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BUS7000 Organizational Behavior &Theory

Week 3

Dr Jenne Meyer

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Article Analysis

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Chapter 4

Workplace Emotions, Attitudes,and Stress

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Emotions Defined

Psychological, behavioral, and physiological episodes that create a state of readiness.

Most emotions occur without our awareness

Two features of all emotions:• All have some degree of

activation • All have core affect –

evaluate that something is good/bad

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Types of Emotions

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Attitudes versus Emotions

Attitudes Emotions

Judgments about anattitude object

Based mainly onrational logic

Usually stable for daysor longer

Experiences related to anattitude object

Based on innate and learned responses to environment

Usually experienced forseconds or less

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Traditional Model of Attitudes

Purely cognitive approach• Beliefs: established perceptions of attitude object• Feelings: calculation of good or bad based on

beliefs about the attitude object• Behavioral intentions: calculated motivation to act

in response to the attitude object

Problem: Ignores important role of emotions in shaping attitudes

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Behavior

Attitudes: From Beliefs to Behavior

Perceived Environment

Attitude Feelings

Beliefs

BehavioralIntentions

Cognitive process

Emotional process

Emotional Episodes

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Emotions, Attitudes, and Behavior

How emotions influence attitudes:1. Feelings and beliefs are influenced by cumulative

emotional episodes (not just evaluation of beliefs)

2. We ‘listen in’ on our emotions

Potential conflict between cognitive and emotional processes

Emotions also directly affect behavior • e.g. facial expression

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Generating Positive Emotions at Work

LeasePlan USA and other companies apply the dual cognitive-emotional attitude process.

They actively create more positive than negative emotional episodes, which produce more positive work attitudes.

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Cognitive Dissonance

A condition whereby we perceive an inconsistency between our beliefs, feelings, and behavior.

This inconsistency generates emotions (e.g., feeling hypocritical) that motivate us to increase consistency.

Easier to increase consistency by changing feelings and beliefs, rather than change behavior.

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Emotional Labor Defined

Effort, planning and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions.

Higher in job requiring:• Frequent/lengthy emotion display• Variety of emotions display• Intense emotions display

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Emotional Labor Across Cultures

Displaying or hiding emotions varies across cultures• Minimal emotional expression and monotonic voice

in Ethiopia, Japan, Austria

• Encourage emotional expression in Kuwait, Egypt, Spain, Russia

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Emotional Labor Challenges

Difficult to display expected emotions accurately, and to hide true emotions

Emotional dissonance• Conflict between true and required emotions• More stressful with surface acting• Less stressful with deep acting

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Emotional Intelligence Defined

Ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in oneself and others

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Model of Emotional Intelligence

Self-awarenessAwareness of

others’ emotions

Self-managementManagement of others’ emotions

Self(personal competence)

Other(social competence)

Recognition of emotions

Regulationof emotions

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Awareness of others’ emotions

Self-management

Perceiving and understanding the meaning of others’ emotions

Managing our own emotions

Self-awareness Perceiving and understanding the meaning of your own emotions

Management of others’ emotions

Managing other people’s emotions

Lowest

Highest

Emotional Intelligence Hierarchy

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Improving Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence is a set of abilities/skills

Can be learned, especially through coaching

EI increases with age -- maturity

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Job Satisfaction

A person's evaluation of his or her job and work context

An appraisal of the perceived job characteristics, work environment, and emotional experience at work

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Loyalty

Voice

Exit

Neglect

• Leaving the situation• Quitting, transferring

• Changing the situation• Problem solving, complaining

• Patiently waiting for the situation to improve

• Reducing work effort/quality• Increasing absenteeism

EVLN: Responses to Dissatisfaction

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Job Satisfaction and Performance

Happy workers are somewhat more productive workers, but:

1. General attitude is a poor predictor of specific behaviors

2. Job satisfaction effect on performance is lower when employees have less control over output

3. Reverse explanation: Job performance affects satisfaction, but only when rewarded

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Service Profit Chain at Clydesdale Bank

Clydesdale Bank in Scotland

improved customer service by

applying the service profit

chain model. It gave its contact

center employees more

positive experiences at work.

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Company profitability and growth

Service quality

Customer satisfaction/perceived

value

Customer loyalty and

referrals

Employee motivation

and behavior

Organizational practices

Employee satisfaction

and commitment

Employee retention

Service Profit Chain Model

Job satisfaction increases customer satisfaction and profitability because:

1. Job satisfaction affects mood, leading to positive behaviors toward customers

2. Job satisfaction reduces employee turnover, resulting in more consistent and familiar service

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Organizational Commitment

Affective commitment• Emotional attachment to, identification with, and

involvement in an organization

Continuance commitment• Calculative attachment – stay because too costly

to quit

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Building Affective Commitment

SharedValues

• Values congruence

Justice/ Support

• Apply humanitarian values• Support employee wellbeing

EmployeeInvolvement

• Employees feel part of company• Involvement demonstrates trust

OrganizationalComprehension

• Know firm’s past/present/future• Open and rapid communication

Trust• Employees trust org leaders• Job security supports trust

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What is Stress?

