THE PUNCTIONIHO OF IMMEDIATE VERBAL FEEDBACK IK
PAIRED ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING WITH
JFORMALS AMD RETARDATES
AMOPIPT
(/ / / N .
Minor bromsor
IJAXT (V-o^-v—, Direetap o£ tin* bep t r taen t o r f sy tno logy
Dean bf the'Graduate Sehool
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THESIS
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
North Texas State University la Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
MASTER OF SCXEKCE
Joseph Vllllaa Ferrer*, B. ft.
Benton, Texas
AUGUST,, 196$
TABLE OF C0UTENTS
LIST OF * s m m . . . . . . . . . . . f i f ®
C h a p t e r
I . I N T R O D U C T I O N 3,
i i » m L A T w s t u d i e s 1*
I I I . M e t h o d . 2 1
S u b j a o t a
Experimental Design Selection T a s k P r o c e d u r e
IV , RESULTS AMD DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . 26
B e e u l t a
D i s c u s s i o n
1 , SUKMAH* A m m c m m m a t i o u i . 3 1
Summary
Recoraaiendat lone
APPENDIX A 34 4k 4MNk ifftft iMiriiiriM-ttirrtiaif i Tn uri n ^
APPIUDIX B 36
s m i o s R A P u r 3@
i l l
LIST W TABLES
Tabl* Page
X. Summary of Analysis of Yarlanee with formal® and Retardates Taatad Under Conditions ©f Reinforcement and ITon-llelnfor«eiient ©a a Paired Associativa Learning Tack . . , . 26
II. ltocn» and Standard Deviations of Intelligent# Laval Evaluated Under Conditions of Relnforoeaant and Xon-Beinforeeskent . . . . 27
lv
CHAPTER I
INTRODUGflOM
In psychological research the underlying Male purpose
is to question, discover phenomena, variables or condition®
which affect then and find lawfulness or orderliness of their
effects. The manipulation of verbal feedback In paired
associative learning represents one of the many methods
enabling scientists to explore natural events, the variables
affecting such eonditlons, and the lawfulness of each effect.
Considerable experimental evidence lndleates that a person
who has knowledge of his performance will learn more than a
subject of comparable ability who is working win the dark" (1)*
Knowledge of performance may be gained In either of two weyst
(a) the subject may be Informed concerning the correctness of
each response as it is made, or (b) the individual may be
Informed of his learning after .he has completed the entire
task. Zn general# research concentrated on knowledge of
performance involves the giving or withholding of Information
during and for varying amounts of time after the performance.
The central purpose of this study is to ascertain the
function of immediate verbal feedback after each response on
learning a paired associative task with normal and retarded
subjects.
2
Based on various learning theories reporting that the
level of learning is related to reinforcement, it was felt
that a theoretical background could be formulated whloh would
be the basis for the present study.
^fhe basic concepts of modern assQciatlonisra were foww-
lated by Edward L. Thorndlke (12), His interpretations were
based upon experimental observations of the problem-solving
behavior of eats in pussle boxes. Impressed by the charae-
terlstle trial-and-error behavior which his eats displayed
in eecaplng from pussle boxes, Thorndlke ooneluded that the
basis process Involved in learning was one of "stamping In"
correct responses and of "stamping out" incorrect responses.
This stamping in and stamping out of a response tendency
by its satisfaction and pleasantness or discomfort and annoy-
ance constitutes Thorndlke*s original "law of effect", which
he formulated as followss
Any act which in a given situation produces satis-faction becomes associated with the situation, so that when the situation recurs the act is more likely than before to recur alao. Conversely, any act which in a given situation produces discomfort become disassociated from that situation, so that when the situation recurs the act Is less likely than before to recur (IS, p. 203).
Some thirty years after the original animal experiments
which led to the formulation of the law of effect, Thorndlke
re-examined the law by experlmenta on human subjects (10, 13).
One such experiment involved the administering of an examina-
tion consisting of Spanish words. Bach Spanish word had five
alternative Sngllsh words, only one of whloh was correct. The
subjects were to underline the word which they thought to be
correct and listen for the examiner to announce, "flightw
(rewarded response) or "Wrong" (punished response}# As a
result of the experiment involving Spanish terminology with
human subjects, Thorndlke (11) concluded that reward leads
to repetition of the rewarded eonneetioni but punishment does
not lead to a weakening of the punished connection. Thorodike
maintained that the announcement of wrong did not weaken con-
nective bonds. These results demonstrated a strong positive
effect of reward but no comparable negative effect of punish-
ment. The effeet of punishment* Thorndlke concluded, was not
exactly to "dissociate a response from a situation" (11), but
rather to cause the learner to try something else until a
response was rewarded, thus becoming positively associated
with the situation.
Thorndlke'* law of effect is a law of association* The
organism forms associative reinforced "bonds'1 or "connections8 b e t w , e n * n a )
There were several investigations performed by Ivan Pavlov (9)
that demonstrated the establishment of an association. In a
series of animal experiments, Pavlov applied the term uncondi-
tional stimulus (UCS) to the mat powder, which elicited the
unconditioned response (OCR). Pavlov demonstrated that after
repeated ©cessions on which a bell was sounded immediately
before the meat powder was placed in the dog(s mouth, the bell
alone came to produce an increased flow of saliva. Pavlov
called this change in the animate behavior a conditioned
response (CH)j the previously "neutral" stimuli!© (the bell)
had become a conditioned stimulus (C8)» /
(As a result of Thorodike•s formulation of the law of
effect and Favlov's discovery of the conditioned response,
a common observation of their studies is evident. On© such
observation Is that fhorndito's "reward* and Pavlov*a "rein-
forcement" appear to have a eoosoon function. Both contribute
positively to establishing an assoeiation.
