INDEX
Abano, Pietro d’, 141, 544–5Abel, Niels Henrik, 709n23Abu Ma‘shar (Albumasar), 578Academiae Naturae Curiosorum (Schweinfurt),
167, 269, 301, 394Academie Royale d’Arles, 196Academie Royale des Sciences (Paris): and
acoustics, 609; and Cartesianism, 399; andexperimental philosophy, 127, 130–1, 172;and laboratories, 301; and man of science, 185;and mathematics, 699; and mechanicalphilosophy, 46; and museum, 288–9; andnatural history, 467; and natural philosophy,394, 403–5; and patronage, 269, 270; andpopular culture, 221–2; publications of, 170,171, 325; and selection of members, 405n178;and travel, 356n62; and women, 195–6, 197–8
Academie Royale des Sciences et Belles-Lettres,198
academies, scientific: and courts, 267–71; andexperimental investigations, 130–1; and familymodel, 231; and laboratories, 301–2; and manof science, 185, 186; and mathematics, 723;and mechanics, 659–64; and museums, 288–9;and natural philosophy, 394; and printinghouses, 325–6; rise of in early modern periodand issues of proof and persuasion, 169–74;and social conventions, 403–5; and women,195–8. See also Academie Royale des Sciences;Royal Society of London
Accademia del Cimento (Florence), 127, 170,172–3, 268, 301, 303, 325, 393–4, 609
Accademia dei Lincei (Rome), 268, 269, 393,452, 467
Accademia dei Secreti (Naples), 170, 301, 325,393
Accademia Secretorum Naturae (Naples), 269
Accademia Segreta (Naples), 301accidental causes, and scientific explanation,
92–3Acontius, Jacopo, 139Acosta, Cristobal, 453Acosta, Jose de, 351n40, 450, 836–8acoustics: development of in seventeenth
century, 604–11; and harmonics, 630; andmusic theory, 597–8; optics compared to, 597;Pythagorean and Aristoxenian traditions in,598–604; and study of sound in sixteenth andseventeenth centuries, 596
Acta eruditorum (journal), 167, 200, 331, 394,671
active principles, and scientific explanation,93–105
Adelard of Bath, 710ad vivum, and naturalism in art, 794–5, 796agriculture, and natural knowledge, 218Agricola, Georgius, 187, 213, 515Agrippa von Nettesheim, Henricus Cornelius,
379, 500, 501–2, 514, 519–26, 734, 803–4Aguilon, Francois d’, 122Ailly, Pierre d’, 478Alberti, Leon Battista, 295n14, 315, 499Albert of Saxony, 83, 371n28Albertus Magnus, 72, 82, 83, 295n13, 543–4, 546,
548n27Albrecht V, Duke of Bavaria, 264alchemy: and astrology, 555n61; and classification
of knowledge, 4; and courts, 261–2; andexperimentation, 516; and gunpowder, 308;and laboratories, 294–5, 299; and medicine,421, 423, 498; modern distinction betweenchemistry and, 497–8; and Newton, 94n60;and Paracelsus, 502–10; status of in earlysixteenth century, 499–502. See also chymistry
841
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842 Index
Aldrovandi, Ulisse: and botanical gardens, 116,281; and correspondence, 349; and magic, 526;and medicine, 459–60; and museums, 246,287, 448; and natural history, 437, 444n29,451, 455, 458, 462, 463; and patronage, 266;and study of fish, 193, 210
Alembert, Jean Le Rond d’, 23n7, 672Aleotti, Giambattista, 315Alexander of Aphrodisias, 368Alfonsine Tables, 343, 565Alfonso V, King of Portugal, 472Alfonso the Wise, King of Castile, 343algebra, 705–6, 708–10, 714–18Alhazen. See al-Haythamalkahest, and alchemy, 513Almazem de Guine e India (Lisbon), 471, 483Alpers, Svetlana, 794Alpetragius. See al-BitrujıAlsted, Johann Heinrich, 405–6Amico, Giovanni Battista, 567analysis and synthesis: and mathematics, 703–6,
722; Newton’s method of, 94n60, 99–100, 101,102–3
anatomy: and development of medicine, 415,430; and executions of criminals, 216; andexperience, 111–15; and illustration, 782–6; andoptics, 615–18; and theaters, 273–80, 285–6,415. See also ear; eye
Andrade, Antonio de, 359Andreae, Johann Valentin, 301Anguillara, Luigi, 445Anna of Denmark, Queen of England, 254Annae litterae (Annual Letters), 351, 353anthropology, and travel literature, 766–70antipodes, and cosmography, 470, 474, 477,
479antivivisectionism, 797Antwerp, and cosmography, 486–7aphorisms, as genre of early printed book, 167Apian, Peter (Petrus Apianus), 470, 485–6, 635,
682, 693Apian, Philip, 486Apollonius of Perga, 705, 707, 712–13apothecaries: and global trade, 210–11; and
gunpowder, 312; and practice of medicine, 419Aquinas, Thomas, 8, 27n17, 72, 75n14, 93, 371,
381–2, 523, 732Archimedes, 634–5, 639, 644, 651, 705–6, 712–14architecture: of homes and households, 226; and
mechanical arts, 677–8; and military science,315
Aretino, Pietro, 762Argoli, Andrea, 553aristocracy: and French salons, 198; and man of
science, 189. See also class
Aristotelianism: and anti-Aristotelianism inphysics, 29–43; and concept of body, 51; criticsof and changes in scientific explanation, 71,72–7, 82–6; definition of, 368n15;historiography of, 70n1; and knowledge ofnature, 106–7; and Leibniz, 52; and naturalphilosophy, 370–95; and physical sciences,21–8; and rhetoric, 136; and scientificdemonstration, 142
Aristotle: and anatomy, 113; and astrology, 546;and classification of sciences, 120; and conceptof causal explanation, 73–5, 105; andexperience, 106, 108–11; on household andsocial order, 229; on manual crafts, 293; andmechanics, 634, 636, 637; and medicine, 407;and natural history, 438, 439; and naturalphilosophy, 366; on sex and gender difference,801–2, 803–4; on space and the body, 27, 52.See also Aristotelianism
Aristoxenus and Aristoxenian tradition, inacoustics, 598–604
armor, and military science, 313–17Arnaud, Pierre, 366n3Arnauld, Antoine, 163, 398art: and artist as scientist, 786–91; and interest in
depicting nature, 773–4; and mechanical arts,693–5; and naturalism, 775–9, 785, 791–6; andnatural objects, 529; and optics, 763n20. Seealso illustration
artisans: and development of new epistemologyin natural philosophy, 296; and distillation ofdrugs, 211; and elitism of scientific academies,222n78; and women in sciences, 199–201. Seealso craft tradition; guilds
Ascoli, Cecco d’, 528, 529Aselli, Gasparo, 429Ashmole, Elias, 246, 287, 560n82Ashworth, William, 361–2astrolabe, 684, 687astrology: and astronomy, 577–81; continued
popularity of, 558–61; and courts, 258–9;history of and transition from Renaissance toEnlightenment science, 541–2; and intellectualand institutional structures in 1500, 542–7;loss of intellectual legitimacy duringeighteenth century, 552–8; and medicine, 579;and public performances in piazzas, 215–16;and reforms in sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies, 547–52; and universities, 541, 542,545–6, 553
astronomy: and Aristotelian natural philosophy,386–7; and astrology, 577–81; celestial physicsand heavenly bodies, 28; and changes inscientific explanation, 71; and changes instructure of learning, 569–73; and concept of
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Scientific Revolution, 13–14, 16–17; andcourts, 255; and Descartes, 586–90, 657–8; andeducation in early sixteenth century, 564–5;evolution of in sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies, 594–5; families involved in, 232, 235;and geography, 491; and Jesuits in China,833–4; Kepler and revolution in, 581–4,587–90; and literature, 764–6; and mapping,344; and mathematics, 41, 119, 120, 121–2,401–2, 707; and navigation, 686–7; andNewton, 592–4, 664–5, 667–8; and optics,614; and religion, 573–7, 589–90, 645, 727,740–8; and Renaissance humanism, 565–9;status of in late Middle Ages, 562–3; anduniversities, 563; and women, 200–1, 235. Seealso comets; Copernicus; Earth; Galileo;heliocentrism; planetary motion; stars
Athenian Society (London), 335–6atlases. See maps and atlasesatomism: and chymistry, 512; and mechanical
philosophy, 47, 53; and natural philosophy inRenaissance, 375–6; and scientific explanation,87–8
Aubrey, John, 220Augsburg Confession, 736Augurelli, Giovanni, 501August of Braunschweig-Luneburg, 264Augustine of Hippo, 78, 294, 730–1August of Saxony, 264Austen, Ralph, 218authority: challenges to traditional sources of,
802–3; and influence of religion on astronomy,740–8; patterns of in family, 230; proof andargument from, 161; and science, religion, andpolitics in seventeenth century, 748–53
Auzout, Adrien, 356n62Avempace. See Bajja, IbnAverlino, Antonio Francesco (Filarete), 297, 315Averroes (Ibn Rushd), 75n14, 83, 368, 637, 641Avicenna (Ibn Sina), 72, 83, 408–9, 499n8, 523
Bachmann, Augustus, 117backstaff, and navigation, 687Bacon, Francis: and acoustics, 604–5; and
alchemy, 516; and aphorism as genre, 167; andart, 776–7, 787, 796; and astrology, 542,550–2; and cosmography, 495–6; descriptionof ideal research facility, 272–4, 289, 345, 750;education of, 194; on empiricism inworkshop, 212–13, 221; and experience, 106,110–11, 115, 127, 130; and feminist critiques ofscience, 798–9; on gender and nature, 810–11;and gunpowder, 307, 308; and history of earlymodern science, 8; influence of Italiannaturalists on, 36; and laboratory, 295, 301;
and laws of nature, 45n75; on libraries, 244,249; and literature, 771; and magic, 532; onman of science, 180, 185, 189; and mechanicalarts, 676; and natural history, 116, 458, 463;and natural philosophy, 379, 400; and optics,612; and physics, 64n144; and religion, 730,749–51; and scale of practice, 345; andscientific explanation, 83, 84–5; and study oflaw, 461; and theories of proof and persuasion,145, 148, 149, 151–2, 158; on travel andexploration, 839
Badiano, Juan, 826Baer, Nicholas Reymers (Ursus), 258Baglivi, Giorgio, 431, 432Bajja, Ibn (Avempace), 637Baldwin, William, 370Baliani, Gianbattista, 651, 653Barbaro, Ermolao, 441, 499Barozzi, Francesco, 155Barrow, Isaac, 121n58, 125–6, 129, 155, 183, 623–4,
718, 720Bartholin, Erasmus, 701–2Bartholin, Thomas, 429Basso, Sebastian, 47, 395Bauhin, Caspar, 277, 458n83, 459, 464Bauhin, Jean, 455Bauhin family, 232, 460n89Bautista, Juan, 822Bayern, Ernst von, 506Bayle, Pierre, 144–5, 331Becher, Johann Joachim, 217, 261, 302, 304Bede, Venerable, 474Beeckman, Isaac, 45, 183, 428, 587n65, 596,
608n25, 654Beguin, Jean, 304, 508–9, 511Behn, Aphra, 761, 769Belgium. See Antwerpbelief, and rhetorical account of proof and
persuasion, 147–8Bellarmine, Robert, 377, 746Belleval, Pierre Richer de, 283Bellini, Lorenzo, 430Belon, Pierre, 446, 526Ben-David, Joseph, 180n4Benedetti, Alessandro, 275, 441Benedetti, Giovanni Battista, 596, 603, 604, 606,
634, 638–9Benedict of Nursia, St., 294Berengario of Carpi, Jacopo, 236Berkeley, George, 68, 624n60Bernoulli, Jakob, 163, 650, 670, 671, 672, 721Bernoulli, Johann, 672, 721Bernoulli, Niklaus, 670, 672Berry, Jean, Duc de, 252Berulle, Cardinal Pierre de, 395
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Bessarion, Cardinal Basilius, 566Besson, Jacques, 317Biancani, Giuseppe, 155, 375n46Bianchini, Francesco, 589Bible: and natural philosophy, 371n26, 745–6,
750; and printing houses, 326; sex and genderdifference in, 801, 803, 804
Biringuccio, Vannoccio, 210al-Bitrujı (Alpetragius), 566–7Blaeu, Joan, Jr., 492Blaeu, Joan, Sr., 353, 492Blaeu, Willem, 591Blake, William, 772Blancanus, Josephus, 739Blondel, Francois, 650blood, circulation of, 425–6, 429Blotius, Hugo, 256Bodenstein, Adam von, 262, 506Boderie, Guy Lef evre de la, 770Bodin, Jean, 137, 166, 210, 387Bodley, Thomas, 245body: and alchemy, 504; Aristotle on space and,
27, 52; and concept of nature, 813; Descarteson extension and, 89n49; and Leibniz’sphysics, 52n103, 62; mechanistcorpuscularianism and Aristotelian conceptof, 51; observational account of, 769–70;theories of matter and concepts of, 49–50
