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World History

Summer School

Quarter 2 Name:

World History ~ Summer School ~ Quarter 2

Each day of summer school will involve the following activities:

Quiz over the previous day’s work. Individual reading & answering questions. Group discussion of the day’s information. Completing graphic organizers and maps. Working on an individual project (one per week).

Quarter 2 Schedule:

Monday Quiz (Ch. 10 & 11) Reading & Discussion - Chapters 12, 15, 18 Project work time

Tuesday Quiz (Ch. 12, 15, 18) Reading & Discussion – Chapters 13 & 14 Project work time

Wednesday Quiz (Ch. 13 & 14) Reading & Discussion – Chapters 16 & 17 Project work time

Thursday Quiz (Ch. 16 & 17) Reading & Discussion – Chapters 19 & 20 Project work time

Friday Present projects Test (Ch. 10-20)

The Muslim World 37

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Name Date

CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The Muslim World, 600–1250CHAPTER OVERVIEW In the harsh environment of the Arabian Peninsula, a newreligion arose. Muhammad united the Arab peoples in the belief that there wasonly one God. Strengthened by their faith, the Arabs began a conquest of partsof three continents. In ruling this vast empire, the Arabs preserved the achieve-ments of many cultures and promoted learning in many fields of study.

Summary

The Rise of IslamKEY IDEA Muhammad unified the Arabic people bothpolitically and through the religion he founded, Islam.

The harsh environment of the Arabian Peninsulaleft its mark on the society of the Arab peoples.

Located at about where Africa, Asia, and Europemeet, the region felt the influence of cultures fromall three continents. With the land almost completelycovered by desert, making a living was difficult.The people who lived on the desert followed anomadic way of life. They herded animals, whichthey led from one fertile spot—oasis—to another insearch of precious water. Over time, many of thesepeople, called Bedouins, began to live in towns andcities. People who lived in the towns engaged inlocal and long-distance trade.

The Bedouins developed a society based onfamily groups called clans. Courage and loyalty tothe family, as well as warrior skills, were importantvalues.

By the early 600s, trade had become an impor-tant activity in the Arabian Peninsula. Merchantsfrom the Byzantine and Sassanid empires to thenorth brought goods to Arabia. They traded in thecities for spices and other goods. They also broughtnew ideas.

At this time, the Arab people believed in manygods. Religious pilgrims came to Mecca to worshipat an ancient shrine called the Ka’aba. Over theyears, Arabs had introduced the worship of manygods and spirits to the Ka’aba. It contained morethan 360 idols brought there by several tribes.

Around the year A.D. 570, Muhammad was borninto this Arab society. Though a member of a pow-erful family of Mecca, his early life was difficult. Hewas orphaned at age six and received little school-ing. However, he became a successful merchant.Muhammad was always interested in religion. Ataround age 40, he took religion as his life’s mission.One night, the angel Gabriel visited him and toldhim to proclaim the word of God to his people.

Muhammad began to teach that there was only

one God—Allah. His religion was called Islam, andits followers took the name of Muslims. He con-verted a few friends and family members and thenbegan to preach in public. At first, many people inMecca violently opposed Muhammad’s views. Theyfeared Meccans would neglect traditional Arabgods. Muhammad and his followers were forced toleave Mecca for Yathrib (later called Medina) in622. Muhammad became a leader of that city.

The forces of Mecca and Medina fought severaltimes over the next few years. Finally, in 630, theleaders of Mecca surrendered to Muhammad. Hewent to the building that held the Ka’aba anddestroyed the idols to other gods. Many of the peo-ple of Mecca adopted Islam. They began to wor-ship Allah as the only God. Though Muhammaddied shortly thereafter, in 632, much of the ArabianPeninsula was already united under Islam.

Muslims have five duties to perform. The dutiesshow a person’s accepting of the will of God:

• A person must state a belief that there is no Godbut Allah and that Muhammad is his prophet.

• A person must pray to Allah, facing Mecca, fivetimes every day.

• A person must give aid to poor people through a tax.

• A person must eat only one meal a day, after sunset, every day during the holy month ofRamadan.

• A person should perform the hajj—a trip to theholy city of Mecca—at least once in his or her life.

Even today, for Muslims, their private and reli-gious lives are the same. So, many religious lawstell Muslims how they must live. Some rules forbidthem from eating pork or drinking alcohol. EveryFriday afternoon they meet as a community forprayer. The central ideas of the Muslim religion arefound in the Qur’an, which Muslims believe to bethe will of Allah as revealed to Muhammad. TheQur’an is written in Arabic, and that language spreadas the faith of Islam spread. Muslims are also

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38 Unit 3, Chapter 10

guided by the example of Muhammad’s life, calledthe Sunna, and by a set of laws and rules.