'ihe theoretical basis for Guthrie's system is formulated
on the principle of conditioning. 3ueh a theory has as its
cornerstone the contiguity of stimulus and response. Quthrie
stated his position of learning as being! "a combination of
stimuli which has accompanied a movement will on its recur*
reuse tend to be followed by that movement* (15# p. 23)$ or
learning depends upon contiguity of stimulus and response
pattern alone.
Such a framework is best represented by an experiment
introduced by Quthrie and liorton (6). Unlike Thorndike'e
pusele boxes, Quthrie*s design included two separate and dis-
tinct features. The front of Quthrie*s pussele box was wade
of glass allowing freedom for not only observation in the
usual sense, but photographic recordings. The second feature
that differentiated Guthrie*s pussle box from that of
ThrondIke's was the addition of a special release mechanism.
Such an apparatus consisted of a post suspended from the top
or protudlng from the floor of the box. The slightest
pressure by the animal from any direction would open the door
and also activate a camera which recorded the animal's move-
mint at that moment.
After the cats were introduced into the puzsle box from
a starting compartment in the rear, observations of the ani-
mal's behavior were recorded. The first awl. foremost obser-
vation was a tendency for the animal to repeat the precise
movements leading up to and including the escape movement.
The importance of successful repetitive patterning of behavior
provided evidence for continuity learning. The pattern of
escape movements was repeated because it removed the animal
from the pussle box. Still further, the learning of new
responses over old supported the principle that associations
reach their full strength upon the first pairing* or learning
is complete in one trial.
Unlike Thorndlke, Outhrie does not subscribe to rein-
forcement as a. factor necessary for learning, The eat learns
the correct Movements by stimulus response contiguity.
Our position is that what is associated is a stimulus and a response. By calling them assoel&ted# we mean that the stimulation M s become the occasion for the response because of a past association of the two (*, p. 23).
Reward or reinforcement, according to Guthrie, functions In
preventing the animal from breaking up previously learned pat*
terns. The eat engaged in consuramatory responses is kept not
only from moving about, but from establishing new stimulus
response connections. The ultimate condition of reward is to
prevent the animal from unlearning nuwessful movements.
6
TnomxUfce maintained that reward strengthens a connec-
tion, favlov imported that a conditioned atimulua paired
with an unconditioned stimulus produces a conditioned
response, and Guthrie stated that reinforcement prevents
the unlearning of successful aoveainti, but Clark I#. Hull
demonstrated that reward leads to "drive reduction, which
functions aa the essentlsl factor in order for learning to
occur .j Thle la evident in the following quotation of pos-
tulate row aa originally formulated by Hull.
When an effector activity (r~R) and a receptor activity (S-s) occur in close temporal contiguity (sflr), and this (sOr) l» closely associated with the diminution of a need (0) or with a stimulus which has been closely and consistently associated with the diminution of a need (0), there will result an increment to a tendency ( elr) for that afferent impulse on later occasions to evoke that reaction, fhe increments for successive reinforcement summate in a manner which yields a combined habit strength (sKr) which is a simple positive growth function of the number of reinforcements (R). The upper limit (N) of this curve of learning is the product of (1) a positive growth function of the magnitude of need reduction which is involved in primary, or which Is associated with secondary reinforcement* (2) a neg-ative function of the delay (t) in reinforcementi and (3) (a) a negative growth junction of the degree of aaynchronism (t') of S and ft when both are of brief duration, or (b) in case the action of S is prolonged so as to overlap the beginning of R, a negative growth function of the duration (t1) of the continuous action of 8 on the receptor when 1 begins (8, p. 178).
In the preceding quotation of Hull's postulate number . / * j -f '1
four, there are two major parts 4^ there is the factor which
deals with temporal contiguity as an important condition of
learning and the later portion of the postulate concerning the functioning of reinforcement.
The first factor which deals with temporal contiguity
i« where the conditioned stimulus gust be closely associated
with the unconditioned response before conditioning occurs,
Nor* precisely, habit strength (sXr), which represents the
Hulllan intervening variable for learning, depends upon olose
temporal contiguity of the receptor and effector activities
involved. It la the tendency to respond under conditions of
need reduction which become associated with the stimulus*
The second portion of Hull's fourth postulate concerns
the concepts of primary and secondary reinforcement. Primary
reinforcement Is similar to the food in Pavlov's condition-
lng experiment, the food is a primary reinforoer because it
reduces the animal's need for food whereas secondary relti~
forcemtnt results when stimuli closely associated with primary
reinforcement become effective in reducing needs. Itill
further, secondary reinforcement is a function of stimuli
rather than of needs. Bull (7) later defines primary rein-
forceaent as drlve-stlnulus, being those stimuli arising
froa the viscera, such as hunger pangs. fhe critical condi-
tion of reinfercement then is not the reduction of a need
for food, but the reduction of the drive stimuli, as in
satisfying a craving rather than a need. 4
As indicated in the revised portion of Bull's fourth
postulate {?), habit strength is built as a result of repe-
titions of successive reinforcement. Thus, learning or habit
strength (sHr) is related to the nuafeer of reinforced trials.