Boehme, Jakob, 374Boerhaave, Hermann, 305, 432Boethius, 599Bombelli, Rafael, 709–10books: in Chinese language, 831; dedication of to
courtly patrons, 258; and Galileo, 645; andmagic, 529–31; and natural history, 439;printing houses and character of, 323; proofand persuasion in, 164–8. See also libraries;literature; printing and printing houses;textbooks
Bordelon, Laurent, 771Borel, Pierre, 226Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, 431, 588, 659, 660Borough, Stephen, 487Borough, William, 492, 688Borro, Girolamo, 641Boscovic, Rudjer, 68Bosschaert, Ambrosius, 793botanical gardens: and collection of specimens,
116; colonialism and plants in, 201–2; andcourts, 256–7; and curiosity cabinets, 283, 285;emergence and development of, 273–4, 280–3;and natural history, 444, 468
botany: global trade and interest in, 207–8; andillustrations, 116–17, 235n39, 773, 780–2; and
medicine, 442, 444–5, 446, 460n89; andnatural history, 442–3. See also botanicalgardens; herbals and herbalists
Botero, Giovanni, 838Bouchereau, Jacques, 370Bouillau, Ismael, 588, 591Boujou, Theophraste, 370n21, 390Bourne, William, 318Bouver, Joachim, 834Boyle, Robert: and acoustics, 609–10; and
astrology, 552; and concept of nature, 812–14;and corpuscular theory, 512, 537–8; anddiscovery of chemical color indicators, 210;and essay as genre, 167; and experience,129–30, 131, 400–1, 402, 466n114; andfoundations of physics, 58; and interest inchymistry, 32; and laboratory, 295, 303; andman of science, 182, 189, 194; and mechanicalarts, 694; and mechanical philosophy, 43–4,47, 49, 64; and medicine, 418; and naturalhistory, 466n114; and natural philosophy, 365,400–1, 402; and proof or persuasion, 138, 152,157; and religion, 751, 752–3; and RoyalSociety, 289; and scale of practice, 345; andscientific explanation, 77, 78–81, 91; andtheories of colors, 626n69; and transmutation,511; and workshops in home, 227
Bracciolini, Poggio, 146, 375Bradley, James, 590, 672Bradwardine, Thomas, 637Brahe, Sophie, 236n41Brahe, Tycho: and alchemy, 571; and astrology,
548–9; and courts, 257; and design ofUraniborg, 229; and history of astronomy,574–7, 590n73, 687, 702; and Kepler, 42, 402,578n40, 582, 613; and natural philosophy, 386;and scientific explanation, 71; and scientifichousehold, 236n41
Brasavola, Antonio Musa, 443n24Braudel, Fernand, 343Brazil: and cosmography, 478; natural history of,
453Breidenbach, Bernhard von, 474Brendel, Zacharias, 510Breyne, Jakob, 202Breyne, Johann Philip, 235Brissot, Pierre, 412–13Browne, Thomas, 221, 771Brueghel, Jan, the Elder, 793Brunelleschi, Filippo, 677, 692, 787Brunfels, Otto, 116, 442, 457, 780, 794n68Bruni, Leonardo, 373, 472Bruno, Giordano, 33, 35, 36, 375, 377–8, 518, 570,
571–2, 734, 757
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Buffon, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de, 465Buonamici, Francesco, 641Bureau, Jean and Gaspard, 312n20Bureau d’Adresse (Paris), 325, 329, 394–5Burgi, Jost, 261, 691Buridan, Jean, 474–5, 637Burton, Robert, 757Burtt, E. A., 13Busbeck, Oliver, 256Busschof, Herman, 205Butler, Samuel, 140n10Butterfield, Herbert, 13
Cabeo, Niccolo, 121–2, 388Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Nunez, 768cabinets of curiosities. See curiosity cabinetsCaboto, Sebastien, 484Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, 478calculatores, and mechanics, 637–8calculators, and mechanical arts, 685calculus, and mathematics, 671, 705, 706, 718–22Calvin, John, 579Calvinism: and natural philosophy, 369, 382; and
study of nature, 298n24Calzolari, Francesco, 210, 460n90Cambridge University, and natural philosophy,
389–90Camerarius, Joachim, 738Camerarius family, 232Camers, Joannes, 494–5Campanella, Tommaso, 33–5, 240, 267, 301, 377,
518, 570, 571–2, 605n17, 734, 810Campanus of Novarra, 710cannons, and military science, 308–9Cantimori, Delio, 735n25Cardano, Girolamo: and astronomy, 570–1; and
curiosity cabinets, 286; and development oftextbooks, 166, 387; and experience, 115; andmagic, 518; and mathematics, 6, 699, 709; andmechanics, 638n20; and medicine, 412; andnatural philosophy, 33, 35, 376, 390; andprobability, 162; and scientific debates, 339
Cardenas, Juan de, 823Caroline, Princess of Wales, 669Cartesianism: explanations for success of, 397–9;
and innovations in natural philosophy, 393; inItaly, 46–7n85; medicine and debate on, 429;Newton’s rejection of, 666–7, 669. See alsoDescartes, Rene
Cartier, Jacques, 757, 768cartography: and cosmography, 473, 491; and
mechanical arts, 689–91. See also maps andatlases
Casa de la Contratacion (Spain), 358, 471, 483–4
Casaubon, Isaac, 246, 522Cassini, Gian Domenico, 184, 343, 344, 493, 624,
834Cassini, Jacques, II, 594Cassini family, 232Castagne, Gabriel, 263Castelli, Benedetto, 644, 648, 649, 650Castiglione, Baldassare, 253Catena, Pietro, 156Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia, 198Catholic Church: and control of universities,
184; and Galileo, 589–90, 645, 727, 746–8;and libraries, 249; Luther and intellectualchallenges to, 734–5; and magic, 529–32;monasteries and alchemy, 498; monasticmovements and laboratories, 294; andrejection of Copernicanism, 746. See alsoInquisition; Jesuits; religion
Cauchy, Augustin, 720n43causation: and changing forms of scientific
explanation, 70–105; and mechanicalphilosophy, 63–6
Cavalieri, Bonaventura, 646Cavalieri, Emilio de’, 265Cavendish, Margaret, Duchess of Newcastle,
197, 254, 255, 763, 769–70Cavendish, William, Earl of Newcastle, 400, 752Cazre, Pierre le, 653Cecil, William (Lord Burghly), 260Celaya, Juan de, 373celestial instruments, and mechanical arts,
679–83Cellini, Benvenuto, 296Centlivre, Susanna, 771centrifugal force, and mechanics, 663Ceriziers, Rene de, 370n21certainty, and proof in mathematics, 162–4Cervantes (Saavedra), Miguel, 317Cesalpino, Andrea, 117, 282, 417n30, 425Cesi, Federico (Marchese di Monticello), 268,
269Chalcidius, 99n69Chamber, John, 580n47Chambers, Ephraim, 552, 558–9Champaignac, Jean de, 370n21Champier, Symphorien, 374Chapman, George, 757Charles II, King of England, 185, 560n82Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, 461Charles V, King of France, 252Charleton, Walter, 58Chartres Cathedral, and Portail Royal, 599, 600fChatelet, Emilie, Marquise du, 198, 669Chauvin, Etienne, 115–16
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Chavez, Alonso de, 484chemistry: and alchemy, 29n27; 497–8; and
medicine, 422–3, 430–1. See also alchemy;chymistry
China, and Jesuits, 827–35Chladni, Ernst, 630Choppin, Rene, 217chorography, 470Chouet, Robert, 398Christina, Queen of Sweden, 194, 254Christine de Pizan, 195n8Chronicles of the Indies, 351chronology, and cosmography, 490–1chronometer, and cosmography, 492Church of England, and Royal Society, 752chymistry: definition of, 509–10; and
foundations of physics, 29–33; schools ofthought in, 513–17; transmutations and mattertheory, 510–13; and universities, 498, 508–9,510. See also alchemy; chemistry
ciarlatani, and performance in town squares,214, 215, 216
Cicero, 522Cigoli (Ludovico Cardi), 787circumferentor, and surveying, 690Clairaut, Alexis, 672Clarke, Samuel, 56–7, 556–7, 669class: and coffeehouses, 333; and concept of man
of science, 184–5, 188–91; and culturalperformances in piazza, 214; and early moderndiscourse on femininity, 806; and militaryscience, 317, 318, 319; and participation innatural inquiry, 192–3; and physicians, 416–17;and Royal Society of London, 197. See alsoaristocracy; artisans; elites
classification: and natural history, 467–8; ofscience in Arabic tradition, 294
Claturbank, Waltho Van, 214Clauberg, Johann, 61, 399Clavius, Christoph: and astrology, 553; and
astronomy, 577, 585n57; and cosmography,485; and Euclid’s Elements, 771; and Galileo,641n30; and “Jesuit science,” 739, 831; andJesuit universities, 183; libraries and works of,352; and natural philosophy, 388; on scientificstatus of mathematics, 120–1, 125, 155
Clement VIII, Pope, 377clocks: and mechanical arts, 662, 664, 679–83;
metaphor of nature as, 748–9Clusius, Carolus (Charles de l’Ecluse), 204–5,
283, 445, 446–7, 453–4, 456, 458n83, 459, 463,826
coffeehouses, discussion and demonstration ofsciences in, 320–2, 332–40
Coigner, Michael, 679Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 222, 399, 404, 493Colden, Jane, 235Colegio de San Francisco (Mexico City), 821Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, 822, 825Collegio Romano, 488, 577, 641Collegium Experimentale, 394Collenuccio, Pandolfo, 441, 499Collins, John, 699Colombo, Realdo, 112colonialism: and cosmography, 482–3; and
European expansion and self-definition,818–39; and natural history, 466–7; and travelliterature, 768–9; and women in sciences,201–5. See also New World; postcolonialism;Spain
Colonna, Fabio, 461–2colors, and theory of light, 626–9Columbus, Christopher, 351, 448–9, 477–8,
819Comenius, John Amos, 240, 301, 751comets, and astronomy, 71, 386, 575–6, 591, 592Commandino, Federico, 633, 635, 639, 699, 711,
712n27, 738commerce. See tradecommunication: and fundamental changes in
early modern period, 347–55; geography andexpansion of scientific, 361. See also language;letters; printing and printing houses
Commynes, Philippe de, 309compass, and mechanical arts, 686, 687–8confessionalization, and religious identities,
735–6conic sections, Apollonian theory of, 716–17consonances, theory of, 605–7continuity, Galileo’s views about motion and,
652–3Cook, Harold, 193, 355Copernicanism: and Aristotelian natural
philosophy, 375, 385–6; and Church, 746; andGalileo, 223, 645; Wittenberg interpretationof, 738
Copernicus, Nicolas: and astrology, 541; andcosmography, 479–80, 496; and history ofastronomy, 14, 567–8, 573, 740–3, 747–8; andman of science, 181; printing of works of, 328;travel and distribution of ideas of, 352. See alsoCopernicanism
Cordemoy, Gerauld de, 61Cordus, Valerius, 445, 446corn, and natural history, 449–50Coronel, Luis, 373corpuscular philosophy: and Aristotelian
concept of body, 51; and chymistry, 512, 517;
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and occult theory of medicine, 537–8; rise ofmechanical philosophy and, 43–7; andscientific explanation, 87–93; and theories ofmatter, 49, 85. See also mechanical philosophy
correspondence. See lettersCosimo I, Grand Duke of Tuscany. See Medici,
Cosimo I de’cosmography: and emergence of geography,
494–6; new discoveries and reorganization of,469–72, 476–80; and science of descriptionand measurement, 491–3; status of before1490, 472–6; status of in early sixteenthcentury, 469, 480–91
cosmology: and Cartesianism, 564; andCopernicanism, 41–3, 375, 385–6, 567–9, 738,740–2, 747–8; and Descartes, 397, 586–7,590–1, 747–8, 753; and Galileo, 590–1, 743–7,753, 755; and homocentric theories, 566–7;and Kepler, 41–3, 580–1, 742–3; and music,600n7; and telescopes, 685–6. See alsoastronomy; heliocentrism
Cotes, Roger, 67n156, 671, 672Coto, Francisco, 484Cotton, Charles, 763Counter-Reformation: and astronomy, 582; and
natural philosophy, 395courts: and astrology, 549–50; and curiosity
cabinets, 263–7; and laboratories, 300; andpatronage of science, 253–63; and scientificacademies, 267–71; and sociopoliticalcharacter of early modern Europe, 251–3. Seealso patronage; state
Cowper, William, 430craft tradition, and practice of astronomy, 200.