Muslims believe that Allah is the same God thatJews and Christians worship. To Muslims, the Qur’anperfects the earlier teachings of God found in theJewish Torah and the Christian Bible. Because theirholy books were related to the Qur’an, Jews andChristians enjoyed special status in Muslim societies.

Islam ExpandsKEY IDEA In spite of internal conflicts, the Muslims created an empire of land on three continents.

When Muhammad died, his followers elected anew leader, Abu-Bakr. He had been loyal to

Muhammad. He was given the title caliph, whichmeans “successor” or “deputy.”

Abu-Bakr reacted quickly when a group ofArabs abandoned Islam. He defeated them in bat-tle over a two-year period. Abu-Bakr died soonthereafter. However, his army became an effectivefighting force that began to conquer new lands.The Arabs took Syria and lower Egypt from theByzantine Empire. By 750, the Muslim Empirestretched from the Indus River in India west to theAtlantic Ocean.

The Muslims’ faith helped them achieve thisrapid expansion. They saw each victory as a sign ofAllah’s support of Islam. Other factors were thefighting skill of the armies and the strong leader-ship of their generals. The Byzantine and Sassanidempires to the north were also weak at this time,and the Arabs took advantage of that. Finally, manypeople who lived in those empires did not supportthe official religions. They often supported theArabs, who they thought would liberate them fromthe harsh rule of these empires.

Many of these people accepted Islam. Somefound the message of Islam appealing. Some likedthe fact that by becoming Muslims they avoidedpaying a tax put only on non-Muslims. The Qur’anprevented Muslims from forcing others to acceptthe religion, however. Muslim rulers allowed peo-ple to follow whatever beliefs they chose.

After the murder of a ruling caliph in 656, dif-ferent Muslim groups began to struggle for controlof the empire. Ali, a cousin and son-in-law ofMuhammad, was chosen caliph. After a few years,he, too, was killed. The system of electing caliphsdied with him.

A family known as the Umayyads took power

over the vast empire. They did not follow the sim-ple life of earlier caliphs and surrounded them-selves with wealth. This created a division withinthe Muslim community.

Most Muslims accepted Umayyad rule. However,some did resist, and a different view of the office ofcaliph developed. The Shi’a group—the “party” ofthe deceased Ali—felt that caliphs needed to berelatives of Muhammad. Those who did not out-wardly resist Umayyad rule became known as theSunni. Another group, the Sufi, reacted to theUmayyads’ life of luxury. The Sufis emphasized amore spiritual way of life.

After 750, Muslim caliphates existed on threecontinents. The Abbasids (750–1258) conqueredthe Umayyads and took over the east. They heldthe lands of modern Iraq, Iran, and central Asia.They built the city of Baghdad in central Iraq astheir capital. They were powerful, using their loca-tion to control the rich trade between China andEurope. They formed a complex government torun their empire.

One Umayyad prince had escaped to Spain in750. There Muslims known as Berbers alreadyexisted. The prince set up a Muslim state called al-Andalus. The Umayyads of al-Andalus (756–976)controlled parts of Spain and North Africa.

Another Muslim state—the Fatimid caliphate(909–1171)—sprang up in North Africa. It eventu-ally spread to western Arabia and Syria.

The Muslims were divided politically. However,the Abbasids, Umayyads of al-Andalus, and Fatimidswere linked by religion, language, culture, andtrade. Muslim traders brought goods from China toSpain. They formed banks along the route. Theyalso accepted a form of substitute money laterknown as checks.

Muslim CultureKEY IDEA Muslims combined and preserved the tradi-tions of many peoples and also advanced learning in avariety of areas.

The vast Muslim Empire included people of manydifferent lands and cultures. Muslims blended

Arabic culture with these other traditions to createa new culture of great achievement. This new cul-ture arose in the major cities of the Muslim world.

Damascus, in modern Syria, was the leading cityand cultural center of Islamic learning. The citiesof Córdoba and Cairo were centers of Muslim rule

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in Spain and North Africa. The Abbasid capital,Baghdad, was especially impressive. Its inner areawas circular and had three sets of protective walls,each inside the other. In the center of the circlewas the palace of the caliph, made of marble andstone. Nearly a million people lived in Baghdad.

