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JOB ANALYSIS

Every human service organization consists of people working in a variety of capacities to achieve a mission. Work is divided into "jobs" and "positions" to allow for the efficient accomplishment of agency goals. Undoubtedly, jobs are the building blocks of all organizations. Their descriptions are the foundation of nearly all human resource management (Grant, 1988; Tziner, 1990).

Accurate job descriptions specify jobs in terms of duties and responsibilities and thus promote efficiency and reduce conflict among individuals and departments and enable organizations to avoid overlap and duplication (Cascio, 1987). They are tools that can and should be used in recruitment, selection, training, development, performance appraisal, and individual career planning. Nonetheless, job descriptions are frequently created with little care and are grossly underutilized. Grant (1988) estimates that most organizations use job descriptions for only 5 or 6 of their more than 100 potential purposes. Furthermore, he asserts that those descriptions used are often inadequate, incomplete, or inappropriate.

Job analysis is the process by which job descriptions are created. Job analysis identifies those tasks a new job entails and determines the relationships between and among positions. It also specifies the qualifications of positions. It is difficult to overstate the importance of job analysis in human resource management. If competently and thoroughly

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32 STAFFING FOR SUCCESS

conducted, job analysis provides a deeper understanding of individual jobs and their behavioral requirements and, therefore,

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creates a firm basis on which to make personnel decisions (Hudock, 1984). The data generated by job analysis should be used throughout the staffing process. However, job analysis in staffing is an ongoing process; it involves time, energy, and resources. That is, job analysis requires organizational commitment. The process, however, can be invaluable. In fact, "few other processes executed by organizations have the potential for being such a powerful aid to management decision making" (Grant, 1988, p. 50). Figure 3.1 illustrates the types of information produced by job analysis and its overall relationship to the other functions of staffing. In this chapter, the concept and process of job analysis are discussed and their


legal bases are defined. Strategies and methods of job analysis are also explored.

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Practical guidelines and examples are provided and job descriptions and job specifications are discussed.

JOB ANALYSIS DEFINED

In general, the process of job analysis involves the gathering, evaluating, and recording of accurate, objective, and complete information about a given position from a variety of sources (Malinowski, 1981). It entails the "detailed delineation of job tasks" (Deden-Parker, 1980, p. 5) via organized, intensive, and direct investigation (Engelkes, 1979). Specifically, the U.S. Department of Labor (1982) describes job analysis as a process that identifies and systematically and comprehensively describes the following:

1 . What the worker does in terms of actions or functions.2. How the work is done-the methods, techniques, or processes

involved.3. The results of the work-the goods produced or services rendered.4. The necessary worker characteristics-the knowledge, skills,

abilities, and other characteristics needed to accomplish the job.5. The context of the work in terms of environmental and

organizational factors and the nature of the work itself.

The process of conducting a job analysis can be complicated. Carlisle (1986) describes the structure of analysis as a three-step operation. First, the job is broken down into its component parts. Then, the relationships between those parts are examined, and finally, the training requirements are specified or the parts are restructured to improve performance.

Further definitions exemplify the complexity of the process. Al-though somewhat jargonistic, these definitions represent concepts that are distinctly different from each other. First, an element is the smallest unit by which work can be divided short of separate motions and mental processes. Tasks may consist of several elements and are discrete work activities carried out for a specific purpose. A duty includes any number of related tasks; examples of duties include


counseling clients, maintaining books (finance), and monitoring staff performance. An employee is hired into a position, which is an organization-specific combination of duties performed by an individual. A job is a group of positions with similar duties, and a job family is a group of jobs calling for similar worker characteristics or the performance of parallel tasks. One notices the reverse hierarchy apparent in this list. Finally, worker characteristics include knowledge-information used to perform a function, skills-observable competencies to perform psychomotor acts, and abilities--competencies to perform observable behaviors that result in observable products. Other characteristics are physical, sensory, and mobility traits; tolerances for certain working conditions; and educational or life experiences required to perform or hold the job. These worker characteristics can be abbreviated as KSAO.