See also artisans; guildsCraig, John, 163Cremonini, Cesare, 381, 424Croll (Crollius), Oswald, 32, 262, 299Cromberger, Juan, 822cross-staff, and navigation, 687Cruz, Juana Ines de la, 825Cruz, Martın de la, 826Cudworth, Ralph, 36, 60n134, 104, 374, 813culture: and art, 773–96; and European
colonialism and self-definition, 818–39; andgender, 797–817; and literature, 756–72; andman of science, 191n24; and religion, 727–55.See also etiquette; popular culture
Cunningham, William, 487curiosity cabinets: and anatomy theaters, 278;
and botanical gardens, 283, 285; and courts,263–7; emergence and development of, 273–4,286–9; and expansion of travel, 351; and globaltrade, 209
cycloid, and mechanics, 662–3, 671, 681Cyrano de Bergerac, Savinien, 762
Dalgarno, George, 761Daneau, Lambert, 382Danfrie, Philippe, 679Danti, Egnatio, 485, 683, 693Darwin, Charles, 760, 797Daston, Lorraine, 796Davis, John, 687Dawbarn, Frances, 260Dear, Peter, 209Dee, Jane, 235Dee, John, 121, 167, 226, 235, 248, 487, 518,
673–4, 688, 734DeFoe, Daniel, 206Delisle, Joseph, 672demonstration: and laboratory, 302–3; and
theories of proof and persuasion, 139–40,142, 155. See also experiment; observation
Derham, William, 610n39Desargues, Girard, 706, 707Descartes, Rene: and acoustics, 608; and
astrology, 555–6; and astronomy, 586–90,747–8; and body in literature, 769; anddebate on gender and intelligence, 809–10;education of, 243; and essay as genre, 167; andexperience, 123; and foundations of physics,23, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 52–3, 55, 59, 60–1, 63–4,65–6, 68; and magic, 532, 534–5; and man ofscience, 182, 194; and mathematics, 698, 715,716–18; and mechanics, 648, 650, 653–64,669; and medicine, 427–8; on method andproof, 142; and natural philosophy, 379, 395,396–9; and networks of correspondence, 349;and optics, 597, 617f, 618–21, 624; principlesof organization in works of, 25n11; andreligion, 79n25, 397, 730, 747–8; and scientificexplanation, 85, 88–9, 91; and theories ofproof and persuasion, 142, 151, 152. See alsoCartesianism
dialectics: and dialogue form, 166; and scientificdemonstration, 143–5
dialogue, as genre for transmitting naturalphilosophy, 166
Diamante di Bisa, 218–19Dias, Dinis, 477Diaz, Bartholomeo, 477, 483Dıez, Juan, 823diffraction, and optics, 618–23Digby, Kenelm, 46, 51Digges, Leonard, 318Digges, Thomas, 260, 691Dionysius Periegetes, 474
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Diophantus, 712–14Dioscorides, 283, 438, 440, 462n100, 773discovery, voyages of: and cosmography, 469–72,
476–80; overview of impact on Europeanculture, 818–20; and transformation of sciencein early modern era, 1–2. See also colonialism;New World; travel
distilleries and distillation: and medicine, 421;and role of trade, 210–11
Dodonaeus, Rembertus, 256domestic spaces, and home or household,
226–9Dondi, Giovanni de’, 680Donne, John, 764Dorn, Gerhard, 506dragons, in Leonardo da Vinci’s drawings,
528–9, 530fDrake, Stillman, 604n13Draper, J. W., 727, 747Du Bartas, Guillaume, 770Ducci, Lorenzo, 252–3Duchesne, Joseph (Quercetanus), 262, 263,
508Dudley, Robert, 260Du Hamel, Jean-Baptiste, 51Dunk, Eleazar, 212Duns Scotus, John, 83, 732Dunton, John, 335Duplex, Scipion, 370n21Durer, Albrecht, 296, 481f, 692, 776, 777, 778–9,
782, 793Du Roure, Jacques, 51Dutch East India Company, 357, 358–9, 453,
491–2
Eamon, William, 193ear, physiology and anatomy of, 598earth, and cosmography, 479–80, 481f, 493. See
also planetary motionEast Indies, and natural history, 450. See also
Dutch East India CompanyEbreo, Leo, 374ecofeminism, and critiques of science, 798Ecole Polytechnique, 315economics: and collections of natural objects,
287–8; courts and patronage system, 260;transformation of in early modern era, 7. Seealso trade
education: and astronomy in early sixteenthcentury, 564–5; and laboratories, 302n40; andman of science, 182–3; and mathematics,697–8; and medicine, 187n15, 442, 445–6; andmilitary class system, 319; religious identitiesand reforms in, 735–40, 750–1. See alsotextbooks; universities
Eisenmenger, Samuel, 738elasticity, and mechanics, 663–4elements: and alchemy, 501; Aristotelian doctrine
of, 28, 74; and innovations in naturalphilosophy, 390–1
Elias, Anton and Baltazar, 826elites, women and learned, 193–9. See also classElisabeth, Princess of Bohemia, 195Elizabeth I, Queen of England, 806, 807Ellul, Jacques, 798Emerald Tablet, and alchemy, 502, 503f, 514Elizabeth of Pfalz, Princess, 655empiricism, and methodology of natural
philosophy, 399–403. See also experience;experiment
Encyclopedia Britannica, and astrology, 559engineering: and courts, 260; and mechanical
arts, 677–8; and military science, 312, 314–15,317–19
England: Civil War and astrology, 560n82; CivilWar and influence of religion on science,750–1, 755; and cosmography, 487–8;ephemerides and astrology, 554; and man ofscience, 190; and mechanical philosophy, 46;and medical profession, 187n16; Restorationand new understanding of experience, 751–3,755. See also Royal Society of London
Epicureanism, 48, 78–9, 81, 150, 396Epicurus, 47, 48, 87n44, 373, 376. See also
Epicureanismepistemology: and Aristotelian natural
philosophy, 108, 110, 111, 112, 122; andinduction in Newton’s usage, 129–30; andlaboratory, 295–300; and scientificexplanation, 72. See also knowledge
Erasmus, Desiderius, of Rotterdam, 238, 239,469, 499, 807
Erastianism, 507Erastus, Thomas, 32, 507Espagner, Jean d’, 366n3essay, as genre of early printed book, 166–7essence, distinction between real and nominal,
24Este, Isabella d’, 254Estienne, Charles, 275–6Etaples, Jacques Lefevre d’, 487ethnography, and travel literature, 766–70etiquette, and scientific academies, 171,
268–9Euclid, 109, 142, 352, 611, 702, 705, 710–12Eudoxus of Cnidus, 711n25Euler, Leonhard, 593, 629, 672Eustachius a Sancto Paulo, 25n11, 27n17,
166n142Evelyn, John, 215, 222, 227, 257, 752
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experience: and anatomy, 111–15; experimentsand “physico-mathematics,” 124–6;importance of to conceptions of naturalknowledge, 106–8; and mathematics, 119–23;and natural philosophy of Aristotle in earlymodern era, 108–11; and Newtonianism,126–30; Restoration England and newunderstanding of, 751–3; species andtaxonomy in natural history and, 115–19; andtrade, 212–13. See also demonstration;empiricism; experiment; observation
experiment: and alchemy, 516; and chymistry,517; and coffeehouses, 320; and concepts ofproof and persuasion, 157–62; construal ofexperience as, 106; and Galileo, 647–8; andlaboratory, 302–4; and natural history,466n114; and Newtonianism, 127; and“physico-mathematics,” 124–6; and scientificsocieties, 130–1. See also demonstration;empiricism; experience; observation
extrinsic causes, and scientific explanation, 77–93Eyck, Jan van, 787, 788eye, physiology of, 612, 615–18, 685. See also
spectacles
Fabri, Honore, 650, 653Fabrici de Aquapendente, Girolamo, 112, 278,
425Fabricius, David, 591Fabritius, Paulus, 257fact: experiments and discourse of, 158–9, 303;
and natural philosophy, 160–2; and Pliny’sdefinition of factum, 437–8
Falloppia, Gabriele, 460n89family: forms of in early modern Europe, 234n31;
and natural inquiry, 225, 229–33. See alsohomes and households; marriage
Faulhaber, Johannes, 700feminism: and critiques of science, 797, 798–9;
and studies of science and imaginativeliterature, 758
Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria, 264Fermat, Pierre de, 162, 183, 349, 620–1, 698, 701,
707n21, 714, 716Fernel, Jean, 423, 424, 532–4Ferrari, Lodovico, 709Ficinio, Marsilio: and alchemy, 499–500, 514;
and Aristotelian natural philosophy, 733; andconcept of “spiritus,” 605n17; and cosmology,734n22; and libraries, 247; and magic, 412, 518,520, 521, 522–3; and Medici court, 35; Platoand Platonism, 33, 374
field trips, and natural history, 445–7Finaeus, Orontius, 487Findlen, Paula, 790
Fioravanti, Leonardo, 210, 211, 217Fior, Antonio Maria, 708–9Flamsteed, John, 235, 336–7, 339, 553–4, 590, 665Flamsteed, Margaret, 235Fludd, Robert, 32, 37, 328fluxions, Newton’s method of, 720–1Foigny, Gabriel de, 768folk medicine, 421Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de, 16, 154, 172,
198, 399, 511force, and mechanics, 664, 670Forli, Jacopo da, 8fortifications, and military science, 313–17fossils, and natural history, 465Foucault, Michel, 459n85, 810, 811–12, 816Foxe, Bishop John, 328Fracastoro, Girolamo, 33, 34, 35, 567, 757, 760,
770Framboisier, Nicolas Abraham de la, 263Frampton, John, 826France: artisans and French Revolution, 222n78;
and Cartesianism, 398; and cosmography, 487;and influence of state on education, 389n108;salons and women in science, 196, 198–9.See also Academie Royale des Sciences
Francesco di Giorgio. See Martini, Francesco diGiorgio
Francis I, King of France, 252, 255Francois, Jean, 492Frankfurt School, of social criticism, 798Franklin, Benjamin, 405Frederick III, Prince of Brandenburg, 264Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, 271Frederick of Wurttemberg, Duke, 292Frederik III, King of Denmark, 264French, Roger, 783Fresnel, Augustin Jean, 631Frey, Jean-Cecile, 36, 388Friedrich-Wilhelm, Prince of Brandenburg, 264Fritz, Samuel, 359–60Froeschl, Daniel, 793Frytschius, Marcus, 144Fuchs, Leonhart, 443, 457, 780, 782Fugger commercial house, 208, 348, 351, 420Funkenstein, Amos, 728
Gabrieli, Gaspare, 442Galen: and anatomy, 111, 113, 114; and magic, 523,
531, 533; and medical botany, 413; and naturalhistory, 438–9; and Newton’s method ofanalysis and synthesis, 99n69; and scientificmethod, 141; and sex difference, 805; as sourceof authority, 802; and universal antidote, 207;on vision and the eye, 612
Galilei, Vincenzo, 596, 603–4
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Galileo Galilei: and acoustics, 605–6; and art,779, 787; and astrology, 541–2, 549, 550; andChurch, 589–90, 645, 727, 746–8; andCopernicanism, 223, 385; and dialogue in earlyprinted books, 166; early career and educationof, 6, 194; and experience, 123, 124, 125, 213;and geography, 491; and history of astronomy,563, 584–6, 587–90, 644, 743–8; and history ofearly modern science, 8; household of, 232n24;and literature, 760, 762; and magic, 532, 539;and man of science, 181, 183; andmathematical methods, 401–2, 706, 711; andmechanical arts, 680, 685; and mechanicalphilosophy, 45, 53; and mechanics, 633,640–64, 669; and model of new naturalphilosophy, 248; and patronage, 230, 231,259–60; and Platonism, 375; and religion, 730,753–5; and scale of practice, 345; and scientificacademies, 267; and scientific explanation, 71;and theories of proof and persuasion, 140,146, 156; and theory of matter, 49
Galle, Jan, 1–2, 5fGama, Vasco da, 478Gans, David, 383–4Gante, Pedro de, 821Garth, Samuel, 407–8gases, Boyle’s laws of, 667Gassendi, Pierre: and anti-Aristotelianism, 36;