Muslim society was divided into four groups. Atthe top were people who were Muslims from birth.Next came those who converted to Islam. The thirdgroup included Jews, Christians, andZoroastrians—protected because Muslims sharedsome of their beliefs. The fourth group was slaves,none of whom were Muslims.

According to Muslim law, women should obeymen. However, Muslim women still enjoyed morerights than did those living in European society ofthe time. They had some economic and propertyrights. In the early Muslim society, women couldalso have an education and take part in public life.Later they lost those rights.

Muslims placed a high value on learning. Muslimscholars added much to humans’ store of knowledge.Europe was in chaos, and much that had beenknown in ancient Greece and Rome was lost.During this time, Muslim scholars kept much ofthis knowledge alive. They collected ancient Greek,Indian, and Persian works of science and philosophyand translated them into Arabic. One center of thisstudy was the House of Wisdom built in Baghdad.Later, this ancient learning returned to Europewhen the works of Muslim scholars were translated.

One area in which Muslim scholars made greatadvances was medicine. The physician al-Raziwrote an encyclopedia that collected all that wasknown about medicine from Greece to India.

Another area of advance was mathematics. Abrilliant mathematician named al-Khwarizmi wrotea textbook that introduced a new branch of math.By developing algebra, he was able to use knownquantities to find unknown quantities.

In science, Muslims studied the work of ancientGreek scientists but took a new approach. TheGreeks had tried to learn about nature by using logicto reach conclusions. In contrast, Muslims usedexperiments to test ideas. Another field of advancewas astronomy. One Muslim scientist made newdiscoveries about how people see. His findingshelped lead later to the invention of the telescopeand microscope.

In philosophy, the Muslim scholar Ibn Rushdtried to join together the thinking of ancient Greekswith Muslim ideas.

Muslim literature developed a strong tradition.The Qur’an is the standard for all Arabic literatureand poetry. The collection The Thousand and OneNights included many entertaining stories, fairytales, and legends. It was read and narrated through-out the Muslim world.

Muslims put to use the traditions in art that theyfound among the other peoples they met. Muslimshad their own special practices in art, however. Forinstance, artists could not draw pictures of people.Only Allah, the religion said, could create life.Unable to draw these images, Muslims developed anew art form. They practiced calligraphy, or the artof beautiful handwriting. Some of this writing wasused to decorate the beautiful buildings thatMuslims built. These buildings often showed theblending of cultures that was a major part of theMuslim world.

Review1. Drawing Conclusions What caused

Muhammad to leave Mecca for Yathrib? Whatwas the result?

2. Summarizing What are the five duties that afollower of Islam must perform?

3. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing EffectsWhat factors contributed to the Muslims’ successin capturing so much land?

4. Determining Main Ideas What was the mostimportant factor in the division of Muslim soci-ety into four parts? What does that reveal aboutthe place of Islam in this society?

5. Clarifying Describe two achievements ofMuslim culture in art or learning. What con-tributed to them?

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Use the space below to write your answers for the questions to the Chapter Brief that

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Mark ten (10) events or developments from this chapter, in order,

on the timeline shown below.

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Byzantines, Russians, and Turks Interact 41

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Byzantines, Russians, and TurksInteract, 500–1500

CHAPTER OVERVIEW The eastern part of the old Roman Empire maintained abrilliant civilization centered in Constantinople. With a separate Christian Church,it developed a culture different from that of western Europe. Slavs and Vikingsjoined to create a new culture in Russia, which was influenced by the EasternChurch. Turks entered the area, converted to Islam, and made their own empire.

Summary

The Byzantine EmpireKEY IDEA Constantinople ruled an eastern empire thatsurvived for over a thousand years.

In the A.D. 300s, the Roman emperor Constantinewas worried about the growing power of German

tribes. He moved the Roman Empire’s capital tothe east, where he could better meet that threat.The location also put him closer to the easternprovinces of the empire, which were richer thanthose in the west. He built a great new capital city,Constantinople, on the site of the old port city ofByzantium. Constantinople became the center ofan empire in the eastern area of the MediterraneanSea that lasted for hundreds of years. It was calledthe Byzantine Empire.

The Roman Empire was officially divided in395. The western area was overrun by Germantribes. It ceased to exist after 476. However, theByzantine eastern part remained strong. In 527,Justinian became the Byzantine emperor. He sentan army to try to regain control of Italy and restorethe Roman Empire once again. His army managedto win almost all of Italy and much of Spain fromthe Germans. By around 550, Justinian ruled overalmost all of the old Roman Empire’s territory.