There are numerous uses for job analysis information besides those identified in Figure 3.1 (cf. Gael, 1988; Grant, 1988). These include, but are not limited to, efficiency and safety improvement (Levine, Thomas, & Sistrunk, 1988), affirmative action program planning (Berwitz, 1988), job design for people with disabilities (Kochhar & Armstrong, 1988), and development of job aids (Inaba, 1988). The same job analysis should probably not be used for all of these purposes. For example, the level of detail required for developing job aids-possibly going down to an elemental level-would be overkill for developing recruitment materials. If job analysis was being used to develop a wage and salary evaluation study, major duties would be emphasized, while a job analysis for determining the suitability of otherwise qualified applicants with disabilities would highlight a job's KSAO's.

LEGAL BASES OF JOB ANALYSIS

In Gael's (1988) comprehensive work on job analysis, Sparks (1988) writes:

The legal basis for job analysis is found in federal agency regulations issued to implement federal statutes and in case law developed by the

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federal courts in response to challenges of such agency regulation and/or specific interpretations of those regulations.... There is no statute that mandates job analysis per se. There are provisions in several statutes that mandate an understanding of the job at a level that can only be accomplished realistically by some form of systematic job study. (p. 37)

Thus the most important aspects of these regulations and their inter-pretation are not in the nature and practice of job analysis itself; rather they lie in establishing job analysis as a foundation for virtually every selection test an employer could use.

Possibly the most critical of these regulations come from the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1984) and various procedural guidelines from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Though these are guidelines, they have been weighed favorably by the courts, including the Supreme Court. The EEOC has so broadly defined selection tests that they include nearly any technique or measurement that might be used in the selection of an employee or job applicant for almost any favorable or unfavorable job action. These include, but are not limited to, hiring, firing, training, creating developmental actions, and conducting appraisals for salary adjustments. The Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (EEOC, 1984) suggest that job analyses should include a description of the procedure(s) used, a rationale for selection or performance criteria provided, a statement regarding the relative importance of work behavior(s) or outcome(s), and the rationale for this conclusion as well as information regarding the proportion of time spent on various activities, their frequency of performance, the consequences of error, and other important factors. This information can then document the validity of selection decisions made.

Thus, as the validity of selection decisions has come under more stringent examination, the importance of accurate, reliable job information has increased. The Supreme Court ruled in 1975 that "job analysis must be an integral part of any validation study which purports to demonstrate a relationship between a selection device and job performance" (Cascio, 1987, p. 185). Likewise, the 1978 version of the federal Uniform


Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures requires that a job analysis be conducted for any position

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for which validation studies are undertaken. The major concern in job content identification, then, is to ensure that the information collected enables the organization to identify clearly those skills, personal characteristics, or behaviors that are required for the job (Beatty, 1982), while eliminating discrimination, bias, and other unsystematic variance in the process (Spitzer, 1988).

STRATEGIES AND METHODS

Job analyses can be conducted in a number of ways. A wide variety of methods is available with which to gather information about the tasks, skills, traits, or qualities relevant to the job; Gael's (1988) compendium identifies at least 17 methods. Among the approaches are the critical incident survey (Flanagan, 1954), direct observation (Fine & Wiley, 1971), specification forms (Spitzer, 1988), behavioral analysis (Lippett, Langseth, & Mossop, 1985), functional analysis (Fine, 1988), and the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) (McCormick & Jeanneret, 1988). The approaches differ in their application, degree of standardization, user acceptance, reliability, difficulty, cost, and time to completion, among other factors. These questionnaires, logs, forms, and interviews with knowledgeable personnel all lead to an in-depth examination of the job and its preferred matching expectations.