and libraries, 248; and man of science, 181; andmaterialism, 59n130; and mechanicalphilosophy, 46, 47–8, 49, 53, 62, 395, 396, 653,655, 656; and proof in mathematics, 155; andrejection of metaphysics, 24; and scientificacademies, 267; and scientific explanation,79–80, 81; and syllogism, 152
Gauquelin, Michel, 561n85Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 710Gaza, Theodore, 373, 439–40Geber. See Jabir ibn H. ayyanGeertz, Clifford, 761Gemini, Thomas, 679Gemma Frisius, Reiner, 412, 486, 492, 679, 683,
693gender: and concept of man of science, 179; and
division of labor in scientific households, 235;of science and nature in early modern period,797–801, 810–17; and understanding of sexdifference in early modern period, 800–10. Seealso women
genre: and impact of science on imaginativeliterature, 760–1; and questions of proof andpersuasion, 165
Geoffrey, Etienne Francois, 511geography: and cosmography, 469, 470, 494–6;
and Relaciones geographicas project, 826–7;
and travel literature, 766–70. See also mapsand atlases
geometry: and algebra, 714–18; and experience,114; and mechanical arts, 675, 681; andmodernity, 722; and navigation, 687; andoptics, 623–4, 630–1; proof or persuasion in,156–7, 704–7. See also mathematics
George of Trebizond, 374Georgios Gemistos Pletho, 373Gerard of Cremona, 564, 565Gerbillion, Jean-Francois, 834Germany: educational reforms in Protestant,
736; as intellectual center of chymistry, 32;and mechanical philosophy, 46
Gerritsz, Hessel, 491–2Gessner, Conrad: and chymistry, 507; and
correspondence, 349; and development ofdiscipline-specific books, 353; on distilling ofdrugs, 211; and natural history, 187, 435, 446,447, 451, 455–6, 457, 458–9, 460
Ghetaldi, Marino, 712Gheyn, Jacob de, 313Ghiberti, Buonaccorso, 315Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 297, 775Ghini, Luca, 416, 444, 447Ghiselin de Busbecq, Ogier, 256Ghisilieri, Antonio, 554Gilbert, Adrian, 199Gilbert, William, 140, 183, 188, 210, 301, 388,
688Giorgi, Francesco, 378Giovane, Duchess Juliane, 198Giovanni di Bartolo, 212Girard, Albert, 710Glanvill, Joseph, 60, 189, 208, 302, 752Glauber, Johann Rudolf, 302Glisson, Francis, 430global economy. See tradeGoad, John, 558Goclenius, Rudolph, 138–9Godebert, Louis, 243Godwin, Francis, 762, 765Goedenhuize, Joseph, 794–5Goes, Bento de, 359Goltzius, Hendrick, 791Gombrich, E. H., 791Goncalves, Lope, 477Gonzaga Palace (Mantua), 264Goorle, David van, 47, 395Gottfried of Franconia, 218n55Gournay, Marie le Jars de, 196Graaf, Reinier de, 187, 213, 430Graff, Johann Andreas, 203Grant, Edward, 371Grassi, Horatio, 71
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gravity: and Descartes, 48; and Galileo, 662n84;and mechanics, 635, 643, 658; Newton’s lawof, 67n156, 101, 102–3, 666, 669
Greece, ancient. See Aristotle; Epicurus; Euclid;Hellenism; Plato; Pythagoras andPythagorean tradition
Greenwich Observatory. See Royal ObservatoryGregory, David, 593Gregory, James, 623Grew, Nehemiah, 187, 288Grimaldi, Francesco, 597, 621–3, 629Grimmelshausen, H. J. C. von, 418Grotius, Hugo, 151, 244Grove, Richard, 204Grynaeus, Simon, 486guaiacum, and trade in medicinal drugs, 208Guaineri, Antonio, 219Guericke, Otto von, 609Guibert, Nicolas, 508guilds: and laboratories, 295–6; and women in
sciences, 200–1Guldin, Paul, 739guns and gunpowder, 307–13, 314, 317, 505,
691–2Gunter, Edmund, 682, 689
Habermas, Jurgen, 339, 354Hainhofer, Philipp, 209Hakewill, George, 751Hakluyt, Richard, 488, 767, 768Haller, Albrecht von, 270Halley, Edmond, 10, 332, 493, 554, 590, 594, 665,
672, 712n27Halley’s Comet, 591Hanson, Norwood Russell, 108harmonics, and acoustics, 630Harrington, James, 320Harrington, Thomas, 427Harriot, Thomas, 318, 452, 757, 765, 768, 779Harris, John, 43n70, 406, 511Harth, Erica, 809–10Hartlib, Samuel, 218, 302, 353Hartmann, Georg, 679Hartmann, Johann, 261, 300, 510, 511Harvard University, and astrology, 555n60Harvey, William, 112–14, 186, 187, 277, 280, 328,
407, 425, 761Havers, Clopton, 430al-Haytham (Alhazen), 612, 614Heerbrand, Jacob, 738Heinsius, Daniel, 247Helden, Albert Van, 585n57heliocentrism: and Aristotelian natural
philosophy, 385, 386; and Brahe, 574; andDescartes, 397, 399; and geocentrism, 589–90;
and neo-Platonism, 374–5; support of Galileoand Kepler for, 402, 585
Hellenism, and medicine, 411–12Hellwig, Christoph, 140Helmholtz, Hermann von, 630Helmont, Johannes Baptista Van, 32, 47n88, 104,
423, 512–13, 518Hennepin, Louis, 768n37Henry III, King of France, 3Henry IV, King of France, 263Henry of Langenstein, 563Henry the Navigator, Prince of Portugal, 350n36,
477herbals and herbalists: and botanical gardens,
280; herbarium and natural history, 447–8;and illustrations, 773; and natural knowledgein countryside, 218. See also botany
Herbert, Edward, Lord of Cherbury, 151Herbert, Mary Sidney, Countess of Pembroke,
199Herbst, Johannes, 328Hermann, Paul, 202Hermes Trismegistus, 373, 497, 521–2, 571. See
also HermeticismHermetic Corpus, 295Hermeticism, and scientific developments of
Renaissance, 374Hernandez, Francisco, 452, 462, 826Hero of Alexandria, 635Herrera, Antonio de, 353Herschel, Caroline and William, 232n26Heseler, Baldasar, 276Hevelius, Johannes, 183, 200, 201, 227–8, 591Heydon, Christopher, 580Highmore, Nathaniel, 430Hill, Nicholas, 47, 395Hippocrates, 114, 434, 533Histoire de l’Academie Royale des Sciences
(journal), 331historiography: of Aristotelianism, 70n1;
classrooms and libraries in, 239; and conceptof Scientific Revolution, 12–17, 436n4,799–800; and concept of private versus publicspace, 224; and debate on nature of earlymodern Catholicism, 735n25; and feministcritiques of science, 798–9; and genderideologies, 799–800, 816n50; and literature oncoffeehouses, 322n3; and literature on growthof natural history, 436n2; and literature onscientific aspects of music, 600–1n7; andliterature on scientific societies, 185–6n13; andMilitary Revolution, 307n3; of relationshipbetween science and religion, 727–30; andstudy of impact, 659–60; and study of proofand persuasion, 133
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history: change in ideas on in late seventeenthcentury, 437n7; Ficino’s study of myth and,522–3; and naturalists, 465. See alsohistoriography
Hobbes, Thomas: and astronomy, 588; andexperience, 126, 400; on geometry, 156; andman of science, 181; and materialism, 59; andmechanical philosophy, 46, 48; and medicine,427; on proof and persuasion, 142, 152, 157;and rejection of metaphysics, 24; and religion,751–2; and Royal Society, 329
Hoefnagel, Joris, 793Hofmann, Hans, 793Holbein, Hans, 482Holwarda, Johannes Phocylides, 591Holy Roman Empire: and cosmography, 485;
and scientific societies, 394Homberg, Guillaume, 131homes and households: and activities of
scientific research in early modern period,224–5; and domestic spaces, 226–9; and laborin scientific, 233–7; and natural inquiry asfamily project, 229–33
homocentric theories, in astronomy, 566–7. Seealso heliocentrism
Hoogstraten, Samuel van, 775, 777Hooke, Robert: and acoustics, 609; and art, 779;
and astronomy, 588; and coffeehouses, 336–7,339, 340; and experience, 128, 400, 402; andjournals, 167; and laboratory, 303, 304; andliterature, 762–3; on logic and proof, 152, 153;and mechanical arts, 681, 694–5; andmechanics, 664; and medicine, 430; andnatural history, 465; and Royal Society, 223,289, 330; and scientific explanation, 90; ontelescope, 539–40; and theories of colors,626n69
Hooykaas, Reijer, 496, 728horology, and mechanics, 662–3, 681. See also
clockshoroscopes. See astrologyHorrox, Jeremiah, 588Houghton, John, 337, 339Houlieres, Madame de, 196humanism: and alchemy, 499; and astronomy,
565–9; and courts, 270; and medicine, 411, 413;and music, 600n7; and natural philosophy,368, 373–4, 380; and new perspectives on God,man, and nature, 729; and questions of proofand persuasion, 135; and Republic of Letters,349; and revival of Greek and Latin texts, 7–8,599n3; and travel accounts, 767
Hume, David, 68, 104humors, and medicine, 410Huser, Johann, 506
Hutten, Ulrich von, 253Huygens, Christiaan: and acoustics, 610; on art,
778; and astronomy, 588; and Cartesianism,397; and cosmography, 493; and empiricism,131; and foundations of physics, 53; and manof science, 183, 194; and mathematics, 162,401, 706, 707n21; and mechanical arts, 680–1;and mechanics, 659–64, 669, 672; and optics,625, 626f; and scientific debates, 330; andscientific explanation, 90, 91; and travel, 10
hydrography, and cosmography, 470hydrostatics, and mechanics, 635, 640–1, 644hylemorphism, and natural philosophy, 390,
398hypothesis, and Newton’s methods, 753–4
Iamblichus, 522Ignatius Loyola, 350illustration, scientific: and anatomy, 782–6; and
botany, 116–17, 235n39, 773, 780–2; andexperiments in laboratory, 303; and gendereddivisions of labor, 235; and magic, 527–9; andmicroscope, 539–40; misplaced, mislabeled, orplagiarized, 352n46; and representation ofnatural world, 779–82. See also art
images, theory of optical, 623–4impact, rules of, 657, 659–61, 670Imperato, Ferrante, 210, 460n90Index of Forbidden Books, and Inquisition, 531India: and Jesuit missionaries, 350; Portuguese
and sea route to, 478inertia: Galileo and law of, 45n75; Newton’s
definition of, 666Innocent VIII, Pope, 378innovation: attitudes toward in mid-seventeenth
century, 16; and natural philosophy inRenaissance, 372–9; natural philosophy andresistance to radical, 390–3; and women insciences, 205
Inquisition: and astrology, 550; and magic, 531;and medicine, 423; and natural knowledge incountryside, 218–19, 220; and trial of Galileo,746. See also Catholic Church
insects, and natural history, 466Instituto delle Scienze (Bologna), 289intellectual movements: and Luther’s break with
Catholicism, 734–5; and theological context ofbodies of knowledge, 730–5. See alsoAristotelianism; Cartesianism;Copernicanism; Epicureanism; humanism;materialism; neo-Platonism; Newtonianism;scholasticism; Stoicism
intrinsic causes, and scientific explanation,77–93
inventio, and concepts of rhetoric and logic, 149
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Ippolito of Montereale, 226–7, 231Islamic world: and mathematics, 708; and
mechanics, 637Isserles, Moses, 384Italy: astrology in universities of, 546; and
cosmography, 472, 484–5; and libraries, 246;and mathematics, 699; natural history anduniversities of, 444; Platonism in universitiesof, 374; Renaissance naturalists andanti-Aristotelianism, 33–6; women andscientific academies in, 198
Jabir ibn H. ayyan (Geber), 294, 512Jacobs, Margaret, 759Jacopo d’Angelo, 472Jansenism, and Cartesianism, 398Japan, and Jesuits, 827–35Jedin, Hubert, 735n25Jesuits: and Aristotelian natural philosophy,