Adaptive response to situations perceived as challenging or threatening to well-being

Prepares us to adapt to hostile or noxious environmental conditions

Eustress vs. distress

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Stage 1Alarm Reaction

Stage 2Resistance

Stage 3Exhaustion

NormalLevel of

Resistance

General Adaptation Syndrome

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Behavioral

Psychological

Work performance, accidents, absenteeism, aggression, poor decisions

Dissatisfaction, moodiness, depression, emotional fatigue

Physiological

Cardiovascular disease, hypertension, headaches

Consequences of Distress

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What are Stressors?

Stressors are the causes of stress -- any environmental condition that places a physical or emotional demand on the person.

Some common workplace stressors include:• Harassment an incivility• Work overload• Low task control

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Psychological Harassment

Repeated and hostile or

unwanted conduct, verbal

comments, actions or gestures,

that affect an employee's dignity

or psychological or physical

integrity and that result in a

harmful work environment for

the employee.

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Work Overload and Task Control Stressors

Work Overload• Working more hours, more

intensely than one can cope• Affected by globalization,

consumerism, ideal worker norm

Task Control• Due to lack control over how and

when tasks are performed• Stress increases with

responsibility

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Individual Differences in Stress

Individual differences that minimize distress: Better physical health – exercise, lifestyle Appropriate stress coping strategies Lower neuroticism Higher extraversion Positive self-concept Lower workaholism

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Managing Work-Related Stress

Remove the stressor• Minimize/remove stressors

• Work/life balance initiatives

Withdraw from the stressor• Vacation, rest breaks

Change stress perceptions• Positive self-concept, humor

Control stress consequences• Healthy lifestyle, fitness, wellness

Receive social support

Chapter 4

Foundations of Employee Motivation

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Motivation Defined

The forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior.

Exerting particular effort level (intensity), for a certain amount of time (persistence), toward a particular goal (direction).

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Employee Engagement

Individual’s emotional and cognitive (rational) motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and purposive effort toward work-related goals.

High absorption in the work.

High self-efficacy – believe you have the ability, role clarity, and resources to get the job done

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Drives and Needs

Drives (primary needs, fundamental needs, innate motives)• Hardwired brain characteristics (neural states) that energize

individuals to maintain balance by correcting deficiencies• Prime movers of behavior by activating emotions

Needs• Goal-directed forces that people experience. • Drive-generated emotions directed toward goals• Goals formed by self-concept, social norms, and experience

Self-concept, social norms,and past experience

Drivesand Emotions

NeedsDecisions and

Behavior

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Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory

Seven categories – five in a hierarchy -- capture most needs

Lowest unmet need is strongest. When satisfied, next higher need becomes primary motivator

Self-actualization -- a growth need because people desire more rather than less of it when satisfied

Self-actual-ization

Physiological

Safety

Belongingness

Esteem

Need toknow

Need for beauty

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What’s Wrong with Needs Hierarchy Models?

Maslow’s theory lacks empirical support• People have different hierarchies• Needs change more rapidly than

Maslow stated Hierarchy models wrongly

assume that everyone has the same (universal) needs hierarchy

Instead, needs hierarchies are shaped by person’s own values and self-concept

Abraham Maslow

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What Maslow Contributed to Motivation Theory

Holistic perspective• Integrative view of needs

Humanistic perspective• Influence of social dynamics, not

just instinct

Positive perspective• Pay attention to strengths

(growth needs), not just deficiencies

Abraham Maslow

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Learned Needs Theory

Needs are amplified or suppressed through self-concept, social norms, and past experience

Therefore, needs can be “learned”• strengthened through reinforcement, learning, and

social conditions

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Three Learned Needs

Need for achievement• Need to reach goals, take responsibility • Want reasonably challenging goals

Need for affiliation• Desire to seek approval, conform to others wishes,

avoid conflict• Effective executives have lower need for social approval

Need for power• Desire to control one’s environment• Personalized versus socialized power

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Four-Drive Theory

Drive to Bond

Drive to Learn

• Drive to form relationships and social commitments• Basis of social identity

• Drive to satisfy curiosity and resolve conflicting information

Drive to Defend• Need to protect ourselves• Reactive (not proactive) drive• Basis of fight or flight

Drive to Acquire• Drive to take/keep objects and experiences• Basis of hierarchy and status

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How Four Drives Affect Motivation

1. Four drives determine which emotions are automatically tagged to incoming information

2. Drives generate independent and often competing emotions that demand our attention

3. Mental skill set relies on social norms, personal values, and experience to transform drive-based emotions into goal-directed choice and effort

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Four Drive Theory of Motivation

Social norms, personal values, and experience transform drive-based emotions into goal-directed choice and effort

Drive to Acquire

Social norms

Drive to Bond

Drive to Learn

Drive to Defend

Personal values

Past experience

Mental skill set resolves competing drive demands

Goal-directedchoice and effort

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Implications of Four Drive Theory