Although each of these methods has proven a valuable tool in gathering job data, any one of them alone may lead to an incomplete-and consequently inaccurate-analysis. Therefore, a good job analysis involves multiple methods of data collection (Deden-Parker, 1980; Grant, 1988), using a process referred to as triangulation (Martinko, 1988). Information collected can range from employee- generated descriptions of the job to information produced by documentation or experts in the field. Data on the components of time and task priority should be collected. Regardless of the techniques selected, every analysis employs the steps and considerations outlined in Table 3. 1.

"Job analysis is more than simply the compilation of job-related information. It is an analytical effort directed toward synthesizing


Table 3.1 Job Analysis

Steps Considerations

Create a plan of action Specify the purpose of the analysis, prepare a preliminary staffing table, determine the schedule for implementation, and select the techniques to be used

Conduct a trial analysis Train analysts, identify problems and revise

Collect data Follow job analysis plan

Organize and analyze the data Clarify meaning(s), solve problem areas, identify missing information, and plan for additional analysis

Ensure the completeness Review data collected and look for missing of the data collected pieces or indicators that information is missing, check with knowledgeable parties, and obtain missing information

Validate the results Present results to knowledgeable parties and elicit their feedback

Create the final job analysis report Detail the methodology and results, include all data, and provide necessary appendices and references

SOURCES: Carlisle (1986); U.S. Department of Labor (1982).

data about the organization, the job, and incumbents into a document that is useful for decision making" (Roark & Burnett, 1984, p. 7/3). Thus, in planning for job analysis, an administrator must consider the objectives of the task, the information required, the resources available for the project, and the administrative procedures necessary to develop and maintain the information (Roark & Burnett, 1984). Administrators must then decide who will conduct the job analysis. Often, internal staff do not have the skills necessary or the time available to conduct such an effort, and a consultant is necessary. Other times, organizational personnel can conduct the analysis given appropriate administrative support.

As mentioned, there are many methods for conducting job analysis. Each has its strengths and weaknesses: Some are more appropriate for

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certain jobs than others, some are expensive and time-consuming, and some require a great amount of employee and employer


support. In this section, a few frequently used job analysis techniques are discussed. In addition, guidelines for writing job descriptions and determining job specifications or requirements are provided.

Observation and Interview

Two of the most commonly used job analysis techniques are direct observation and the interview. These techniques can be used in combination or separately. The primary advantage of these techniques is their ability to assemble large amounts of information. Disadvantages include the time and cost involved, the possibility of inaccuracy, and the required commitment from participants. Most important, however, it is necessary to train observers and interviewers, to establish interrater reliability, and to ensure the consistency and validity of data collected.

Observation is the gathering of information by watching employees as they perform their jobs. The greatest advantage of direct observation is that information is gathered firsthand; thus the elements of working conditions, necessary skills, processor flow, and materials or equipment required are examined simultaneously. Observation is best suited for repetitive jobs requiring primarily external processes. It is less practical for administrative or managerial positions (Fine & Wiley, 197 1; Roy, 1984). The following steps are recommended for carrying out observation:

1. Communicate the purpose of the observation to those involved.2. Gather relevant background information before beginning.3. Determine, with the supervisor, key observation points.4. Observe and document all activities.5. Clarify/reobserve all unclear activities (cf. Roy, 1984; U.S.

Department of Labor, 1982).

Interviewing is the process of obtaining information by speaking directly to the people who perform the job or to their supervisors. Like observation, the interview process involves preparation, determination of key areas, observation, documentation, and clarification. Adequate preparation is essential to successful interviewing. Thorough

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planning and training of the interviewer(s) should precede the actual process (Cascio, 1987). Interviewers should also have considerable knowledge of the organization and the job as well as be familiar with the jargon. Preparation also involves the determination of appropriate objectives for the interview and the questions to be asked. Answers are often recorded on a prepared form.