a
H. H. Elliott (3)< in a place learning experiment,
utilised a T-mase in which two groups of hungry rats wrt
to find rewards of bran sash and sunflower teed. The brut
mash group was the experimental group while the rats receiv-
ing sunflower seed represented the oontrol group. After a
ten day period# the reward of the experimental group ©f rats
was changed from bran sash to sunflower seed. At this point,
learning was disrupted, as demonstrated by an increase in
errors. This disruption of learning resulted because the
animals had built up an expectancy for the bran nash. Their
expectancy was not confirmed when they were changed to sun-
flower seed, as the bran mash was the more desirable of the
two. What was established was not primarily a motor response
but an expectancy of finding food. If the food was found,
the expectancy was confirmed and strengthened. As a result
of Elliott's experiment, a brief summary of Thorndlke's
position on reinforcement is In order.
The core of Thorod lice's theory was that learning
occurred 1» the course of a stimulus-response-reward
sequence. The reward or reinforcement acted as a factor
to strengthen the stimulus response connection. The reward
Itself was not learned. In the following Quotation# Tolman
rejects Thorodike's reinforcement concept, stating that the
whole sequence of stlmulus-response-reinforcement was
learned.
Hr objection to Thorndike's LAW of Sffeot was not to the importance of motivation as a faetor in learning, tout rather to his wholly asohanleal notion as to it» operation toy way of effect. Aooordlng to Thorndlke, an animal learned, not because it achieved a waited goal toy a certain aariaa of responses, tout nerely toeeauae a quite irrelevant "pleasantness" or "unpleasantness* was, s© to speak, shot at it, as from a squirt gun, after it tadI resetted the given goal-box or gone into the given eul de sae. And it la this mm quite mechanical and irrelevant notion as to tlit operation of the modern successor of 8ffe«t*~ wReinforcementtt--which underlies, t believe, m o&ln objection to it (2, p. 329-30).
folwan ( I k ) proposed a cognitive theory of learning in
place of the Law of Iffeet. His theory suggests that the
learner toullda up a comprehensive aequaintanoe or field
nap with his envlronnent, so that he la atole to go from one
pleoe to another without toeing restrleted toy a series of
toodily Movements. An experiment was eoastrueted toy Tolman
and Bonslk (15) to test the proposed eognltlve theory. A
naze in the for* of a eroee with two poasltole starting
positions and two alternative goals was designed. One
group of rats was trained so that they always found food
at the same place, irrespective of their starting position.
Another group of rats was required to m m the sane response
of turning right regardless of their starting position,
the results supported the cognitive theory in that the
place learners were significantly toetter in their perform-
ance than the response learners. Thus, learning a plaee
requires a eognltlve map of that plaee as opposed to a
specific set of motor responses.
10
tti® principle in Tolaan1* theory that Is the counterpart
or replacement for reinforcement is the principle of csenflr®a-
tion. If en expectancy is confirmed, it is strengthened and
its probability value inoreases. However, if an expectancy
is not eonf iraed, it is weakened i and its probability value
decreases ami leads to extinction.
At this point, one Bight ask what is it that is rein*
foroed or strengthened? Is it the stimulus response bond*
the assoeiation between the aetronoae and the salivary
response# the eontiguity of stlaulus and response, the
reduction of drive, or the confirming of an expectancy? A
possibility that has been suggested is that feedback or
knowledge of results is the strengthening condition* and
it contributes to the subject by giving hi» important
information about his task or environment. Troland (16)
recognized the fact that behavior does not end with the
response to a stimulus, but includes adjustment of that
response on the basis of further Information about the
situation.
These empirical studies and statements represent the
basis from which the following hypotheses were fonaulated.
1. Subjects having immediate knowledge of their per-
formance will reach a higher level of proficiency on a
paired associative learning task than those subjects who
are deprived of reinforcement.
11
2. normal subtests with immediate knowledge of their
performance will perform at «. higher level of profieleney
than retardate® who have imraedlate knowledge of their per-
formme.
3. The performance level of normal eubjaota deprived
of immediate verbal reinforceaent will be algnifloently
hi^ier than retarded subjects who are deprived of immediate
verbal reinf oroe**nt.
CKAPTIR i m M m m m f w
1. Amnons, R. B*» "Effects of Knowledge of Performance," il of Oatwral fayohology, LIV (April. 1956).
2. Boring, I. 0., editor, A History of Psychology 1 Autobiography, VolT IfTWroHsl ;er,' Massachuse11s, Clark University Press, 1952.
3. Billott# N. it., "The Bffeet of Change of Reward on the Maze Performance of Rata,® gnlverslty of California Publication* Psychology. IV (May, 192tJJ, 19-^0.
k. Quthrie, Edwin Rv, Candlfcloningt A theory; of learning 1 Aaaoe latlonT tonal '¥o®lety
for the Study of Education, 19%2.
5. •vSE ¥mPm* r York, Harper, 1952.
6. and 0. P. Morton, Cats In a ?uzzle fork, Rlnehart Company, "*
7- Hull, Clark L., A Behavior Syateau lew Haven, Yale University fress, 1^52.