Under the direction of Justinian, legal expertscreated a complete code of laws based on the lawsof ancient Rome. This body of civil law—theJustinian Code—served the empire for 900 years.

Justinian also worked at making Constantinoplea strong and beautiful capital. He built high, strongwalls to protect the city from attack by either landor sea. He built a huge palace, public baths, courts,schools, hospitals, and many churches. The mainstreet of the city was lined with shops and open-airmarkets, where people bought and sold goods fromAsia, Africa, and Europe. Another huge buildingwas used to stage chariot races and circus acts.

In 532, the city erupted in riots against theemperor. Justinian thought about leaving the city,

but his wife, the empress Theodora, convinced himto use the army to fight back. The troops regainedcontrol of the city, killing thousands of rioters. Achurch called Hagia Sophia (“Holy Wisdom” inGreek) had been destroyed by the mobs. Justinianrebuilt it to become the most beautiful church inthe Christian world.

The empire faced further dangers. A terribleplague broke out in 542. It killed thousands of peo-ple and returned every 8 to 12 years until about700. The many deaths that this illness caused weak-ened the Byzantine Empire.

Many enemies attacked the empire time andtime again over the centuries. German tribes, theSassanid Persians, and later Muslim armies all triedto gain control of Byzantine land. Constantinopleremained safe at this time despite many attacks.Eventually, though, the empire itself shrank. By1350, the empire included only the capital city andlands in the Balkans—a part of southeastern Europe.

Although it was based on the Roman Empire,the Byzantine Empire had developed a culture allits own. Few people in the Byzantine Empirespoke the Latin of the old Roman Empire. Theyspoke Greek and belonged to the EasternOrthodox Church, not the Catholic Church thatwas centered in Rome. The Eastern Church wasled by an official named the patriarch, the leadingbishop. However, even he had to obey the emperor.Slowly the Eastern and Roman churches grew fur-ther apart. In 1054, the split became permanent.Services in the Eastern Church were conducted inGreek, not in Latin as in the Roman Church. TheEastern Church also allowed priests to marry andlet its members have divorces.

Some missionaries traveled from the ByzantineEmpire to the north. They met a people known asthe Slavs and converted them to the eastern formof Christianity. In this way, the influence of theByzantine Empire entered Russia as that nationbegan to form.

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The Russian EmpireKEY IDEA Russia grew out of a blending of Slavic andByzantine cultures with Eastern Orthodox traditions.

The Slavs lived in what is today eastern Russia.The area stretched from the Ural Mountains to

the Black Sea on the south and the Baltic Sea in thenorth. The southern regions are hilly grasslands.The northern area is flat and covered with trees orswamps. Slow-moving rivers in the region havemoved people and goods for centuries.

The Slavs lived in the forest areas, working asfarmers and traders. In the 800s, some Vikings calledthe Rus came from the north. They built forts alongthe rivers and blended with the Slavs. They foundedthe cities of Novgorod and Kiev and became therulers of the land. They began to trade in Constan-tinople, bringing furs, timber, and the Slavs whowere their subjects. They sold these people asslaves—in fact, the word slave comes from Slav.

Over time, the Vikings adopted the Slavs’ culture.While divisions between Vikings and Slavs disap-peared, the society was sharply split between thegreat mass of peasants and the few nobles.

In the 980s, the ruler of Russia—Vladimir—converted to Byzantine Christianity. He alsoordered all of his subjects to adopt this religion.Now more than trade linked Russia to the ByzantineEmpire. Russia also looked to Constantinople forreligious leadership. Teachers from the empire gavethe Russian people instructions in the new religion.The king liked the idea that the ruler of the empirewas also the head of the church.

Under the influence of Byzantine culture, Kievgrew to be a large, wealthy, and cultured city. Thestate grew, as Vladimir took land to the west and tothe north. His son, Yaroslav the Wise, proved an ableruler as well. Under him, Kiev grew even morewealthy through trade and alliances made withwestern nations.

Then the state centered in Kiev began to haveproblems. The sons of Yaroslav fought one anotherfor control of the land after his death in 1054. Tradedeclined, cutting the wealth of Kiev. Then deepertroubles appeared. Nomadic fighters from centralAsia, the Mongols, began to conquer many differ-ent areas. In the middle 1200s, they reached Kiev.They quickly overran the Russian state, killing manypeople. The Mongols held control of the area formore than 200 years.