387–8, 389n108; and astronomy, 577; andauthority of Thomist-Aristotelianism, 173;and Cartesianism, 399; colleges anduniversities of, 241, 367–8, 488–9, 736–7,738–40; and correspondence, 348, 353; anddistinction between natural philosophy andmathematics, 119n49; and geography, 488–9;and journals, 351, 353; and libraries, 352; andmathematics, 121–2, 698, 723, 739, 829–30;and mechanics, 653; missionaries andcontributions to scientific knowledge, 202,350–1, 352, 357, 358, 359–60, 827–35; and scaleof scientific practice, 346
Jews and Judaism: and natural philosophy,383–4; and women in medicine, 236n42
John of Gmunden, 563John of Lignieres, 565John of Rupescissa, 504Johnson, Samuel, 763Jonson, Ben, 794n67Jordanus of Nemore, 635Joubert, Laurent, 419n36Journal des savants (journal), 167, 331journals: increase in importance of, 167–8; and
Jesuits, 351, 353. See also Acta eruditorum;Histoire de l’Academie Royale des Sciences;Journal des savants; Nouvelles de la Republiquedes Lettres; Philosophical Transactions; printingand printing houses
kabbalah, and natural philosophy, 384Kant, Immanuel, 68Keckermann, Bartholomaeus, 381Keill, John, 406n182Kepler, Johannes: and astrology, 541–2, 548–9,
550, 579, 580–1; and courts, 257–8; and
distinction between natural philosophy andmathematics, 119n49; and heliocentrism, 375;and history of astronomy, 563, 574, 581–4,587–90, 742, 743; and impact of science onliterature, 757, 760, 764, 765, 766; andlibraries, 248; and man of science, 183; andmathematics, 401–2, 699, 714; and mechanics,656, 665; and optics, 597, 613–18, 624, 630–1;and patronage, 194; printing of works of, 328;Pythagoreans and foundations of physics,41–3; and religion, 748; and travel, 10
Khayyam, ‘Omar, 708Khunrath, Heinrich, 290, 299al-Khwarizmı, 708al-Kındı, 614Kino, Eusebius Francisco, 359, 360n77, 825Kirch, Gottfried, 200, 232Kircher, Athanasius, 37, 248, 266, 344n14, 349,
353, 360n77, 388, 587n65, 609knowledge: Aristotelianism and sensory origin
of, 107; basis of division in premodernEurope, 6; natural philosophy and distinctionbetween divine and natural, 750; scientia andclassification of in early modern era, 3–4, 9, 11;Spanish response to indigenous Mexican, 825;theological and intellectual contexts of, 730–5.See also culture; natural knowledge
Kolb, Peter, 203Koopman, Elisabetha, 201Koyre, Alexandre, 13Kris, Ernst, 793Kuhn, Thomas, 154n89, 630, 631Kuo Tsing-lien, 832Kusukawa, Sachiko, 737Kyeser, Conrad, 317
labor, division of: in artists’ studios, 790; andlaboratories, 292, 294; in scientific household,233–7
laboratories: artist’s studio as, 789–91;description of in early modern period, 290–3;and epistemology, 295–300; evolution of,300–2; experiment in, 302–4; theory andpractice in, 293–5; and universities, 304–5. Seealso workshops
Lactantius, 148–9Lafitau, Joseph-Francois, 767La Forge, Louis de, 61Laguna, Andres, 281Lambert, Madame, 198Landucca, Luca, 527language: books in Chinese, 831; and Galileo,
763n18; Latin as scientific, 366n3; and studiesof science and imaginative literature, 759–62.See also dialogue; narrative; rhetoric
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Laqueur, Thomas, 815n48Lateran Council, 380latitude, and mechanical arts, 682Latour, Bruno, 792Lavanha, Joao Baptista, 483Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent, 510law and legal studies: and concepts of proof and
persuasion, 137–8; and naturalists, 461; andpractice of medicine, 419–20
laws, of nature: and changes in scientificexplanation, 70–105; and Descartes, 45n75;and mechanical philosophy, 44–5, 656; andNewton’s theory of planetary motion, 666;origins of term, 13n19
Le Bossu, Rene, 51Leclerc, Georges, 465Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van, 182, 213, 430, 465,
763L’Ecluse, Charles de. See Clusius, CarolusLe Fevre, Nicaise, 29–30Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm: and
Aristotelianism, 52; on art of invention, 149,153; and China, 834–5; on connection betweenscience and the state, 270–1; ondemonstration of proof, 164, 168; andfoundations of physics, 23, 49–51, 55–6, 60–3,64–5, 67, 68–9; and libraries, 248; and man ofscience, 185, 194; and mathematics, 702, 720,721; and mechanics, 650, 670–1, 672; andnetworks of correspondence, 349; andscientific societies, 394
Leigh, Richard, 335Lemery, Nicolas, 303–4, 497n1, 511, 515n74Le Monnier, Pierre Charles, 672Leonardo da Vinci: and anatomy, 414, 777; and
artist as scientist, 786–7; and artisticnaturalism, 776, 777, 782; diversity of careerof, 5–6; magic and drawings of dragons by,528–9, 530f; and mechanical arts, 677; andmilitary science, 315, 317, 318, 692; and naturalhistory, 462; and natural philosophy, 296
Leoniceno, Niccolo, 141, 412, 440–2Leosel, Johann, 237Le Roy, Louis, 495Lery, Jean de, 768L’Estrange, Sir Roger, 321–2Lestringant, Frank, 764letters: and concept of Republic of Letters,
348–51, 354, 360–1; and correspondenceamong universities, 342; and mathematics,699; and natural history, 454–6; and printingpress, 353–4
lever, doctrine of, 634, 654Libavius, Andreas, 263, 299, 507, 508
libraries: and classification systems of earlymodern period, 3; images of in early modernperiod, 238–40, 244–50; and Jesuits, 352
light: Italian naturalists and concept of, 35; andmechanical philosophy, 658; optics andtheories of, 611, 614–15, 618–23, 624–9
Ligorio, Pirro, 485Ligozzi, Jacopo, 777–8, 791n55Lilly, William, 560n82Linieres, Jean de, 343n8Linnaeus, Carolus (Carl von Linne), 204, 232,
362, 458n83, 467–8, 767Lipsius, Justus, 80–1, 104, 376Lipstorp, Daniel, 587n65literature: and antagonisms between categories
of text and intellectual practice, 770–2; andcosmography, 473–4; and language, 759–62;overview of science and imaginative, 756–9;and plurality of worlds, 764–6; telescope,microscope, and realism in, 762–4; and travelaccounts, 766–70; and writers on militarytopics, 317–19. See also books; genre; journals;language; printing and printing houses;textbooks
Locke, John, 24, 53–4, 88, 175, 181, 188, 669logarithms, 707logic, and theories of proof and persuasion, 135,
136, 139–46, 151, 152. See also methodsLohr, Charles, 371–2longitude: and astronomy, 593; and
cosmography, 492Lopez de Velasco, Juan, 208Lorenzo, Giovanni, 226, 231Louis XIII, King of France, 264Lower, Richard, 187Lucretius, 47Luizzi, Mondino d’, 275Lull, Ramon, 702Lusitano, Amato, 218Luther, Martin, 240, 297–8, 382, 573, 729, 732–5Lux, David, 355
Machiavelli, Niccolo, 317–18Maestlin, Michael, 574, 581Magalotti, Count Lorenzo, 170Magellan, Ferdinand, 482magic: and Agrippa von Nettelsheim, 519–26;
and astrology, 544; credibility of, 526–9; andmedicine, 423, 532–8; in Middle Ages, 518; andnatural knowledge in countryside, 220; andnew science of early modern period, 538–40;and Pico’s beliefs, 579n44; and religion,529–32. See also witchcraft
Magini, Giovanni Antonio, 553, 585n57
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Magirus, Johannes, 555Maharal (Judah Loew ben Bezalel), 384Maine, Duchess of, 196maize, and natural history, 450Malebranche, Nicolas, 61, 62n139, 398Malpighi, Marcello, 186, 187, 430, 465Mander, Karel van, 787–8Manfredi, Girolamo, 542–3, 554manners, and scientific academies, 171. See also
etiquetteman of science: and medicine, 186–8; and
modern concept of scientist, 179–81; anduniversities, 182–6, 194
Manuel, Frank, 755Manutius, Aldus, 411, 440n16maps and atlases: and expansion of scientific
communication in early modern period, 361;of magnetic declination, 344n14; andmechanical arts, 692–3; and scientific practicesin medieval period, 342–3; traditional Chineseprinted, 831. See also cartography;cosmography; geography; navigation
Marchetti, Alessandro, 650Marcuse, Herbert, 798Marino di Iacopo (Taccola), 317, 678market. See piazza; tradeMarkgraf, Georg, 453Marlowe, Christopher, 531, 771Marquette, Jacques, 359marriage: sex differences and discussions of, 807;
and women in sciences, 200–1, 234–6. See alsofamily; homes and households
Marriotte, Edme, 131, 650Marsi, Paolo, 242–3Martin, Henri-Jean, 323Martini, Francesco di Giorgio, 315, 317, 678, 692Marx, Karl, 346mass, Newton’s definition of, 666materialism: and mechanical philosophy, 59; and
medicine, 424–31mathematics: Apollonian, Archimedan, and
Diophantine tradition, 712–14; and astrology,553, 554; and classification of knowledge, 4;definition of, 696; and Euclid’s elements,710–12; and experience, 119–26; and Galileo,640, 642–3; and Jesuits, 121–2, 698, 723, 739,829–30; and mechanical arts, 674–5, 678,683–6; and mechanics, 637–8; andmethodology of natural philosophy, 399–403;methods and problems in, 702–7; andmodernity, 722–3; and Newton, 667;probability and certainty in, 162–4; proof andpersuasion in traditions of, 154–7; socialcontext for, 697–702; and use of terms,
696–7; and women in sciences, 668–70. Seealso algebra; calculus; geometry; mixedmathematics
matter, theory of: and chymistry, 510–13; andmagic, 523–4; and mechanical philosophy,47–52, 655
Mattioli, Pier Andrea, 207, 218, 256, 450, 460–1,462n100
Maurice of Nassau, Prince, 700Mauro, Fra, 472, 473, 476Maurolico, Francesco, 484, 612–13, 738Maximillian II, Holy Roman Emperor, 256, 257,
264, 453, 461Mayer, Tobias, 593, 672Mayerne, Theodore de, 263Mayow, John, 187Mazzoni, Jacopo, 375n46Mead, Richard, 557–8measurement, and cosmography, 493mechanical arts: art and nature in, 693–5; and
classification of knowledge, 4; clocks andcelestial instruments, 679–83; definitions of,673; disciplinary relationships and boundariesof, 673–6; mathematical and opticalinstruments, 683–6; and military science, 319;status of in 1500, 677–9; surveying, warfare,and cartography, 686–93
mechanical philosophy: and foundations ofphysics, 43–66; natural philosophy andorigins of, 395–9; and rational mechanics,653–9. See also Boyle, Robert; Cartesianism;Descartes, Rene
mechanics: definition of, 632; as distinguishedfrom physics, 24. See also mechanical arts;mechanical philosophy; rational mechanics
Medici, Catherine de’, Queen of France, 806Medici, Cosimo I de’, Grand Duke of Tuscany,
281, 692Medici, Ferdinando I de’, Cardinal Grand Duke
of Tuscany, 265Medici, Francesco I de’, Grand Duke of
Tuscany, 265Medici, Leopoldo de’, Grand Duke of Tuscany,
170, 172, 268Medici family, 246, 255, 264medicine: and alchemy, 421, 423, 498; and
astrology, 579; and botanical gardens, 281–2;changes in early modern period, 432–4; andcompetition among providers, 211; and courts,262–3; debate on status of as science, 137–8;global trade and new medicinal drugs, 208;and harmonic balance, 600n7; home andpractice of, 226–7; and magic, 423, 532–8; andman of science, 186–8; and materialism,
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medicine (cont.)424–31; and military surgeons, 316–17; andnatural history, 4, 463n105; New World andexpansion of, 416–23; in rural areas, 218–21;Spanish response to indigenous Mexicanknowledge of, 825; status of at end ofseventeenth century, 407–8; and use of bodyparts as medications, 216–17; and women,236n42. See also anatomy; apothecaries; physic