8. , Principles of Behavior. Mew York, Appletori-Century-Croftc, 1943.
Pavlov, Ivan P., Condition Reflexes; A of the Cortex Oxford University Press, 1927.
10. Thomdlke, Edward L., |m giffp|immi £M$Z 2t M®mttb Mew York, Bureau of Publications, Columbia University,, 1933.
11. . "Reward and Punlshaent," Journal - J " 1 "L -ur'Jmimi Psychology, I {April* 1932),' K , ""
12. , The Elements of PsyehGlofor* Mew woman; win wnteJiMM* ii<agfe»wji)tsi»wwfe »w»i' * *mtrnrnm m m iiij>>fliwiiiiii»i«B>!i rwi i m r n d m m *- *
YoipIC$ Jfc i> 0 V 2|0 XHI } X *
12
13
13- Thorndlke, Edward L., Ttie ffundaiaentalB of Learning. Hew York, Bureau of imiMiiew, coraola ffiSwBwity» 193a,
1%. Tolaan, Bdward C., "Cognitive Naps In Bats and Ifen." Psychological Review, LV (July, 19*8}» 189-208.
15- , ., _. . ._ „ and C. H. Honxik, "Degree* of Hunger Reward and fon-Reward* and Maze Learning in
16. Troland, L. T.# The Fundamental® of Huaan Motivation, Hew York, I>7TanT&oS*rtt^^
cHArra® xi
RELATED STUDIES
Subjects who are effectively provided with immediate
knowledge of their performance reach a higher level of
learning proficiency than subjects who are deprived, of
reinforcement. Studies exploring the conditions of knowl-
edge of performance span a wide range of different tasks
and subject variable*. However, research appears lacking
when comparing normal subjects with retarded subjects In
connection with immediate knowledge of performance. As
a result, investigations in the general area concerning
knowledge of performance will formulate the basis of
related studies*
Thorndlke (11) in teaan refers to the former
acceptance of the view that the mere repetition of a situation
in and of itself produces learning, and then states that this
is not true. In an experiment involving 3#0OO attempts to
draw with eyes closed lines of given lengths, the lines drawn
in the last two of the twelve sittings were not drawn any bet-
ter than those in the first and second sittings. 4s reported
by Thorndlke*s investigation, the learner had a task and a
goal but no way of knowing how far he fell short of it each
time and no way of knowing in what manner to change his per-
formance in order to function at a higher level. The necessity
14
15
for some type of check or appraisal of performance lit terms
of tiie desired outcome was indicated by the results of his
Investigation.
Kingsley (?) informed M s subjects after each trial as
to the degree of over or underestimation of their line draw-
ings. Three groups with seven subjects each were utilized.
They were asked to close their eyes and draw four inch lines.
This was repeated until eaoh subject had drawn 400 lines
without opening his eyes, looking at his product, or receiv-
ing any information regarding the suocess of their attempts.
They were then given twenty-five more trialsi and after each
trial, they opened their eyes and placed a four inch strip
of cardboard along the line they had Just drawn. It showed
at once how Much their line was too short or too long. 0nder
this procedure, errors were reduced and improvement was rapid
throughout the twenty-five trials.
Trowbridge and Cason (12) duplicated Thorndlke's study
with the additional observation that the degree of improve-
ment was directly related to amount of information provided.
The more specific the knowledge concerning the nature of
performance, the greater the improvement.
Brown (3) obtained results which demonstrated the sig-
nificance of providing knowledge of performance. Arithmetic
problems were given dally to 138 subjects for twenty day® in
fifth and seventh grade classes. Plowman and Strowd (9)
demonstrated the significance of providing knowledge of
16
performance with 850 tenth and eleventh grade «las®#« also
utilising arlthmrti* proble«s. In both of these Iwveatlga*
tiooii eaah group served as Its own working under
both conditions of waiving results and being without
taowledge of their performance.
Johsnsea (5) «t«tfi that sttbjeets effeetively given
teowledge of performance eoaaeming their annual motion
tiae with a telegraph icey significantly Improved their
speed, whereas those who received no knowledge of their
perfenttnee demonstrate?! little iaproveaent to their manual
reaction tim.
Working with difficult Xagllsh and Russian vocabulary
items and fasts in the field of psychology, Pressey (10)
demonstrated the signifioaase of knowledge of performance.
Subjeeta who repeated examination® with an immediate self-
sowing arrangement demonstrated a m m h higher level of
learning than did those to whoa the teat was repeatedly
given without the self-sserlng arrangement* Congruent
with Pressey's study, Angell <1) and Morgan and Horgan (8)
also discovered signifieant gains with subjects who lass-
diately received correctness of examination aaawers and
results of test seores.
army (2) reported an experiment on training gunners
to traek targets with a *0-aa gun. the taak in traeking
involved continuous sighting of the gun on a moving object.
Tracking with the %0-wa gun required two men, one to follow
IT
the horizontal movements of the target, the other to follow
the vertical movements. The standard Army method of train-
ing in thia skill was to give verbal inatruetions and
coaching before, during, and after each session or trial
of gunnery praotlce.