As long as the Russian people did not rebel, theMongols allowed them to keep their customs. The

Mongols allowed the Russians to continue follow-ing their Eastern Christian religion. The Churchhelped settle any differences between the Mongolrulers and the Russian people. The Mongols madethe Russians pay tribute, a sum of money that wasowed every year. They used Russian nobles to col-lect the tribute. One of those nobles, AlexanderNevsky, grew to power. His heirs became princes ofthe city of Moscow.

Control by the Mongols had important effectson Russia. First, it isolated the Russians from west-ern Europe. As a result, Russian society developedin its own way. Second, rule by the Mongols unitedmany different areas of Russia under one centralauthority. Before then, what is now Russia hadbeen ruled by a number of different princes. Third,Mongol rule led to the rise of Moscow.

That city had a good location near three majorrivers: the Dnieper, Don, and Volga. By the 1320s,under Prince Ivan I of Moscow, this position couldbe used to expand the power of Moscow. Ivanserved the Mongols by crushing a local rebellion.In return, the Mongol ruler gave him the right tocollect the tribute in all of European Russia. Nowthe most powerful Russian prince, Ivan I becameknown as “Ivan Moneybags.”

He increased the influence of Moscow by per-suading the leader of the Russian church in Kiev tomove to Moscow. Over time, Ivan and his succes-sors added to the land that Moscow controlled. Inthe late 1400s, under Ivan III, Russia grew to be amighty empire. In 1453, the Byzantine Empire hadfallen, defeated by the Turks. In 1472, Ivan marriedthe niece of the last Byzantine emperor, linkinghimself to that historic throne. From then on, hecalled himself czar, which was the Russian versionof Caesar. In 1480, Ivan finally broke with theMongols. He refused to pay that year’s tribute.Because the Mongols did not respond militarily,Russia had in effect won its independence fromMongol rule.

Turkish Empires Rise in Anatolia

KEY IDEA Turkish people converted to Islam and foundednew empires that would renew Muslim civilization.

The Turks were a nomadic people from the vastgrasslands of central Asia. They lived by herding

sheep and goats and engaging in raids and tradewith the settled peoples of the Abbasid Empire.

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Beginning in the 900s, they moved into the lands ofthat empire and began converting to Islam.

These fierce nomads were highly skilled fighters.The rulers of the empire began to buy them as chil-dren to train them for their armies. Turks becamean important political factor in the empire. Turkishsoldiers many times removed caliphs from thethrone in Baghdad and put new rulers in place.

While this Turkish influence was growing, theempire itself was shrinking. Local leaders in severalareas split off to establish their own states. In 945, aPersian army seized control of the empire. Membersof the Abbasid family continued to hold the positionof caliph and act as religious leaders. The new rulersof the government were from outside the dynasty.They were called sultans.

As these changes took place, larger and largernumbers of Turks settled in the empire. They werecalled Seljuk Turks after the name of the family thatled them. In 1055, the Seljuks captured Baghdadand took control of the government. In the next fewdecades, the Seljuks used their force to take landaway from another empire—the Byzantine Empire.They won almost all of Anatolia, the peninsulawhere modern Turkey now sits. In this position,they stood almost at the gates of Constantinople.

In ruling their empire, the Seljuks relied on thegovernment experience of Persians. They placedtheir capital in Persian lands and gave Persiansimportant positions in the government. In return,Persians became loyal supporters of Turkish rule.

The Turks also adopted Persian culture. Theylooked to Persian scholars to teach them the properway to follow Islam. They began to use the Persianlanguage for art and education. The Turkish rulerseven took the Persian word for “king”—shah—astheir title. One of the greatest Seljuk rulers, MalikShah, became a patron of the arts. He made thecapital city more beautiful by building manymosques, or Muslim houses of worship. Persianbecame so important that Arabic—the language ofthe Qur’an—almost died out in Seljuk lands.

The Seljuk Empire collapsed quickly, as a seriesof weak rulers were unable to maintain it. One reason was the growing pressure from westernEurope, whose rulers sent armies on the Crusadesin the effort to capture the lands of ancientPalestine, which were sacred to Christians. The FirstCrusade began in 1095, and the Christian armiescaptured Jerusalem. Not quite 100 years later, theTurks retook the city.

Just when the Crusades became less of a threatto the Muslim world, the Mongols moved in fromthe east. They overran vast stretches of territoryand captured Baghdad in 1258. They killed the lastcaliph and took control of the government from theSeljuk Turks.

