~600 ~1200

General Observations◦Religious AND

political AND economic causes

◦Targeting Muslim lands AND other enemies (Orthodox, Byzantine, heretics)

Geopolitical side◦West (Rome) vs. East (Constantinople)◦Barbarian invasions Evolution of Rome as

separate center◦Legacy of old Roman Empire: Identity, pride◦Pope (Rome) vs. Patriarch (Constantinople)

ByzantineEmpire

Geopolitical Side: “Holy Roman Empire” (West) vs. “Roman (Byzantine) Empire” (East)

Religious side:◦ Latin vs. Greek

religious culture◦ Authority of pope over

eastern patriarchs◦ Theological disputes◦ 1054: Great Schism:

Rome vs. Constantinople: Papal legate vs. patriarch: mutual excommunication

◦ Long-term Split within Christendom: Western (Catholic) vs. Eastern (Orthodox)

Christianity among Arabs:◦ Eastern, Southern

shores of Mediterranean◦ Periphery of Byzantine

Empire◦ ‘Eastern Rite’ churches

Historical Background: Dispute over human

and divine natures of Jesus

Council of Chalcedon: Fully human, fully divine, fully joined as one

Accepted by Rome, Constantinople, rejected elsewhere

Arabian Peninsula◦ Caught between 2

empires◦ Outside ‘sphere’ of

Christianity Birth of Muhammad

(c. 570) Began to spread

prophecies ~ 622 Political, religious

impact

Expansion of Islam (7th-10th c.) ◦Widespread conversion from Christianity

in ‘Eastern Rite’ areas◦Holy Land passes to Muslim control

Widespread presence of Jewish communities in Christian, Muslim worlds

Muslim populations in ‘overlap’ areas

Christian World: Byzantine East generally more tolerant than Latin West

Muslim World generally more tolerant than Latin Christian World

Economic role of Jewish communities (moneylending) dislike

Christian religious prejudice towards Muslims (more), Jews (less)

“Overlap areas” (Spain, Sicily): Greater tolerance, multi-cultural environment

Intellectual contacts:◦ Mostly indirect (through

translation)◦ Respect for Islamic

scholarship◦ Islamic scholars’ lack of

enthusiasm for ‘barbarian’ civilization

Background Factors (Social & economic)◦Fragmentation, militarization of European society

◦Surplus of noble sons, knights needing land & livelihood

Feudalism

Background factors (geopolitical)◦Rivalry between Christian and Muslim powers◦Authority of ‘papal monarchy’

Over Christian rulers of Western Europe Over Eastern Christians

1000 1100

Medieval Religious Culture◦ Christians’

‘obsession’ with Jerusalem, loss of Holy Land

◦ Preoccupation with sin, need for penance

◦ Belief in purgatory, indulgencesTradition of pilgrimages

Pope Urban II and Council of Clermont (1095)◦ Free Christians from

Muslim rule◦ Liberate Holy

Sepulchre (Tomb of Jesus)

◦ Respond to appeal from Byzantine Emperor

First Crusade 1096: Capture of Antioch, Jerusalem

Founding of Crusader States (Outremer)◦Feudal kingdoms

linked to European political families

◦Rivalries, conflicts over power, land, money

◦Christian toehold on edge of Muslim world

1187 Jerusalem retaken by Saladin

Fourth Crusade 1202◦Diverted by

European politics◦Sacked

Constantinople

Saladin

1212 Children’s Crusade (France, Germany)

1290s—Muslim reconquest of last Holy Land territories

PaintingOfChildren’sCrusade

Surrenderof Acre(Last FrankishKingdom)1291

Reconquista (Christian reconquest of Spain)◦ Late 11th c. (religious vs.

geopolitical concerns)◦ Gradual incorporation

into wider Crusades◦ 1492 Final defeat of

Granada (last Muslim kingdom)

1000

1400

Assessment: What was accomplished?◦Temporary

reconquest of Holy Land

◦Heavy human, material losses

◦Social, political disruption

◦Further militarization of European society (orders of knights)

Return of the Crusaderby Lessing

Geopolitical:◦ Consolidation of “fault-

line” within Mediterranean world

◦ Strengthening of Muslim powers, rise of Ottomans (Turks)

◦ 1453: Fall of Constantinople to Ottomans

1300

Ottoman Expansion1600

Religious:◦ Hardening of religious

identities (Catholic vs. Orthodox, Christian vs. Muslim)

◦ Heightened sense of ‘Christendom’ vs. ‘Heathendom’, especially in Catholic West

◦ Increase in anti-Muslim sentiment in Europe

◦ Linking of Muslims, Jews as non-Christian “Semitic” minorities Forced conversions of

Muslims, Jews in Spain Pogroms, economic

measures against Jews

Global:◦Commercial rivalry◦Religious rivalry

The Crusades in Memory (until 19th century)◦ Catholics◦ Protestants◦ Muslims

19th-20th centuries◦ British, French empires

vs. Ottoman Empire revival of Crusading rhetoric on both sides

◦ Expansion of Christianity in proximity to Islam (Africa, Asia)

Equation of “West” with “Christianity” Western power linked to threat of Christianity

Palestine problem, US support for Israel linking of “Zionist” & Christian interests (reinforced by American Christians)

Global perceptions of American power reinforce suspicions of Christianity

Post 9/11: Perception of Christian “crusade” against Muslim world

How do we respond as Christians?◦ ‘Not my fault—where got Chinese

crusaders?’◦ ‘The past is the past’◦ ‘Those were Catholics, I’m Protestant’◦ ‘I don’t believe in fighting or killing in the

name of religion’