Three experimental oonditions were utilised to validate
the effectiveness of the training procedure. In group A
the standard Army method was utilised) in Group B each man
coached his partner! and in Oroup € a special telescopic
sight mounted on the gun was used to check the accuracy of
aim, so that the instructor eould sound a bucser whenever
the gun was off target, giving the men Immediate knowledge
of results. The men in Oroup C were also told what scores
they had at the end of each course. As Indicated by the
results of Bray*® investigation, subjects receiving imme-
diate knowledge of performance reached a higher level of
accuracy or proficiency than did those in the other groups..
Angell (1) experimented with immediate chemistry test
results. Students receiving information about right and
wrong answers performed at a higher level than those stu-
dents who were deprived of Immediate test results. Keller (6)
utilised a Morse code reception apparatus t© validate imme-
diate knowledge of performance. Subjects, who were Informed
after each word whether or not they were right, learned wore
than those subjects which received reinforcement after a
group of words. Still further, Houston (4) designed a study
18
of firing with the Pedestal Sight Manipulation fest so that
it was possible to compare trainees who were Informed Imme-
diately about their performance toy seeing a red filter drop
over the pieture of the target plane with trainees who were
given their results after larger units of trials, those
trainees who were given isnaediate reinforcement fey means of
the red filter were superior in performance.
In the preoedlng investigations, it was pointed out
that conditions toeing similar* the sooner a subject knows
of his performance, the more effect the given information
has in allowing suitable corrections of responses from one
trial to the next.
CHAPTER II BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
2.
4.
5-
T.
8.
9.
10,
11.
Angell, 0. W,, "The Sffects of Immediate Knowledge of Quiz Results on Final Examination Soorea in Freshnan Chemistry." Journal of Educational Resea^gh, XLXI (May,
Bray, C. M., Psychology and Military Proficiency, Princeton, Princeton ttaiwrafty Press,
Brown, F., "Knowledge of Basulta as an Incentive in Schoolroom Practice." Journal of Sduoational ggyoholofor, m i l (Octolkr, "l935r)7
Houaton, R. €*, "The Function of Knowledge of Results in Learning A Coaplex Motor Skill,/1 unpublished master's thesis, Bepartmeat of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, 19*7.
Johanaon, A. N., "Influence of Inaantiva and Puniahmant
? S U r S £ e ^ 7 1 1 1
Keller, F. 8«, "Studiea in International Korea Coda," l ^ l ^ f A p p U ^ Fwoholomr. XXVII (Ootober,
Kings ley, 8* L., Mature an Hew Jersey, frenHce-
and. Conditio* » •**©»*
of Learning
Morgan, C. L. and I#. "V. Morgan, "Effects of Immediate Awareness of Suooeee a M Failure Upon Objective Examination Scores," Journal of gxyrlaanfcal
I? (Bepteal •35T,^r 55"
Plowman, Letha and J. Stroud, "Effecta of Informing Pupils of the Correctness of Their Response® to Objective Teat Questions," Journal Research. XXXVI (September, lpl)7 X6-SG.
Preaaey, 8. L., "Development and Appraisal of Devioes Providing mediate Automatic Scoring of Objective Teata and Coneoaitant Self-Instruction," Journal 2£ Paxohology. XXIX (January, 1950), 417-447.
Thorndlke, Sdward L., Human Learning. New York, Appleton, 1931•
19
20
12. Trowbridge, N. H. awl H. Cason, "An Experimental Study of Thorndilce'R Theory of Learning,"
a a t s 6 2 i f i t t ' T O ( 0 o t o b * r '
cmmm in
METHOD
Subjects
Twenty-two normal and twenty-two retarded students
were utilized a® subject® for the present study. Th@
normal subjects w w from an elementary school in Denton,
Texasi and the mentally retarded subjeots were fro® the
Benton State School, Only those students with mental ages
(MA) In the range fro® seven to ten years were included.
There were three subjects at the seven, eight, and nine
year mental age levels and two subjects at the ten year
mental age level for both normal and retarded groups. For
the normal group, IQ's ranged fro* 90-110, while chrono-
logical age (CA) was seven to ten years. In the mentally
retarded group, IQ's ranged fro® 50-70, whereas their
chronological age (CA) ranged fro® nine to twenty-one
years.
Experimental Design
The design was a two by two analysis of variance in
which groups of normal and retarded subjects were tested !
under conditions of reinforcement and non-reinforcement.
Reinforcement was Immediate verbal knowledge of performance
21
22
on a paired associative learning task recording the total
number correct for each subject.
Selection
The twenty-two normal subjects were selected on the
basis of the California Short-Form Test of Hental Maturity (1),
and an equal number of retarded subjects were selected by
the Stanford-Binet Test of Intelligence. I960 revision (2).
Test results dating back to 1963 through 1965 for each nor-
mal and retarded subject were ascertained from the master
file® of the elementary school and Denton State School
respectively. All retardates with apparent sensory or motor
Impairment were exoluded, as were subjects with moderate or
gross brain damage. The criterion for evaluation of brain
damage was the Bender Qestalt examination and records desig-
nating the frequency of seizures since time of admission to
the Denton State School. Retarded subjects with significant
impairment due to medication were also excluded.
Task
The coding A subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale
for Children (3) was adapted for the present investigation.