Conducting the actual interview requires both communication and analytical skills. Roy (1984) recommends the following strategies for good questioning:

1 . Ask only one question at a time.2. Ask the questions in a logical order.3. Ensure adequate coverage of each topic.4. Remain flexible and take advantage of openings suggested by the

responses.5. Be objective.6. Encourage the interviewee to do the talking.

Critical Incident Technique

The critical incident technique of job analysis is used to identify those work behaviors that differentiate between good and poor performance (Flanagan, 1954). Simply, critical incident involves the collection of observations of employee behaviors that are both effective and ineffective (Abbott & Schuster, 1984). These observations are then used to identify the "critical incidents," or behavioral requirements, of each activity. Each critical incident should describe the antecedent to and context of the action, the specific actions of the individual, and the outcome of those actions (Carlisle, 1986). Incidents are then categorized according to the job dimensions they represent and compiled into a checklist (Cascio, 1987). Taken altogether, incidents should represent the entirety of the behavioral requirements of a job.

The advantage of this technique is that it focuses on observable and measurable job behaviors (Cascio, 1987). The technique is also especially effective for highly individualized or complex jobs (Carlisle, 1986). Disadvantages include the time and cost of assembling


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the information, the emphasis on effective and ineffective behaviors versus average performance, and the difficulty in quantifying the process. The process is then most effective when used in conjunction with other methods.

Structured Job Analysis Questionnaires

Conventional methods of job analysis often result in narrative descriptions of the work performed. For certain positions and orga-nizations, these descriptions lack the precision desired; thus structured approaches to job analysis have been developed. Structured job analysis involves the use of task inventories, numbers, and rating scales. This type of job analysis has several advantages: It permits comparison between jobs, it can provide a basis for wage or salary determination, and its techniques are often commercially available (Beatty, 1982). Furthermore, structured methods are standardized, often have known reliability and validity, and are research based. Basically, a task is assessed in terms of time spent, importance, and learning time; then the knowledge, skills, and abilities are measured in degrees of importance, education equivalency, or experience required (Milkovich & Cogill, 1984).

There are several structured job analysis plans available. The PAQ is a heavily researched job analysis technique covering more than 100,000 jobs (McCormick & Jeanneret, 1988). The 187-item questionnaire scores the requirements of various worker behaviors and the existence of environmental and contextual factors. Information produced by the PAQ may include unique requirements of individual jobs, job profiles, and behavioral training requirements (Cascio, 1987; Roark & Burnett, 1984). The PAQ is best suited for analyzing clerical, technical, and basic supervisory jobs, but another questionnaire, the Management Position Description Questionnaire (MPDQ), is designed to analyze management and professional positions (Page, 1988). Again, the MPDQ involves the use of a questionnaire to rate various job requirements. Administration of the MPDQ enables the identification of compensable factors as well as job specifications.


Job Descriptions

The immediate result of the job analysis, in addition to all the other factors noted, is the creation of the job description. "A job description is an organized presentation of facts about a job that distinguishes it from other jobs including its purpose, tasks, responsibilities, and worker characteristics" (U.S. Department of Labor, 1982, p. 37). Essentially, there are four elements of a good job description: the title; a summary of the job, including an overall statement as to the nature, purpose, and complexity of the job as well as information regarding the work environment and the worker's relationship to the organization; the job details, including a list of the duties that make up the job in a prioritized order; and the job specifications or requirements, including the knowledge, skill, abilities, and other characteristics necessary for successful work performance (Cascio, 1987; U.S. Department of Labor, 1982).

Job descriptions must be written in such a way as to facilitate consistent understanding of their contents. Job duties should be written as discrete, observable, or measurable elements of the job content (Carlisle, 1986). Each duty should include a verb and its object. The U.S. Department of Labor (1982) makes several recommendations regarding the overall style of job descriptions, including:

1. Use a terse and direct style; omit unnecessary words.2. Use present-tense language.3. Do not use pronouns; use "worker" or "employee" instead.4. Use precise language.5. Begin each sentence with an action verb.6. Order tasks in order of priority.7. Avoid jargon, the use of superlatives, adverbs, and the mention of

attributes.