Review1. Determining Main Ideas Describe two accom-

plishments of the emperor Justinian.2. Contrasting What cultural factors separated the

Byzantine Empire from western Europe?Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects3. What cultural influences combined to produce

Russian culture?4. What effects did Mongol rule have on Russian

history?5. Comparing How was the Turkish adoption of

culture similar to the adoption of culture by theRussians?

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Maps – Chapters 10 & 11

On the blank map (found on the next page), mark the following items:

Locations: o Mecca o Medina o Damascus o Cordoba o Cairo o Baghdad o Constantinople o Novgorod o Kiev o Mosco o Anatolia

Draw the boundaries of: o Muslim Empire - 750 C.E. o Abbasid Empire o Umayyad Empire o Byzantine Empire – 550 C.E. o Byzantine Empire – 1350 C.E. o Russia – 980 C.E. o Russia – 1480 C.E. o Seljuk Turk Empire

Tang and Song ChinaKEY IDEA During the Tang and Song dynasties, Chinaexperienced an era of prosperity and technological innovations.

Starting in A.D. 220, China went through a longperiod of troubles during which no single ruler

was strong enough to unite the entire area. In 589,Wendi changed that. He brought the northern andsouthern regions under his power and named him-self emperor. His new dynasty—the Sui—lastedonly during his rule and that of his successor.However, these two rulers were important. Theybuilt the Grand Canal, a long waterway that con-nected the two major rivers of China. It linked thepeople of the cities in the north to the rice-growingregions in the fertile south.

The Tang Dynasty followed and lasted for 300years. Tang rulers retook northern and westernlands that had been lost under the Han Dynasty.Under the Empress Wu—the only woman ever torule China as emperor—the Tang captured parts ofKorea as well.

Early Tang rulers made the governmentstronger. To run their empire, they revived thepractice of using men educated in the writings ofthe philosopher Confucius. Schools were set up totrain people in these works. Candidates for govern-ment jobs had to pass tests in order to win work.

The Tang Dynasty began to weaken when therulers once again levied heavy taxes. While theChinese people became angry over these burdens,nomads attacked the empire’s western lands andbegan to capture some areas. In 907, the last Tangruler was killed, and a new dynasty—the Song—took its place. It, too, lasted about 300 years. TheSong Dynasty ruled a smaller area than did theTang. However, China under its rule was strong.

During the Tang and Song periods, China mademany advances in technology. The Chinese

invented the use of movable type, allowing them toprint books. They also invented gunpowder for usein fireworks and weapons. The Chinese grew morefood, based on advances in farming and an improvedvariety of fast-growing rice. Trade increased, firstthrough Central Asia on the land route called theSilk Road and later over the oceans. This allowedBuddhism to spread from China to Japan, Korea,and Vietnam. Tang and Song China became famousfor their artistic advances.

These developments brought about changes inChinese society. The old noble families lost power,while the scholar-government officials gainedpower. Below them was an urban middle class,laborers, and peasants. The status of womenbecame worse.

The Mongol ConquestsKEY IDEA The Mongols, a nomadic people from thesteppe, settled across much of Asia.

Much of Central Asia is covered by flat grass-land that cannot support farming. Nomadic

herders lived in this area. They traveled from placeto place seeking grass to feed herds of sheep andgoats. From time to time over the centuries, thesenomads struck out to attack the settled farmingpeoples to the east, south, and west. In the early1200s, the Mongols began such an attack. Underthe leadership of Genghis Khan, they met hugesuccess. In just over 20 years, he led his people toconquer Central Asia.

Three factors contributed to the Mongols’ mili-tary success. First, they organized their army in alogical, easy-to-control way with experiencedfighters in command. Second, Genghis Khan wasable to outthink and outwit his enemies. Finally, theMongols used cruelty as a weapon. This helpedconvince other cities to surrender without a fight.

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Empires in East Asia, 600–1350CHAPTER OVERVIEW Under Tang and Song rulers, China became the mostadvanced culture in the world. Then fierce warriors from Central Asia swept over China, creating a new empire that encouraged trade. In ruling China, theMongols reached great heights. Japan developed its own culture based on ideasand practices borrowed from China. Chinese influence extended to Korea andSoutheast Asia.

Summary

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After Genghis Khan died in 1227, the Mongolarmies continued to advance. Under Genghis’s sonsand grandsons, the armies conquered China, tookparts of Korea, captured Russia, and threatenedeastern Europe. By 1260, the remaining empirewas divided into four areas called khanates. Therulers in these areas gradually adopted the cultureof the people they ruled. Those in the west becameMuslims. Those in China took on Chinese culture.In this way, the four khanates grew apart.