Each subject was shown a star, circle, triangle, cross, and
square having corresponding alphabetical letters A, 1# c , D,
and X. For the reinforced subjects, each geometric symbol
was shown manually on a silver screen for a ten second dura-
tion. The non-reinforced subjects were shown each geometric
23
aynbol electronically on the same aliver m m m for a ten
aecond Swot ion*
Each aubject waa given a aheet of white, unruled paper
that was eight and one-half itwshea wide ami eleven inches
long to be uaed for tha recording of their reapontes (aee
appendix A). Acroaa tha top of tha reaponae aheet waa tha
word "Oroup", which designated tha aubgroup for each sub-
Jeot. For the convenience of tha exaatlner, a acoring key
waa deviaed on whiah the correct alphabetical letter® for
each reaponae appear (aee appendix B)»
Procedure
Fro* their reapectiv* groups, tha noraal and mentally
retarded eubjecta were randomly divided into four subgroups
containing eleven meitibera aaoh. Upon entering tha dimly
lighted experimental classroom, subjects were seated facing
a aliver acreen in pairs of two to each table, and placed
before them were a reaponae sheet and a red lead pencil
without an eraaer. After each subject waa aeated In hi®
respective place, attention was focused ©w hia reaponae
aheet. Each aubject waa inatructed to notice that hia
reaponae aheet conaiated of two reaponae columna, and that
each of these reaponae columna contained forty-five blank
apace® except for lespona® Colmm I which had five addi-
tional blank apacea. At thia point, subjects were inatructed
that the five additional blank spaces of Reaponae Column I
were to be uaed aa sample learning trlala in order to
2#
facilitate complete understanding of how, when, and where to
record their response®. The initial instructions were then
administered!
fou are going to tee shown a set of geometric symbols that have corresponding alphabetical letter®. You are to place the letter you think corresponds with the exposed symbol on your answer sheet.
Each geometric symbol was exposed separately with Its co-
responding alphabetical letter accompanied by the following
instructionst
When you see a star, you are to record on your answer sheet the alphabetical letter A. When you see a circle, you are to record on your answer sheet the alphabetical letter B, etc.
Sample learning trials V-Z were then given without rein-
forcement to all subgroups followed by the initial numerical
trials 1-90 with subgroups A and 1 receiving immediate ver-
bal reinforcement, Reinforcement, as used in the present
experiment, consisted of the instructor giving the oorrect
alphabetical letter verbally after each geometric syiasbol
was exposed for a ten second duration.
cmnrn m bibliooraph*
1. Sullivan, 1. W. W. Clark, and 1. W. fi«ga, California Short-Form ftp. of Ifiilal iffipl&h
2, Taraan, L. II. and X. A. Marrill, Stanford-Btnet
Waehslar, D., jtoasl. M m IPI.
25
CHAPTER I?
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results
In an attempt to measure immediate knowledge of per-
formance, twenty-two normal subjects and an equal number of
mentally retarded subjects were administered a paired asso-
ciative learning task under conditions of reinforcement and
non-reinforcement.
TABLE I
mWlhM Of ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE WITH NORMALS AND RETARDATES TESTED UNDER CONDITIONS OF REINFORCEMENT AND NON-REINFORCHHENT
ON A PAIRED ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING TASK
Source of Variation Sun SO, DP Mean SQ f P
Reinforcement Intelligence Level Reinforcement x
Intelligence Within
23578.1290 2339-1*72
16.3980 7393.oOll
1. 1.
1. 39*
23378.1290 2339*1472
16.3980 189-5795
124,3706 12.3386
.0864
• 001 .01
Total 42
A summary of the analysis of variance concerning immediate
knowledge of performance with reinforced groups compared to
non-relnforoed groups and normals contrasted with retardates
on a paired associative learning task appear in Table I.
26
27
The analysis reveals significant performance levels between
the reinforced, non-reinforced groups and the normals versus
retarded groups at the .001 and *01 levels respectively.
However, the interaction was not significant at the .05
level.
TABLE I I
MEANS AW M M M M V M U F I O M OF INTELLIGENCE LEVEL m&WMm UNDER cmamom w mimmmmm
tm mn~miMmcwmm
Reinforcement Non-He Inforceaent
Mean SD Mean 8D
Normal8 22 83.7272 9.3817 38,0909 10.6553
Retardates HH 70.2000 13.2*23 22.0909 17.6401
'Total J~ M""
Means and standard deviations appear in Table IX for
normal and retarded groups under conditions of reinforcement
and non-reinforcement.
Discussion
The results of this study support the following predic-
tions! (1) notwals and retardates having immediate verbal
knowledge of their performance reached a higher level of
proficiency than those subjects who were deprived of rein-
forcement . (2) normal subjects given Immediate knowledge of
their performance were superior to retarded subject® who also
28
received immediate verbal reinforcement, (3} The perform-
ance level of normal subjects deprived of immediate verbal
reinforeeraent will be significantly higher than retarded
subjects who are deprived of immediate verbal reinforcement.
As concluded in the present study, normals and retardates
having immediate knowledge of their performance and those
being deprived of such reinforcement corroborates the findings
reported by Thomdike (4), Trowbridge and Cason (5)#
Johanson (l), and Lorge and Thorndike (2). Also, results
Indicate that superior performance on the part of normal
subjects compared to retarded subjects suggest a limited
range of mental ability of the retardates In terms of intel-
ligence. Still further, this study supports the view that
a decrement in performance is directly related to those
subjects whose performance trial® were non-reinforced, The
two different measuring scales utilized in selecting each
subject for his respective group might account for further
differences in their performance. This Is represented by
the fact that the California Short-Form Test of Mental
Maturity, which has a correlation of .88 with the Stanford-
Binet, Is the less sophisticated measuring scale of the two.