Provide a balanced opportunity for employees to fulfill all four drives

• employees continually seek fulfilment of drives• avoid having conditions support one drive more

than others

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E-to-PExpectancy

P-to-OExpectancy

Outcomes& Valences

Outcome 1+ or -

Effort Performance

Outcome 3+ or -

Outcome 2+ or -

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

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Increasing E-to-P and P-to-O Expectancies

Increasing E-to-P Expectancies• Develop employee competencies• Match employee competencies to jobs• Provide role clarity and sufficient resources• Provide behavioral modeling

Increasing P-to-O Expectancies• Measure performance accurately• Increase rewards with desired outcomes• Explain how rewards are linked to performance

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Increasing Outcome Valences

Ensure that rewards are valued

Individualize rewards

Minimize countervalent outcomes

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A-B-Cs of Behavior Modification

Consequences

What happensafter behavior

Co-workersthank

operator

Example

Behavior

What personsays or does

Machine operator turns

off power

Antecedents

What happensbefore behavior

Warninglight

flashes

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Four OB Mod Consequences

Positive reinforcement – any consequence that, when introduced, increases/maintains the target behavior.

Punishment – any consequence that decreases the target behavior.

Negative reinforcement –any consequence that, when removed, increases/maintains target behavior.

Extinction – when no consequence occurs, resulting in less of the target behavior

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Reinforcing the Healthy Walk

The British municipality of Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, issued pedometers to its staff and encouraged them to do more walking each day. The pedometers provide instant feedback and positive reinforcement to motivate longer walks. Some organizations also reinforce walking with financial rewards.

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Behavior Modification in Practice

Behavior modification applications:• every day to influence behavior of

others• company programs – attendance,

safety, etc.

Behavior modification problems:• Reward inflation • Variable ratio schedule viewed as

gambling• Ignores relevance of cognitive

processes in motivation and learning

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Social Cognitive Theory

Learning behavior outcomes• Observing consequences that others experience• Anticipate consequences in other situations

Behavior modeling• Observing and modeling behavior of others

Self-regulation• People engage in intentional, purposive action – they

develop goals, achievement standards, action plans• People form expectancies (anticipate consequences)

from others -- not just from their own experiences• People reinforce their own behavior (self-

reinforcement)

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Goal Setting

The process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives

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Effective Goal Setting Characteristics

Specific – What, how, where, when, and with whom the task needs to be accomplished

Measurable – how much, how well, at what cost

Achievable – challenging, yet accepted (E-to-P)

Relevant – within employee’s control

Time-framed – due date and when assessed

Exciting – employee commitment, not just compliance

Reviewed – feedback and recognition on goal progress and accomplishment

SMARTER

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Balanced Scorecard

Organizational-level goal setting and feedback

Attempts to include measurable performance goals related to financial, customer, internal, and learning/growth (i.e., human capital) processes

Usually includes several goals within each process

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Characteristics of Effective Feedback

1. Specific – connected to goal details

2. Relevant – Relates to person’s behavior

3. Timely – to improve link from behavior to outcomes

4. Credible – trustworthy source

5. Sufficiently frequent• Employee’s knowledge/experience• Task cycle

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Strengths-Based Coaching Feedback

Maximizing the person’s potential by focusing on their strengths rather than weaknesses

Motivational because:• people inherently seek feedback

about their strengths, not their flaws

• person’s interests, preferences, and competencies stabilize over time

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Multisource Feedback

Received from a full circle of people around the employee

Provides more complete and accurate information

Several challenges• expensive and time-consuming• ambiguous and conflicting feedback• inflated rather than accurate feedback• stronger emotional reaction to multiple feedback

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Organizational Justice

Distributive justice• Perceived fairness in

outcomes we receive relative to our contributions and the outcomes and contributions of others

Procedural justice• Perceived fairness of the

procedures used to decide the distribution of resources

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Own outcomes

Your OwnOutcome/Input

Ratio

Comparison Other’sOutcome/Input

Ratio

Perceptions of equity or inequity

Equity Theory

Own inputs

Other’s outcomes

Other’s inputs

Compare own ratio with Other’s ratio

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Elements of Equity Theory

Outcome/input ratio • inputs -- what employee contributes (e.g., skill)• outcomes -- what employee receives (e.g., pay)

Comparison other• person/people against whom we compare our ratio• not easily identifiable

Equity evaluation• compare outcome/input ratio with the comparison

other

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Correcting Inequity Tension

Reduce our inputs Less organizational citizenship

Increase our outcomes Ask for pay increase

Increase other’s inputs Ask coworker to work harder

Reduce other’s outputs Ask boss to stop giving preferred treatment to coworker

Change our perceptions Start thinking that coworker’s perks aren’t really so valuable

Change comparison other Compare self to someone closer to your situation

Leave the field Quit job

Actions to correctunderreward inequity Example

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Procedural Justice

Perceived fairness of procedures used to decide the distribution of resources

Higher procedural fairness with:• Voice• Unbiased decision maker • Decision based on all information• Existing policies consistently• Decision maker listened to all sides• Those who complain are treated respectfully • Those who complain are given full explanation

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Week 3 wrap up

Questions? Assignments for next week