The Mongols proved able rulers who broughtabout a long period of peace in Central Asia. Theypromoted trade and the exchange of ideas betweenAsia and Europe. Along with this trade, they mayhave brought a deadly disease—the plague—thatcaused widespread death in Europe in the 1300s.

The Mongol EmpireKEY IDEA Kublai Khan ruled China and encouraged for-eign contact and trade, but the Yuan Dynasty was besetby problems.

The Mongols needed several decades to completetheir conquest of China begun by Genghis

Khan in 1215. In 1260 Kublai Khan, grandson ofGenghis, took the title of Great Khan. Finally, in1279, Kublai Khan managed to defeat the lastChinese army in the south. He became the firstforeigner to gain complete control of China andrule the land.

Kublai Khan founded the Yuan Dynasty thatruled China for only about 100 years. The dynastywas important because it united China for the firsttime in several hundred years and opened China totrade with the west. The Mongols did not disruptChinese government or culture but, in fact, adoptedit for themselves. Kublai Khan adopted Chineseways and built a new capital in the city of Beijing.

However, the Mongols still wanted further con-quests. Kublai Khan launched two attacks on Japanin 1274 and 1281, but both failed.

To rule his empire, Kublai Khan continued tofollow Chinese practices. The Mongols kept the topgovernment jobs for themselves. They also hiredmany people from other lands for these jobs, trust-ing them more than they did the Chinese.

Kublai Khan rebuilt the Great Canal. He pro-moted foreign trade, which took such Chineseinventions as printing, gunpowder, paper money, thecompass, and playing cards to Europe. This activityled the European trader Marco Polo to journey to

China. He lived there for many years and traveledthroughout the Mongol Empire. When he returnedto Italy in 1292, he told Europeans fantastic storiesabout Chinese wealth.

In the last years of his rule, Kublai Khan raninto trouble. Attacks on Southeast Asia failed, cost-ing many lives and much treasure. After Kublai’sdeath in 1294, Mongol leaders struggled for controlof the empire. These fights helped weaken Mongolrule, which allowed parts of China to erupt inrebellion. In 1368, some rebels finally won controlof the Chinese government from the Mongols.They established a new dynasty called the Ming.

By this time, the whole Mongol Empire hadbegun to collapse. Mongols lost control of Persia inthe 1330s and Central Asia in the 1370s. They con-tinued to rule Russia until the late 1400s, however.

Feudal Powers in JapanKEY IDEA Japanese civilization was shaped by culturalborrowing from China and the rise of feudalism and mili-tary rulers.

Japan gained from its location. It was near enoughto China to benefit from the influence of Chinese

culture. It was also far enough to be able to protectitself from complete Chinese domination.

Japan is not one island but several thousandislands of varying sizes. Most people, though, liveon the four largest of them. The islands have fewnatural resources, such as coal and oil. Also, themany mountains leave little land that can be usedfor farming.

Early in its history, Japan was broken up intomany small areas, each led by a clan. These clansbelieved in their own gods. Later, all these beliefswere combined to form Japan’s religion, Shinto.The main ideas of Shinto were to respect the forcesof nature and the ancestors of a family.

In the A.D. 400s, the Yamato became the mostpowerful of these clans. They claimed that theywere descended from a sun goddess. Later, Yamatoleaders began to call themselves emperors. Theemperor remained an important figure in Japan.Even when other groups took control of the gov-ernment, they retained the position of the emperorand said they were ruling in his name.

During the 400s, Japan began to feel theinfluence of Chinese culture. Buddhism traveledfrom China to Japan and became an important reli-gion in the islands. The emperor sent people to

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China to learn Chinese ways and bring them backto Japan. The Japanese also adopted the Chinesesystem of writing, painting, and other parts ofChinese culture. Around the late 800s, though, theJapanese stopped sending people to China to learnChinese culture.

From 794 to 1185, Japan’s noble family ruledthe country from the capital at Heian. This era rep-resented the peak of Japanese culture, when thepeople of the court led lives of complex rituals,careful manners, and artistic good taste. Womenwriters of the time provide a detailed view of thisrefined court life.

Over time the power of the emperor declinedand nobles with large land holdings began to asserttheir power. They hired private armies, and thesesoldiers began to terrorize farmers. For protection,farmers gave up some of their land to the lords.Thus began a time of local power like Europe’sMiddle Ages. The local lords used a group oftrained soldiers called samurai to protect themfrom attacks by other lords. These samurai fol-lowed a strict code of honor.