Still further, higher chronological ages of the retarded sub-
jects might have indirect bearing on the results.
Hentlon is made of an investigation by Macpherson,
Bees, and Grindley (3) concerning adaptation to the experi-
mental task. Their finding® indicate that those subjects
29
receiving knowledge of their performance were better
orientated to the experimental arrangement® and perforuied
at a higher level as compared to those subjects who were
deprived of relnforoement. A© in Kacphereon, Dees, and
Orindley'a study and for the present investigation, those
subjects receiving ljamedlate verbal reinforcement adapted
to the experimental arrangements of the learning task at
a higher level of performance than those subjects who were
deprived of this reinforcing condition.
CHAPTER IV BIBLIOOHAPHV
1. Johanaon, A. If** "Influanoa of I imei i t iw and Punlahaant on Reaction f lue.11 Arohivee of Psychology, VIIX ((torch, 1982), 5*.
2* Lorge, 1. and MvtiHt L. fhorndika, "Tha Influence of Delay i n tha Aftsar-Iffaat of a Connection,* Journal of Exiseriiaental Psychology, XVI I I ( f a l r w T T t f f t e h 186-19*.
3. Mscphereon, I , J . , V. Dees, and 0. C. Grindley, "The Bffacta of Knowledge of Raaulta on Learning and Perfortyanoo," Quarterly Journal of BxpOT^iynta} Psychology, I (February, X P f ) , Bf-W*
4. Thoradilce, Sdward L . , "The Law of E f fec t , " American Journal ojf Fayeholo&y, XXXXX (Apr i l , i w ) » w t -&mm- *
5. Trowbridge, N. H. and H. Caaon, "An Experimental Study of Thorndike'a Theory of Learning," Journal of General Psychology. TO (October, 19WTS%^588.
30
CHAPTER V
StnOfABY ASD
Suiamary
The purpose of tliis study was to weasure the functioning
of Immediate verbal reinforcement with normals and retardates.
To explore the variables or conditions of immediate verbal
reinforcement* a paired associative learning task Has admin-
istered to two separate groups of subjects. Adapted for
tills study was the coding A subtest of the Wechsler
Intelligence Soale for Children* Each subject was shown a
star, circle* triangle, cross, and square having correspond-
ing alphabetical letters A, B, 0, D, and X. the first group
was composed of twenty-two noraal students from an elensn-
tary school in Denton, Texas. This normal group of subjects
was further divided into two subgroups, A and 9, consisting
of eleven weavers each. Subgroup A of the normals received
immediate verbal reinforcement while subgroup B of the nor-
mals was deprived of this variable* The second group con-
sisted of twenty-two mentally retarded students fro* the
Denton State School, this mentally retarded group of sub-
jects was also divided into two subgroups, Y and %, having
eleven members each. Subgroup ¥ of the mentally retarded
received liasiedlate verbal reinforcement) while subgroup Z
of the retardatea was effectively deprived of this condition.
31
38
Only those students with mental ages In the range from
seven to ten years were included. For the normal ©c*oup, I^'s
ranged from 90-llOj wtill# chronological age was sewn to ten
years. For the mentally retarded group, IQ*s ranged from
50~70; whereas their range of chronological age was from nine
to twenty-one years. Retarded subjects with apparent sensory
or motor impairment were excluded as were any subjects with
moderate or gross brain damage. The criterion for evaluating
brain damage was the Bender Qestalt examination and records
designating the frequency of seizures since tine of admission
to the Denton State School. Retarded subjects with a signifi-
cant impairment due to medication were also excluded.
Analysis of the data indicated that subjects receiving
immediate verbal reinforcement reached a higher level of
proficiency than those subjects who were effectively deprived
of this reinforcing condition. Also, superior performance of
the normals compared to retardates suggested a limited range
of mental ability of the retardates In terms of XQ's.
Recommendations
Based upon the results and conclusions of this investi-
gation, several additional related variables or conditions
require further experimentation and exploration.
1. directly related to the present study, future inves-
tigations should modify the time sequence of each exposed
geometric symbol after twenty response trials from ten seconds
33
to five seconds for the remaining seventy or more trials*
Such a modification will tend to stabilise the level of
motivation throughout the later portion of the taste.
a. Future research effort® should contrast rate of
learning with norwlc and retardates under conditions of
immediate verbal reinforcement.
3. The influence and function of distraction or an
increase in the subject's attention utilising nonsense syl-
lables after each response or larger units of responses
should be explored as possible reinforcers with normals and
retardates.
#. Pasilial retardates could be contrasted to brain
injured subjects on a learning task involving rate of learn-
ing and distraction or attention.