Mei Wen-ting, 834Melanchthon, Philip, 107, 149, 241, 369, 382,
548, 573, 578, 580, 737–8Melichio, Giorgio, 210Mendoza, Antonio de, 823Mentzel, Christian, 231Mercator, Gerardus, 343, 486, 489–91, 683,
688–9, 693, 764Mercator, Nicolaus, 589Merchant, Carolyn, 798, 810–11, 812mercury, and chymistry, 513–14Merian, Maria Sybilla, 10, 199, 202–4, 459, 466–7Mersenne, Marin: and acoustics, 596, 598,
606–8; and astrology, 555; and foundations ofphysics, 36, 45; and letters, 349; and libraries,248; and man of science, 181; andmathematics, 699; and mechanics, 648, 649,651, 662; and natural philosophy, 379, 392;and optics, 597; and “physico-mathematics,”125; and scientific academies, 267; and theoriesof proof and persuasion, 151
Merton, Robert, 346, 728Mesmer, Franz Anton, 558Mesopotamia, and algebra, 708metallurgy, and military science, 309, 312metaphysics, and foundations of physics, 22–5,
68meteorology, and alchemy, 498methods: and doctrines of scientific proof,
140–2; and mathematics, 702–7, 713. See alsodemonstration; empiricism; experience;observation; scientific explanation
Metzger, Helene, 511Meursius, Ioannes, 238–9Mexico: and natural history, 452;
and universities, 821–7Meziriac, Claude-Gaspar Bachet de, 714Michelangelo Buonarotti, 787, 791microscope: and mechanical arts, 684; and
medicine, 429–30; and natural history, 465–6;and scientific illustration, 539–40
Mildmay, Grace, 227Milemete, Walter de, 308military science: defensive technologies, armor
and fortification, 313–17; and engineering,
317–19; offensive technologies anddevelopment of guns and gunpowder, 307–13;and state of continuous warfare in earlymodern period, 306–7. See also war andwarfare
Milton, John, 73n7, 764minima, scientific explanation and concepts of,
86Miscellanea Curiosa (journal), 167missionaries: and collections of naturalia, 266;
and expansion of scientific knowledge, 357,358, 359. See also Jesuits
mixed mathematics: and acoustics, 596;compared to natural philosophy, 4; anddebate on scientific knowledge, 120–1;definition of, 696; and natural philosophy,156, 744–5. See also mathematics
mixture, and scientific explanation, 82–6modernity: and Aristotelianism, 28; and
historiography of Scientific Revolution, 13–17;and mathematics, 722–3
Moffet, Thomas, 453Moletti, Giuseppe, 638n20Moliere (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin), 536, 771Monardes, Nicolas, 453, 823, 826monasteries. See Catholic Churchmonochord, and cosmology, 37, 38f, 599, 600f,
601fMontaigne, Michel de, 150, 265, 379, 447, 526,
804–6, 815Montalboddo, Fracanzano da, 484Monte, Giambattista da, 416Monte, Guidobaldo dal, 633–4, 635, 639, 643,
692, 707moon, and lunar theories, 592–3Morandi, Orazio, 560n82More, Henry, 36, 54, 59, 104, 374, 397n138, 518,
587n65, 813More, Thomas, 480, 482, 839Morin, Jean-Baptiste, 391n117Moritz of Hesse, 261, 271, 300, 506Morland, Samuel, 609motion: Galileo and law of, 45n75; and
mechanical philosophy, 52–8; Newton’s firstlaw of, 100–1; rational mechanics and studiesof, 636–53, 659–68
Moxon, Joseph, 553Munster, Sebastian, 486, 489, 682,
693museums: and natural history, 287, 448; and
scientific academies, 288–9music: and acoustics, 596, 597–604; and
foundations of physics, 36–43; andmathematics, 120
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myth and mythology: alchemical interpretationof ancient, 501n14; Ficino’s study of historyand, 522–3; Scientific Revolution as, 15–16
al-Nafis, 425Napier, John, 699–700, 707narrative: and historiography of relationship
between science and religion, 727–30; andimpact of science on imaginative literature,760
Nash, Thomas, 761Native Americans, and indigenous scientific
knowledge, 825–6natural history: as distinct from natural
philosophy, 4; and education of physicians,187n15; and experience, 115–19; and naturalist,459–68; and revival of ancient tradition,437–42; and sharing of information, 454–9;significance of in early modern period, 435–7;travel and expansion of, 361–2; words andthings in, 442–8
naturalism, in art, 775–9, 785, 791–6natural knowledge: in countryside and villages,
217–21; in piazza, 213–17natural philosophy: and Aristotelianism, 370–95;
and astrology, 555; and classification ofknowledge, 4; coffeehouses and printingshops, 320–40; and cosmography, 473, 474–6;and distinction between divine and naturalknowledge, 750; and education of physicians,187n15; empirical and mathematical methodsin, 399–403; encyclopedic reference works andevolution of, 405–6; and experience, 108–11;and experiment, 157; and forces for change inearly modern period, 393–5; and Galileo,744–5; and magic, 519, 523–4, 540; andmathematics, 706, 723; and “matters of fact,”160–2; and mechanical arts, 675–6; andmechanical philosophy, 395–9; andmechanics, 632–3, 650; and mixedmathematics, 4, 156, 744–5; and physics, 26;Reformation and religious influences on,379–84; Renaissance Italy andanti-Aristotelianism, 33–6; and resistance toradical innovation, 390–3; and socialconventions, 403–5; university context of,4–5, 366–72; use of term, 365
naturals and nonnaturals, in medicine,410
nature: changes in concept of, 133–4; clock asmetaphor of, 748–9; gendering of as female,797–801, 810–17; and mechanical arts, 693–5;and natural philosophy, 380n65; Pliny’sdefinition of, 437
Naude, Gabriel, 249Navarro, Juan Huarte, 808Nave, Annibale dalla, 708navigation: and cosmography, 491–3; and
mathematics, 707; and mechanical arts, 682,684, 685, 686–9; and portolan charts, 342n5.See also maps and atlases
neo-Platonism: and acoustics, 605n17; andnatural philosophy, 374–5; and newperspectives on God, man, and nature, 729.See also Platonism
Netherlands: colonialism and distribution ofscientific knowledge, 352; and tulip mania,209
Neville, Henry, 766Newton, Isaac: and acoustics, 597, 610–11; and
astrology, 555–6, 557; and astronomy, 592–4;and chymistry, 514; and foundations ofphysics, 32, 54–5, 64, 66–8; and literature,772; and man of science, 183; andmathematics, 700, 720–1; and mechanicalarts, 693–4; and mechanics, 650, 664–70,671–2; on method and proof, 142; and naturalphilosophy, 365; and optics, 611, 623, 626–9;publication of works of, 331–2; and religion,753–5; and Royal Society, 329, 330, 331–2, 402;and scientific explanation, 94–5, 99–105. Seealso Newtonianism
Newtonianism: concepts of space and debatebetween Leibniz and, 56–7; and experience,126–30; and physics in eighteenth century,68–9
New World: and medicine, 416–23; and myth ofmodernity in early modern period, 16–17; andnatural history, 448–54. See also Brazil;colonialism; discovery, voyages of; Spain;Surinam; Virginia
Niccoli, Niccolo, 246Nicholas of Cusa, 374, 569–70Nicholas of Lyra, 476Nicholas V, Pope, 439Nicole, Pierre, 163Nicolson, Marjorie Hope, 756–7Nifo, Agostino, 82, 83–4, 85, 142Noble, William, 609Noel, Etienne, 58Norman, Robert, 688Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres (journal),
331nova (supernova), and stellar astronomy, 591Nova reperta (New Discoveries), 1–2, 5f, 7, 8–9,
10, 16–17, 788–9Nuck, Anton, 430Nunez, Pedro, 483
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objectivity, and discussions of gender, 810observable effects, and scientific explanation, 103observation: and astronomy, 585; and experience,
108; and medicine, 432–4; and natural history,442, 444, 446–7, 466. See also demonstration;experience; experiment
Observatoire Royale de Paris, 493, 593occasionalism, and foundations of physics, 61oikumene, and cosmography, 470, 473, 474, 476Oldenburg, Henry, 189, 331, 353–4, 752Omicron Ceti (star), 591–2ontology, and transformations in early modern
era, 11optics: and Descartes, 659n74; discipline of
acoustics compared to, 597; image locationand geometrical, 623–4, 630–1; Kepler’scontributions to, 613–18; mechanical arts andinstruments for, 683–6; nature and speed oflight, 624–6; and Newtonian experience,127–30; and Newton’s theory of light andcolors, 626–9; overview of in early modernperiod, 611–12; painting and NorthernEuropean developments in, 763n20; refractionand diffraction in, 618–23; status of insixteenth century, 612–13. See also microscope;spectacles; telescopes
Oresme, Nicole, 637Orta, Garcia de, 204, 450, 453Orta, Thomas d’, 483Ortelius, Abraham, 343, 487, 764, 793Osborne, Francis, 327Osiander, Andreas, 328Osser, Josephus, 393n120Other, representation of in travel literature, 769Oughtred, William, 683Ovid, 242–3Oviedo, Gonzalo Fernandez de, 450, 451n51, 461,
462Oxford University: and astrology, 553; and
natural philosophy, 389
Paaw, Pieter, 278, 283Pacchioni, Antonio, 430Pacioli, Luca, 700Pacius, Julius, 75n14Padua, and botanical garden, 282–3. See also
University of PaduaPaez, Pedro, 359Palissy, Bernard, 6, 182, 213, 296, 370, 385,
462Paludanus, Bernard, 454Panofsky, Erwin, 791–2Papin, Denis, 184Pappus of Alexandria, 99n69, 635, 639, 712
Paracelsus (Theophrastus Bombastus vonHohenheim): and alchemy, 299n28, 502–10;and astronomy, 570, 571; and chymistry, 30–2,514; education of, 6; and experience, 110; andlaboratory, 298–9; and magic, 518; andmedicine, 421–2; and natural philosophy, 391;publication of works of, 328; and religion, 734;and scientific explanation, 104; and universityclassroom, 240
Pardies, Ignace Gaston, 628–9Pare, Ambroise, 226, 316, 418, 456–7, 805Paris Observatory. See Observatoire Royale de
ParisParker, George, 554Parker, Samuel, 164Parrhasius, 775Pascal, Blaise, 57–8, 124, 156, 182, 349, 701, 706,
707n21passive principles, and scientific explanation,
93–105Patrizi, Francesco, 33, 34, 35, 376–7, 570, 571–2patronage: and learned elites, 194–5; and man of
science, 181, 189; and mathematical andobservational work of Galileo and Kepler,401–2; and military science, 317, 318; andnatural history, 453. See also courts
Paul de Santa Maria, Bishop (Paul of Burgos),476
Paul of Venice, 8Pecham, John, 612Pecquer, Jean, 429Pedro, Prince (Portugal), 472Peiresc, Nicolas-Claude Fabri De, 267Penny, Thomas, 452Pepys, Samuel, 698Pereira, Benito, 155Perier, Florin, 57, 124periodicity, of stars, 591–2Perrault, Charles, 496, 775Perrault, Claude, 404Perro, Girolamo, 283, 285persuasion. See proofPerugino (Pietro di Cristoforo Vannucci), 254Peschel, Oscar, 472n4, 493n73Peter Martyr of Anghiera, 478, 767, 768, 818–19Petrarca, Francesco, 379, 499Petrarch. See Petrarca, FrancescoPetreius, Johannes, 328Pett, Peter, 752Petty, William, 164Peucer, Caspar, 573Peurbach, Georg, 485, 545, 563, 565–6Peyer, Johann Conrad, 430Philip II, King of Spain, 207, 259, 451–2, 806–7
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Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, 308Philoponus, 636–7Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, 12, 167, 330–1, 332, 354, 404philosophers’ stone: and alchemy, 501–2, 510–11,
513–14; and medicine, 421philosophy, and theology in Christian tradition,
731. See also corpuscular philosophy;mechanical philosophy; natural philosophy