Because job descriptions are the basis for so many staffing com-ponents, it is critical that human services administrators be willing to make a commitment to their creation. In addition, existing job descriptions should be reviewed periodically for accuracy-every

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two to three years as a minimum--or whenever a job is altered (Hudock, 1984). Regular performance appraisals also provide opportunities for review and revision.

Job Specifications

Job analysis should also be used to create verifiable job specifications or requirements. Job specifications include the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other personal characteristics (KSAO) that are deemed necessary to perform a job. Mental requirements, skill requirements, physical requirements, responsibilities, and working conditions must all be considered (Benge, 1984). Thus education, training, experience, physical capabilities, job knowledge, dexterity, and personal interests and characteristics may be included in job specifications (U.S. Department of Labor, 1982). Ultimately, job specifications should include only those items required for adequate performance and, therefore, represent the minimally acceptable standards for selection and later performance (Cascio, 1987).

Job specifications, then, function as screening mechanisms for selection and placement. Often, job specifications are determined by the personal judgments of employers, employees, or job analysts. Unfortunately, this approach has frequently led to the creation of inflexible and artificially high job requirements. In fact, the EEOC found that more than 65% of jobs specifying the need for a college degree could easily be performed by high school graduates (Driessnack, 1979). Consequently, it is essential that administrators use job analysis data in determining these criteria.

Other methods of defining job requirements include Threshold Traits Analysis (Lopez, 1988), testing the validity of existing requirements, and indirectly analyzing the validity of criteria via comparison with similar jobs (McCormick, 1959). Licensing requirements, client expectations, and funding expectations may also influence job specification determination in human services.

There are three questions to ask when creating job specifications:


1. Are they correct? Do they reflect the actual activities, requirements, and conditions of work?

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2. Are they comprehensive? Do they cover all the duties and important aspects of the job?

3. Are they specific? Are the items precise enough that they permit comparisons between jobs? (Benge, 1984)

PRACTICAL EXAMPLES AND GUIDELINES

Example 3.1 is a job analysis of a data entry clerk; included are estimates of time spent in major duties, specific descriptions of duty components, and statements regarding qualifications and requirements.

Example 3.2 is a job description of a job coach. The description includes an overall job summary, lists of both general and specific job duties, a statement regarding work relationships, and a list of the job's qualifications.


Job Title: Data Processing TechnicianDOT #: 216.392-062 DOT Title: Statistical ClerkNo. Employed: 1 Unit: Administrative ___Exempt _X_NonexemptReports to: Office Manager/Administrative AssistantSupervises: Part-time data entry clerk

Lead FunctionProvides input, retrieval, and reporting of HSC management information system.

% Time Major Job Duties

50 1. Inputs data from a wide variety of sources into two dam bases to keep MIS up to date in regard to client services.

a. Reviews documents for accuracy.b. May request missing or additional information from staff.c. Inputs documents into computer.d. May supply HSC or funding source codes.e. Files documents.

2. Retrieves data from computer data base as needed to provide up-to-date client service information to staff and administration.

a. May write program to retrieve data. b. Changes program parameters as needed.c. Retrieves needed data and gives to requesting party.

30 3. Prepares approximately 30 different client service repot for submission to funding sought by administration, advisory board, etc. on weekly, monthly, semimonthly, quarterly, yearly on an as-needed basis.

a. May write program to retrieve, and compile. data, or may compile manually.b. May write program to format data for specific report.c. Changes program parameters as needed.d. Prepares report using computer or typewriter.e. Checks report for obvious errorsf. Submits report to requesting party.g. Makes changes as needed.

15 4. Provides staff supervision to part-time data entry clerk.

a. Trains clerk in specific data entry skills, knowledge, requirements. b. Assigns and review work.c. Provides consultation and assistance as needed.