5, An experiment in which delay of knowledge of per-
formance is conpared with immediate knowledge of performance
utilising familial retardates and brain damaged subjects
represents another area to explore,
APPENDIX A
Bwmcf »s xssimm SHEET
Group
Response Column
Trial 1 V W ~ " * ~ 3T^
t r 2* "
?-
10 11" 12"
15 iS* IT :
18""""""""""
ML aor 21" 22*" a1~ 2 2
2 2 29** 30" 31" 32"
i:
Kespona© Column
Trial 2
m
m
34
35
APPEKDIX A"Continued
Response Column
1
Response ColUBff)
2
86 8'
$9" 90'
*8
Ji-ts :
ktmmm b
EXAMINER SCCRIHQ SOOT
Oroup
trial
Response Column
1 ? b V" e 'X'"" , rj„ - a
Y' ' c z " 1Jl a &" 3 e: 4 c 5 d 6 T""'" T d a e 9 S"
10 I — 11 ¥ 12" " a 1? 0 14 e 15 ¥ 16 a 1? ¥ " *' 18 e 10 ' a to'"" <© 21 22""'" 0 23 '""IfJ,lJU""" 24 S | Z »
H I e 28 29..-.:: 30 i si e
. a , 33 a 34
36
37
APFEHDIX B~Contlnugd
R«»pon*« Column
1 35 Q 3o e 37 a _ 3*
I 0 8 41 0 42 r r r
Hi *£
-1
85
Response Colusa*
a
o? jfife
89" 9or
0
t
it iT
BIBLIOOMF®
Bootes
Boring, S, a., •dltor, A
1952":
s u s * *
™ U 8 d
» W York, SlaSSr? c : ^ 0 ^ * 4 * * * * *
Hull, ClM* L., A Behavlog System. Km Ha von, ?»le v l&j*ir&31*11 X tjjr *3P45jBSf Xyf/21*
— 3 1 asas2iaE'"*" *ork'Appleton-
Kln8*J^i."; P r i n l & f f : 8 C T W * iSS£SiaS'
Pavlov
translate vereity Press, 1927
Thorodiko, Edward L., An New York, Burmu W 1933*
.„, „.,* l a m learning, New York, Appltton, 1931 *
o n r o r T ^ * * F'y"wlo'g' »- t o r k'
1938.
T r o l ag^-d t • » « • ? § § § ^ ' K e w
38
39
Articles
Simoom, ft. ®,, "Kffsots of icnowledge of Perforsi&nce.'' Journal of general Psychology, LI? (April, 1956),
Angell, Q. W*, "The Effects of Ximaedlate Knowledge of Quls Results on Final Examination Stores in Freshman Chemlstrjr^ Journal^of Educational Beeearch, XiXf II
Brown, F», "Knowledge of Results a* an Incentive in Schoolroom Practice," Journal of Educational Psychology. XXXII (Ootoftir? 193?)# $3S-55z.
Elliott, N« H., "The Effect of Change of Reward on the Mas* Performance of Rata," University of California Publications Psychology. IV (May, i<^3d.
Johanson, A. N., * Influence of Ineentive and Punishment on Reaction Time." Archives of Psychology. VIII (Marob, 1982), 5$. ** **•
Keller, F. S., "Studies in International Norse Code," |g|g^| $t tmrnm* (@t*ober, 1943),
Lorge, I* and Edward X*. Thorndlke, '*The Influence of Delay in the After-Effect of a Connection,* Journal of^lxgerlscntel Fsyeholofgy, XVIII (February, 19l5)V
MaePherson, S. J., V. Dees, and Q* C. Grindley, "The Effects of Knowledge of Results on Learning and Performance,"
%£rSary E f f i M M * *
Morgan, C« t»* and L. V. Morgan, "Effects of Tnwsdlate Awareness of Success and Failure Upon Objective Examination Scores, * J o w m I of oerliaental Education. IV (September,19357* ©3*®&.
Plowman, Letha and J. Stroud, "Effecte of Informing Pupils of the Correetness of Their Responses to Objective
Si ssssassii. XXXVI | I J # p f $ 15r*«I# io^ZQ*
Pressey, S. L., "Development and Appraisal of Devices Providing Immediate Automatic Scoring of Objective Tests and Concomitant Self-Inetruotion," Journal of Psychology, XXIX (January, 1950), HT-W?T 11
40
Thorndlke, Edward L., "Reward and Punishment." Journal of Experimental Psychology. X {April, 1932), 10, i»-S$T
, "The tow of Effect," AltriM. ImliStf1 of liyS Qlofgsr, XXXXX (April, 1927); *12-222.
Tolman, Edward C., "Cognitive Mapa in Hate and Men," Psychological Review, LV (July, 19*8), 189-200.
. and C. H. Hoiueik, "Degrees of Hunger. Reward and Non-Reward, and Maze Learning in Rats,
W W ! w m S B ,
Trowbridge, H. H. and H. Cason, "An Experimental Study of Thorndike's Theory of Learning." Journal of General Psychology, VII (Ootober, 1932), 245-288.
Publications of Learned Organizations
Quthrle, Sdwln Terns of vmen Study of Education, 1942,
Unpublished Materials
Houston, R« C., "The Function of Knowledge of Results in Learning a Complex Motor Skill, unpublished master*® thesis, Departwent of Psychology, Morthwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, 1947.
Standardised Tests
fearlook
Sullivan
Teraan, L. M. and M. A. Merrill, Stanford-Blnet Scalet Iftnual for the Third Bevlsioni Ejri BSugKtonMi ?f lTnC oSpaiyTT9^tT
st on
Veehsler, B., Wechsler Manual, Hew Tori 19*9 •