physic: and medicine, 408–16; use of term, 407physicians, and social class, 416–17. See also
medicine; surgeons and barber-surgeonsphysico-mathematics, and experiments, 124–6,
401–2, 654n62physics: and Aristotelianism, 21–8; and
astronomy, 582–3; and chymistry, 29–33;experiments and “physico-mathematics,”124–6, 401–2, 654n62; and Italian naturalists,33–6; mathematical order and harmony in,36–43; modern physics compared to, 21; andmechanical philosophy, 43–66; Newton andfoundations of, 32, 54–5, 64, 66–8, 94n60; andNewtonian system in eighteenth century,68–9
piazza, and natural knowledge, 213–17Piccolomini, Aeneas Sylvius, 474, 476Piccolomini, Alessandro, 154–5Piccolpasso, Cipriano, 296Pico della Mirandola, Gianfrancesco, 378–9Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni, 247, 378, 518,
541, 547–8, 579–80Picot, Claude, 655Pigot, Thomas, 609Plancius, Petrus, 491plane table, and surveying, 690–1planetary motion: Kepler’s theory of, 42, 742;
and music, 600n7; Newton’s theory of, 664–5,667–8. See also earth
Plantijn, Christoffel, 639Plato, 33, 293, 602. See also PlatonismPlatonism: and natural philosophy in
Renaissance, 373–7; and scientific explanation,72n6. See also neo-Platonism
Platter, Felix, 233n28, 276–7, 447, 459Platter, Thomas, Jr., 233n28, 447Platter, Thomas, Sr., 233n28Platter family, 233, 237Plattes, Gabriel, 218Pliny the Elder, 8, 242, 437–8, 439, 440–2, 462,
478, 526, 773, 775, 779–80Plot, Robert, 465n111Plotinus, 374, 522poetry, and scientific thought, 760, 770Poisson, Simeon-Denis, 630
politics: courts and patronage system, 260; andinfluence of religion on science in seventeenthcentury, 748–53; transformation of in earlymodern era, 7. See also state
Polo, Marco, 342Pompanius Mela, 474Pomponazzi, Pietro, 380–1, 416, 424, 518, 520popular culture: and astrology, 560; coffeehouses
and public reason, 339, 340; naturalknowledge and intellectuals’ contempt for,221–3. See also culture
pornography, and impact of science onimaginative literature, 762, 763, 770, 772
Porphyry, 522Porta, Giambattista della, 149, 169–70, 220, 269,
393, 518, 539, 605n17, 612, 613Portugal, and cosmography, 350n36, 472, 477,
483Possevino, Antonio, 489postal services, transnational, 341–2postcolonialism, and study of science and
imaginative literature, 758Poullain de la Barre, Francois, 192, 808n30, 809Power, Henry, 188practice (praxis): and growth in scale of science,
344–7; and laboratory, 293–5; and medicine,408–9
Praetorius, Michael, 573Presocraticism, and Platonism, 376primary quality, and scientific explanation,
88–90primary substances, and Aristotelianism, 74, 76printing and printing houses: and Aristotle’s
works, 73n9, 372n31; and coffeehouses, 336,339; and Cyrano’s Histoire comiques de les estatset empires de la lune, 762n17; and discussion ofscience in pamphlets and journals, 321–32; ofEuclid’s elements, 711n24; and Galileo’s works,762–3n18; and growth in communication inearly modern period, 351–5; in Mexico, 822–3;and military arts and sciences, 318n41; andPeter Martyr’s accounts of New World, 818n2;and traditions in mathematics, 712n27. Seealso books
private/public space, and science in home orhousehold, 224, 229, 237
probability: mathematical concepts of, 707n21;and theories of proof and persuasion, 139–40,162–4
Proclus, 374, 522professionalization model, of man of science, 190projection, and mechanical arts, 684–5proof: and Archimedean mathematics, 713; and
disciplinary structure in universities, 134–8,
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proof (cont.)150–4; and experiment, 157–62; importance ofin early modern period, 132–4, 174–5; andmathematical traditions, 154–7; and methodof analysis in mathematics, 704, 705, 706; inprinted books, 164–8; probability andcertainty in mathematics, 162–4; and socialinstitutions, 168–74; theories of, 138–49
proper causes, and scientific explanation, 92–3Protestantism: and educational reforms, 736,
737–8. See also Reformation; religionPsalmanazar, George, 768n37Ptolemy: and astrology, 543, 546; and astronomy,
564, 566; and cosmography, 469, 470, 473,474, 488, 693; and experience, 119n49, 120–1,123n67; and mechanical arts, 678; and optics,611
public/private space, and science in home orhousehold, 224, 229, 237
Pumphrey, Stephen, 260Purchas, Samuel, 488, 767pure mathematics: and astronomy, 707;
definition of and use of term, 696–7; andmodernity, 722–3. See also mathematics
Puritanism, and educational reforms, 750–1Pythagoras and Pythagorean tradition: in
acoustics, 598–604; and foundations ofphysics, 36–43; and natural philosophy, 376
quadrant, and mechanical arts, 686quadratic equations, theory of, 708quadratures, and mathematics, 713quadrivium, and mathematical sciences, 119–20Quintilian, 146, 243
Rabelais, Francois, 206–7, 317, 447, 531, 769radiation, theory of, 614Raey, Johannes de, 51Raleigh, Walter, 452, 757, 768, 811Ramelli, Agostino, 317Ramus, Petrus (Pierre de la Ramee), 156, 243,
369, 711, 738Ramusio, Giambattista, 485Rand, William, 328–9Randell, John Herman, Jr., 97n64Ratdolt, Erhard, 545Rathborne, Aaron, 690rational mechanics: and Galileo, 640–53,
659–64; and mechanical philosophy, 653–9;and Newton, 664–70; overview of in earlymodern period, 632–4; and scientificacademies, 659–64; and studies of motion,636–53, 659–68; texts and traditions of, 634–6.See also mechanical philosophy; mechanics
Ratio studiorum (Plan of Studies), 26Ray, John, 117–19, 344, 458n83, 463, 464, 767al-Razı (Rhazes), 294realism, and scientific literature, 760–4Real y Pontificia Universidad de Mexico, 821–7Rebeschke, Catherina, 201Rechenmeister, and mathematics, 697, 700Recorde, Robert, 688Redi, Francesco, 187, 266, 466Reede tot Drakenstein, Hendrick van, 204Reeds, Karen Meier, 783Rees, Abraham, 559Reformation: and astronomy, 573–7; and
interpretations of Bible, 802; and naturalphilosophy, 379–84. See alsoCounter-Reformation; Protestantism
refraction, and optics, 618–23Regiomontanus, Johannes, 324, 545, 563, 566,
682Regis, Henri, 659register system, of Royal Society, 330, 331Regius, Henricus, 397Reinhold, Erasmus, 568Reisch, Gregor, 74n10, 77–8, 93–4, 405–6, 570Relaciones geographicas project, and geography,
826–7religion: and astronomy, 740–8; and concept of
boundaries between domains of discursivecommunities, 729–30; and Descartes, 79n25,397, 730, 747–8; and educational reforms,735–40; and Epicurus, 48n89; Galileo andNewton compared, 753–5; and God as finalcause, 77–81; and influence of politics onscience in seventeenth century, 748–53; andmissionaries in China, 835; narratives andhistoriography of, 727–30; and naturalphilosophy, 379–84; and Newton on nature ofGod, 99–100; and objects of discourse, 729; inParacelsus’s work, 298–9; and practice ofauthorization, 730; sex and gender differencein, 801; transformation of in early modernperiod, 7. See also Bible; Calvinism; CatholicChurch; Church of England; Inquisition;Islamic world; Jesuits; Jews and Judaism;Protestantism; Reformation; theology
Rembrandt (van Rijn), 784–6, 790–1Renaudot, Theophraste, 170, 195–6, 302, 325,
395, 430Republic of Letters, 348–51, 354, 360–1Reuchlin, Johann, 518Rhazes. See al-RazıRheticus, Joachim, 328rhetoric, and issues of proof and persuasion,
135–6, 137, 145–9, 151, 153–4
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Ribit, Jean, 263Ricci, Matteo, 485, 830–2Riccio, Bartholomeo, 220–1Riccioli, Giambattista, 124, 492–3, 652Richelet, Pierre, 196Richelieu, Cardinal, 395Richer, Jean, 344, 493, 590Ringmann, Mathias, 479Riolan, Jean, the Elder, 263, 426, 508Riolan, Jean, the Younger, 508Roberval, Gilles Personne de, 46, 349, 588, 652Rochefoucauld, Madame, 198Rodrıguez, Fray Diego, 824–5Rohault, Jacques, 172, 196, 398, 556–7, 659Rolfinck, Werner, 510, 511Romer, Ole, 184, 590, 624Rondelet, Guillaume, 276, 416, 443, 445, 447,
457n79Rossiter, Margaret, 201Rothmann, Christoph, 261Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 814–15Royal College of Physicians (London), 186Royal Observatory (Greenwich), 492, 593, 594Royal Society of London: and acoustics, 609;
and agriculture, 218; and coffeehouses, 336;and experimental investigations, 130–1, 172,217, 516; and journals, 167; and laboratories,301; and man of science, 185, 189–90, 190–1;and mechanical philosophy, 46, 660–1; andmuseum, 288; and natural history, 116, 394,467; and natural philosophy, 365, 402, 403–5;and Newtonian experience, 126–30; andpatronage, 270; publications of, 170–1, 325–6,329–31; and religion, 751–3; and selection ofmembers, 405n178; Swift’s satire of, 118; andtravel, 356n62; and women, 197, 255
Royer, Clemence, 797Rubins, Peter Paul, 790–1Rudbeck, Olof, 187, 280, 429Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor, 255, 257,
259, 264, 287, 300, 453, 506, 782Ruffini, Paolo, 709n23Ruge, Sophus, 472n4, 493n73rural life: and medicine, 417; and natural
knowledge, 217–21Ruscelli, Girolamo, 301Rushd, Ibn. See AverroesRuysch, Frederik, 429
Sabius, Johannes, 481fSacrobosco, Johannes de, 474, 564Sadeler, Aegidius, 255–6Sahagun, Bernardino de, 822, 825St. Pierre, Sieur de, 492
St. Serfe, Thomas, 336sal nitrum theory, in chymistry, 514–15, 516Salomon’s House (Bacon), 272–3, 289, 345, 750salons, and women in sciences, 196, 198–9, 235saltpeter, and early gunpowder, 308, 311, 505salts, and alchemy, 505, 514Salviati, Filipo, 654Sanchez, Francisco, 150–1, 379Sangallo, Antonio da, 315Santorio, Santorio, 187, 424–5Saumaise, Claude de, 246–7Sauver, Joseph, 609n29Savery, Roelant, 793Savile, Henry, 244, 248Savonarola, Girolamo, 580Scaliger, Joseph, 244Scaliger, Julius Caesar, 47n88, 82, 83, 85, 166,
376Schall von Bell, Adam, 832–3Schedel, Hartmann, 473–4Scheiner, Christoph, 115n32, 155, 589, 616, 739Scherer, Heinrich, 360n77Scheuchzer, Johann Jakob, 236Schiebinger, Londa, 799, 800, 816Schissler, Christoph, 679Schmitt, Charles, 372–3scholasticism: and Aristotelian natural
philosophy, 106–7, 109, 111, 118, 365, 392; andchymistry, 30; and history of early modernscience, 8; and mechanical philosophy, 52,63–4, 67; and metaphysics as foundation ofphysics, 22–3, 26; and mixed mathematics,120; and Newtonian experience, 130;Protestants and medieval legacy of, 382; andseparation of philosophy and theology, 380–1;use of term, 368n15. See also Aristotelianism;universities
Schooten, Frans van, 701–2scientia, and classification of knowledge in early
modern era, 3–4scientia de ponderibus (Science of Weights), 635–6scientific explanation: active and passive
principles as model for causation, 93–105;Aristotelianism and intrinsic versus extrinsiccauses, 82–6; and causality in Aristoteliantradition, 73–7; corpuscular physicists andintrinsic versus extrinsic causes, 87–93;notable changes in early modern era, 70–3;religion and emergence of laws of nature,77–81
scientific method. See analysis and synthesis;demonstration; experience; experiment;hypothesis; logic; methods; observation;practice; theory