5. Performs other duties not inconsistent with position.

a. Troubleshoots and provides routine maintenance for computer systems.b. Trains all staff in individual reporting requirements for MIS. c. Recommends changes to computer screen format and report designs. d. Makes daily bank deposit.

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Example 3.1


Knowledge and Skills

Above average knowledge of ORACLE data base software, Lotus 123 spreadsheet software, diskoperating software.Average to above average knowledge of mechanics of computers.Average communication skills, both written and oral.Average to above average knowledge of funding source rules as they pertain to service reportingand coding requirements.Above average typing and data entry skills.

Responsibility

Constraints: Responsible for organizing and spending time in a cost-efficient manner. Must act consistently with HSC policy and procedures.

Supervisory Controls: Work deadlines, when not set by funding sources, are self-imposed. Review of work accomplished by requesting party. Supervisor provides very distant supervision.

Guidelines: Data formats are usually built into the software; funding sources have manuals identifying reporting requirements.

Difficulty

Complexity: Position is characterized by series of highly repetitive tasks of average to above average complexity. There are over 100 different sources for data that must be review for accuracy, and 30 unique reports with different formats. Incumbent must make decisions based on both personal judgment and verifiable criteria.

Scope and Effect: Incumbent is responsible for integrity of entire HSC management information. Without this position, data and information needed to make decisions would not be available in a timely fashion.

Job ContactsFrequent contact with other staff to train in MIS, provide information andrequest missing information from forms and reports.Continual contact with accounting staff to ensure accuracy of data.Monthly meetings with administrative staff.

Education and ExperienceFormal training and experience in data processing and manipulation. Experience with computers preferred.

Licenses and Certifications NowNone

Tools and EquipmentComputer, typewriter, calculator, telephone, postage meter, software (ORACLE, Lotus 123, WordPerfect 5.0)

Physical DemandsS-L3456

Environmental Conditions

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Inside work; exposure to noise of 60 db when around printer, potential back strain.

Example 3.1. Continued


Job Coach IJob Description

1.0 Job SummaryTo provide a crucial link in the supported work program to train workers with disabilities and establish good rapport with employers and significant others. To assist workers in meeting die demands of competitive employment.

2.0 Job Duties2.1 Thoroughly learns all job tasks to properly train worker at the. job site, physically

performs duties with worker, as needed, until worker is proficient.2.2 Works cooperatively and supportively with onsite supervisor, providing him or her with

pertinent information about the worker.2.3 Assists worker in learning job rides and customs.2.4 Monitors worker's job performance during initial training and throughout coaching.2.5 Serves as worker advocate or supports worker in self-advocacy. Offers advice and

assistance to worker regarding socialization in community.2.6 Updates appropriate facility staff at least weekly with verbal reports and monthly via

written reports regarding worker job performance.2.7 Works with the center mental health worker and attends group meetings as schedule

permits.

3.0 General Duties3.1 Provides information to appropriate facility staff regarding skills needed by workers to

make successful adjustment to community employment.3.2 Participates in staff development, in-service training, and staff meetings as required.3.3 Meets all aspects of the standard operating procedures, personnel policies and procedural

manual and safety regulations.3.4 Performs other duties as required.

4.0 Relationships4.1 Reports directly to supported employment services supervisor.4.2 Supervises, instructs, and counsels workers.4.3 Works cooperatively with all staff to carry out worker programs.4.4 Works cooperatively and supportively with community employers.4.5 Works closely with the center mental health worker.4.6 works cooperatively and supportively with significant others.

5.0 Qualifications5.1 High school diploma or equivalent.5.2 Two years of successful experience working with persons with disabilities or in a

"helping" position5.3 Ability to deal with a variety of behaviors that limit successful employment.5.4 Flexibility in working any shift and/or weekends as worker's schedule demands.

Example 3.2SOURCE: Adapted with permission from Pathfinders Services, Inc.

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