv d bb md , b m g d d

b, d m m dv , gg

d m g d wg. James West, Plainville, U.S.A. (New York,

1945), 142; Art Gallagher, Jr. Plainville: Fifeen Years Later(New York, 1961), 169.

39. Clergy Skeptical over Revivalism, New York imes, 12 September 1955, 18;

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Herald, 9 June 1956, 18; Kenneth Dole, News of the Churches, Washington Post and

imes Herald, 19 February 1955, 13; Harry C. Meserve, The New Piety,Atlantic Monthly,

June 1955, 35.40. George Gallup, Religious Revival May Be Losing Surge, Los Angeles imes,

18 April 1962, 17; Survey by the Gallup Organization, 1924 February 1965, available at

iPoll Databank. For example, when polled in 1966, 70 percent of Americans opposed

the Supreme Courts ruling against school prayer. Survey by Louis Harris & Associates,

November 1966, available at iPoll Databank. Paul L. Montgomery, Religion Revival

Found Leveling, New York imes, 27 December 1963, 13.

41. John F. Kennedy, Speech at the VFW Convention, 26 August 1960, John Wooley

and Gerhard Peters, eds., Te American Presidency Project, University of California, Santa

Barbara. ://www.d.b.d/ (d 15 J 2010), d

APP.42. J F. Kd, Add B G H M A,

12 Smb 1960,APP.

43. William Lee Miller, Piety Along the Potomac: Notes on Politics and Morals in the

Fifies (Boston, 1964) 34, 4142, 44; Hes Unqualified for Top Job, Says Neely, Chicago

Daily ribune, 29 March 1955, 12; Senator Neely Lashes Out at Eisenhower, Los Angeles

imes, 29 March 1955, 12; Ike Denounced for Golfing, Church Going; Two G.O.P

Senators Reply to Criticism, Chicago Daily ribune, 29 March 1955, 12.44. Congressional Record, 84 Cg., 1 ., 22 J 1955, A445657.

45. Editorial, Spotting Communists, New York imes, 14 June 1955, 28; Army

Cancels Booklet Linking Words to Reds, New York imes, 15 June 1955, 7.46. F m dd Fbg Mmdm d -

x, Donald T. Critchlow, Phyllis Schlay and Grassroots Conservatism: A Womans

Crusade (Princeton, 2005), 96103; Cabell Phillips, Right-Wing Talks by Officers

Curbed, New York imes, 21 July 1961, 1.

47. T g vv g w dd m-

wk vv dg Cd W. S Russell Kirk, Te

Conservative Mind: From Burke to Santayana (Chicago, 1953); Richard M. Weaver, Ideas

Have Consequences (Chicago, 1949); William F. Buckley Jr., God and Man at Yale: Te

Superstitions o Academic Freedom(Chicago, 1951); Clare Boothe Luce, Is Communism

Compatible with Christianity?(New York, 1946), Catholic Pamphlet Collection, CatholicUniversity of America, Washington, D.C.; Frederick Schwarz, Beating the Unbeatable Foe:

One Mans Victory Over Communism, Leviathan, and the Last Enemy(Washington, D.C.,

1996); Billy James Hargis, Communist America Must It Be?(Tulsa, 1960); Billy James

Hargis, Te Far Lef(Tulsa, 1964).

48. F xm Kd dg bw -

g d , J F. Kd, S VFW Cv, 26 Ag 1960,

APP; J F. Kd, S Pd, OR, 7 Smb 1960,APP; J F. Kd,

Add B G H M A, 12 Smb 1960, APP;

d J F. Kd, S Bwg G, KY, 8 Ob 1960, APP; J F.

Kd, T Pd Nw C J 27, 1962,APP.

49. Dean M. Kelley, Why Conservative Churches Are Growing: A Study in Sociology o

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though they do warn that costs alone do not determine growth or failure. See Stark and

Finke, Te Churching o America, 25051.

50. Robert N. Bellah, Civil Religion in America, Daedalus96(Winter 1967): 121.Will Herberg agreed with Bellah insofar as he believed civil religion was synonymous with

the American Way of Life. See Will Herberg, Americas Civil Religion: What It Is and

Whence It Comes, inAmerican Civil Religion, ed. Russell E. Richey and Donald G. Jones

(New York, 1974), 7688.

51. Rd Sk d Rg Fk z, w d bkdw d bw d d d b

w g mb d b. S Stark and Finke, Acts o Faith:

Explaining the Human Side o Religion (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2000), 193217.

52. F b-kw dm g w

d, Robert Wuthnow, Te Restructuring o American Religion: Society and FaithSince World War II(Princeton, 1988).

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