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Scientific Revolution, and historiography, 12–17,436n4, 799–800
scientific societies. See academies, scientificscientist: as artist, 786–91; and man of science in
early modern period, 179, 180Scipione del Ferro, 708Scribonius, Wilhelm, 369Scudery, Madeleine de, 198Scultetus, Bartholomaeus, 574secondary qualities, and scientific explanation,
88–90Sendivogius, Michael, 511, 514Seneca, 13n19, 80–1Sennert, Daniel, 32, 84, 85, 395, 507, 512Sequeira, Rui de, 477Severinus, Peter (Petrus), 31, 32, 217, 262, 422Servetus, Michael, 425Sevigne, Marquise de, 196sex difference, understanding of in early modern
period, 800–10. See also genderSextus Empiricus, 150, 373Sforza, Galeazzo Maria, 542–3Shadwell, Thomas, 771Shakespeare, William, 253, 771, 794n67, 807Shapin, Steven, 132n1, 346, 790, 796Shapiro, Alan E., 623Shapiro, Steven, 194Sidney, Sir Phillip, 757, 766Siguenza y Gongora, Carlos de, 824–5, 827Simplicius, 368, 636, 637, 641Sına, Ibn. See AvicennaSina, Pedro de, 477slide rules, 685Sloane, Hans, 203, 335, 338f, 433Smith, Samuel, 332Snel, Willebrod, 712–13Societas Ereunetica, 394societies, scientific. See Academie Royale des
Sciences; academies, scientific; Royal Societyof London
society: and context for mathematics, 697–702;and natural philosophy, 403–5; proof andpersuasion in institutions of, 168–74; and roleof medical man, 187; transformation of inearly modern period, 7. See also class;family
Solis, Diaz de, 484Sophie Charlotte, Queen of Prussia, 194–5Sorbiere, Samuel, 173, 808sound. See acousticsSozietat der Wissenschaften (Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Berlin), 394space: and Aristotelian philosophy, 27; and
mechanical philosophy, 52–8
Spain: and colonialism in New World, 351, 358,452; and cosmography, 483–4
species, and natural history, 115–19, 465spectacles, and mechanical arts, 685speed: of falling bodies, 641–2, 643, 651–2; of
light, 624–6; of sound, 610n39Speroni, Sperone, 166Spinola, Carlo, 830Spinoza, Benedict (Baruch) de, 59n130, 64, 157,
158n102, 702–3Sprat, Bishop Thomas, 153, 171–2, 173, 189, 303,
331, 354, 752, 759–60Staden of Hesse, Hans, 768Staehl, Peter, 320Stahl, Georg, 513, 514Starkey, George, 32, 511n57, 513stars, and development of stellar astronomy,
569n16, 590–2, 594–5state: educational institutions and growth of
bureaucracies, 367–8; Leibniz on connectionbetween science and, 270–1; view of ashousehold, 230. See also courts; patronage;politics
Stationers’ Company (London), 322–3, 329Steno, Nicolaus, 188, 430, 465Steuco, Agostino, 378Stevin, Simon, 241, 634, 639–40, 692, 700, 707,
712Stillingfleet, Edward, 752Stoffler, Johann, 548n27, 679Stoicism: and natural philosophy, 376; and
scientific explanation, 78, 79, 80–1Stoughton, John, 751Strabo, 474Stradanus, Johannes, 1, 2f, 5f, 8–9, 17f, 788, 790,
788, 790. See also Nova repertaStrato of Lampsacus, 66n153Streater, Joseph, 332Strozzi, Palla, 472Strozzi, Tito Vespasiano, 499Strutt, John William, 630Suarez, Francisco, 74n10, 77n17, 92sundials, and mechanical arts, 681–3, 684sunspots, and Galileo, 744surgeons and barber-surgeons, 419Surinam, and Merian as naturalist, 203–4, 466–7surveying: and cosmography, 491–3; and
mechanical arts, 684, 685, 689–91Swammerdam, Jan, 187, 430, 465, 466Swift, Jonathan, 118, 336, 560, 761, 763, 771Swineshead, Richard, 637Sydenham, Thomas, 188syllogisms, and analysis of propositions, 151–2Sylvius, Francois de le Boe, 428, 792n61
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Sylvius, Jacobus, 783–4synthesis. See analysis and synthesissyphilis, and medicine, 420, 760, 770
Taccola. See Marino di IacopoTalavera, Fernando di, 477Tannstetter, Georg, 485Tartaglia, Niccolo, 212, 384–5, 633, 634, 638, 692,
708–9, 712n27, 738Tasso, Torquato, 807taxonomy, and concept of experience in natural
history, 115–19. See also classification; speciestelescopes: and astronomy, 539–40, 584; and
mechanical arts, 685; and optics, 611Telesio, Bernardino, 33, 34–5, 377, 570, 605n17Tellier, Charles Maurice le, 3Tempier, Etienne, 27, 379n63Tencin, Madame, 198Terrentius, Johannes, 832textbooks: and astrology, 555; and astronomy,
577; development of, 165–6; and naturalphilosophy, 369–71, 383, 387. See also books
theaters. See anatomyThemistius, 368, 636, 637theology: and alchemy, 504–5; and astrology,
578n40; and intellectual context of bodies ofknowledge, 730–5; and Luther, 732–5. See alsoreligion
Theon, 711Theophrastus, 438, 439–40, 773Theorica planetarum (Theories of the Planets),
564, 565, 566theory: and laboratory, 293–5; and medicine,
408–9Thevet, Andre, 451, 487, 768–9Thomism: and Jesuits, 173; Luther’s theological
challenge to, 733. See also AristotelianismThorndike, Lynn, 499Tillyard, Arthur, 320Titelmans, Frans, 382–3Toletus, Franciscus, 136Tolosani, Giovanni Maria, 741Tompion, Thomas, 681Torricelli, Evangelista, 57, 648, 651, 660, 713Toscanelli, Paolo del Pozzo, 472, 683Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de, 117, 203Toxites, Michael, 506trade: and chartered corporations, 356–61; and
collections of natural objects, 266, 287–8;expansion of in early modern period, 206–7;in mathematical and optical instruments, 684;role of markets and shops in interest innatural history, 207–13
Tradescant, John, 287
transmutation, and chymistry, 510–13travel: and expansion of scientific knowledge,
341–4, 350–1, 354–62; and innovations inmedicine, 416–23; and innovations in naturalphilosophy, 387–8; and mobility ofpractitioners of early modern knowledge,10–11; and natural history, 446, 448–54, 467.See also colonialism; discovery, voyages of;New World
Traversari, Ambroglio, 376Trew, Abdias, 164triangulation, and surveying, 690, 691Tristao, Nuno, 477Trithemius, Johannes, 248, 501, 502trivium, and mathematical sciences, 119–20Tudor, Mary, 806–7tulip mania of 1636–7, 209Tulp, Nicolaas, 784, 785Twisse, William, 751
universities: and anatomy theaters, 277; andAristotelian worldview, 107; and astrology,541, 542, 545–6, 553; and astronomy, 563; andbotanical gardens, 281; and chymistry, 498,508–9, 510; correspondence among, 342; andcosmography, 471; and family, 230–1, 233; andgeography, 488–9; and images of classroom,238–44; and laboratories, 302n40, 304–5; andman of science, 181, 182–6; and mathematics,119–20, 698–9; and mechanics, 633; inMexico, 821–7; and natural history, 444–8;and natural philosophy, 4–5, 366–72, 389–90;proof and persuasion in disciplinarystructures of, 134–8, 150–4; and women,193–4, 195. See also Cambridge University;education; libraries; Oxford University
University of Basel, 277University of Bologna, 444, 545–6University of Coimbra, 387University of Leiden, 238–9, 241, 247, 278, 279,
283, 284f, 304–5, 416University of Marburg, 261University of Mexico, 823University of Montpellier, 416University of Padua, 280, 416, 444, 640University of Paris, 367, 385, 386, 399, 563, 642–3University of Pisa, 285University of Santo Domingo, 821n10University of Uppsala, 467–8University of Utrecht, 429University of Vienna, 485University of Wittenberg, 385, 573, 578, 736Uraniborg (Denmark), 229. See also Brahe,
Tycho
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Urban VIII, Pope, 377, 746Ursus, Sabbatino de, 832
vacuum, and foundations of physics,57–8
Valerio, Luca, 713, 714Valignano, Alessandro, 829, 830Valla, Lorenzo, 135Valturio, Roberto, 317van den Zype (Zypaeus), Francois, 433–4van der Straet, Jan. See Stradanus, Johannesvan der Waerden, Bartel Leendert, 722Varenius, Bernhardus, 492Varignon, Pierre, 670–1, 672Vasari, Giorgio, 528, 787–8, 788–9Vauban, Sebastien Le Prestre de, 315–16Vaughan, Thomas, 514Vazquez, Pedro, 826Vega, Lope de, 206Vegio, Maffeo, 499Veracruz, Alonso de, 823Verbiest, Ferdinand, 832, 833–4Vesalius, Andreas: and anatomy, 112, 116–17, 240,
276, 285, 345, 414–16, 782–3; and dedication ofbooks to courtly patrons, 258; on illustrationsand experience, 116–17, 240; medicine andman of science, 183–4, 186; printing of worksof, 328, 353; and scientific household, 226
Vespucci, Amerigo, 16, 472, 479, 483Vespuzio, Alberico, 484Viete, Francois, 701, 710, 714, 714–16, 722Vieussens, Raymond, 430Vigo, Giovanni da, 316villages, and natural knowledge in countryside,
217–21. See also rural lifeVio, Thomas de (Cardinal Cajetan), 381–2Virginia, Raleigh expedition to, 452virtual space, and networks of communication,
355–60Vitruvius, 678Vives, Juan Luis, 296Viviani, Vincenzo, 650, 651, 680Volckamer family, 232Volder, Burchardus de, 305Volpaia, Lorenzo della, 679, 681, 693vortices, and Newton’s theory of planetary
motion, 667–8
Waldseemuller, Martin, 479, 693, 764Wallis, John, 155, 597, 609, 660–1, 701, 752war and warfare: constant state of in early
modern period, 306–7, 319; and mechanicalarts, 679, 684, 691–2. See also military science
Ward, Seth, 152, 183Warren, George, 769
Watt, Joachim von, 494–5Webster, John, 302Weiditz, Hans, 526Weierstrass, Karl, 720n43weights, and mechanics, 635–6. See also scientia
de ponderibusWestfall, Richard S., 728West Indies, and natural history, 450Westman, Robert, 738Weyer, Johann, 417n30Wharton, Thomas, 430White, Andrew Dickson, 727, 747White, John, 452White, Thomas, 152Whitehorne, Peter, 318Wieland, Melchior, 442Wiles, Andrew J., 701n11Wilhelm IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, 255,
260–1, 264, 577Wilkins, John, 118, 752William of Ockham, 732William of Rubruck, 342Willis, Thomas, 183, 187, 430, 431Willughby, Francis, 331–2, 767Windsor, Ann, 228Winkelmann, Maria, 200, 232Winkelmann family, 232Wirsung, Georg, 430witchcraft: and charges against Kepler’s mother,
765; and magic, 520; and medicine, 417.See also magic
Witelo, 612, 616Wittenberg interpretation, of Copernicanism,
738Wolff, Christian, 696Wolff, Jacob, 219Wolfgang II von Hohenlohe, Count, 290, 506women: as artisans, 199–201; colonies and
colonialism, 201–5; and labor in scientifichouseholds, 234–6; and learned elites, 193–9;and mathematics, 668–70; new attitudestoward in early modern period, 192; andscience at courts, 254–5; and system ofexclusion, 179. See also gender; sex difference
Woodward, John, 467workshops: Bacon on empiricism of, 212–13, 221;
and curiosity cabinets, 265; and home orhousehold, 227. See also laboratories
Worm, Olaus, 264Worsley, Benjamin, 552Wren, Christopher, 330, 660, 661, 665Wurstisen, Christian, 385–6
Xavier, Francis, 828–9Xu Guangqi, 834
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Yang Kuang-hsien, 833Yates, Frances, 374, 521, 757Young, Thomas, 631
Zabarella, Jacopo, 75n14, 82, 85, 94–100, 102,104, 141–2, 159, 381, 382n76
Zamorano, Rodrigo, 484Zara, Bishop Antonio, 491
Zarlino, Gioseffo, 596, 602–3Zeuxis, 775Zilsel, Edgar, 199zoology: and Aldrovandi’s studies of fish, 193,
210; and difficulty of collecting specimens,456–7
Zumarraga, Bishop Juan de, 822,823–7
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