After a period of war, one of these lords arose asthe most powerful. The emperor named him theshogun, or superior general of the emperor’s army.While the emperor remained in power in name,the new shogun ran the country. This pattern wasfollowed in Japan from 1192 to 1868. Shoguns led adefense of Japan against invasions of the Mongolsfrom China.

Kingdoms of Southeast Asia and Korea

KEY IDEA Several smaller kingdoms prospered in Eastand Southeast Asia, a region culturally influenced byChina and India.

Southeast Asia lies between the Indian andPacific oceans and stretches from China almost

to Australia. It includes such mainland areas asmodern Myanmar (Burma), Cambodia, andVietnam and the islands of Sumatra, Java, andBorneo, among others. The region has never beenunited culturally or politically.

From about A.D. 800 to 1200, the Khmer empireof modern Cambodia was the main power on themainland of Southeast Asia. The main source ofwealth of this empire was the growing of rice. TheKhmer had large irrigation works to bring water totheir fields. Rulers built huge and beautiful temples

and palaces. At the same time, a trading empirecalled Srivijaya arose on Java and nearby islands. Itscapital became a center for the study of Buddhism.

These two cultures were influenced by India.Another culture—Vietnam—fell under the influenceof China. China controlled the area from about 100B.C. to A.D. 900. Vietnam became an independentkingdom, known as Dai Viet, in 939. While takingBuddhism and other influences from China, theVietnamese developed their own special culture.Women, for instance, enjoyed more rights inVietnam than they did in China.

Korea, like Japan and Vietnam, was influencedby China but maintained its own traditions as well.From China, the Koreans learned Buddhism, theteachings of Confucius, the benefits of central gov-ernment, and a system of writing. The KoryuDynasty ruled Korea from 935 to 1392. It had agovernment similar to China’s. However, Korea’smethod of using examinations to fill governmentjobs did not keep wealthy landowners from domi-nating society. The dynasty, though, produced manygreat artistic achievements in Korean culture.

Korea fell to the Mongols and was occupieduntil the 1350s. The heavy tax that they demandedmade the country poor and led the people to revolt.When the Mongols lost power, a new dynasty tookcontrol of Korea and ruled for 518 years.

Review1. Clarifying Identify two changes in technology

or society that took place in Tang and SongChina.

2. Analyzing Causes What factors helped createMongol success in war?

3. Determining Main Ideas What kind of rela-tions did the Mongols have with the Chinese?

4. Summarizing What pattern of governmentdeveloped in Japan?

5. Drawing Conclusions What two culturesinfluenced the people of Southeast Asia? Howdoes geography help explain why?

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Name Date

CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Societies and Empires of Africa, 800–1500

CHAPTER OVERVIEW In north and central Africa, people lived by hunting andgathering. Later followers of Islam built states that joined religious and politicalpower. In West Africa, empires built on wealth from trade rose and fell. In EastAfrica, a blend of African and Muslim cultures created several cities that enjoyedthriving trade. In Southern Africa, one trading empire gave way to another.

Summary

North and Central AfricanSocieties

KEY IDEA North and central Africa developed hunting-gathering societies, stateless societies, and Muslimstates.

People in early African societies began to getfood by hunting and gathering. Some societies

today use these methods as well. Scholars studythem to obtain clues about the lives of people inthe past. They recognize, though, that there is noexact relationship between how people lived thenand now.

The Efe, who live in the rain forest of centralAfrica, are one group of hunter-gatherers that arestudied. They live in groups of between 10 and 100people, all being related to one another. Each fam-ily lives in its own shelter, made of grass and brush.They keep few possessions so that they can moveoften in the search for food.

Women perform the work of gathering. Theytravel through the forest looking for roots, yams,mushrooms, and seeds. Men and older boys do thehunting, killing small antelopes or monkeys. Thegroup is led by an older male, but he does not giveorders or act like a chief. Each family makes itsown decisions, but they do ask the leader for hisadvice.

These African societies are organized alongfamily ties. Families, however, are understood inbroader terms than simply parents and children.Societies trace their families in terms of lineages,counting as related all people who share a commonancestor. The lineage includes not just living mem-bers but those born in the past and those yet to beborn. In some societies, lineages are traced throughmothers and in others they are traced throughfathers.

In many African societies, lineage groups tookthe place of rulers. These societies are called state-

less societies because they do not have central gov-ernments. Authority in these societies was spreadamong more than one lineage to prevent any onefamily from dominating. Within these societies,people use discussion to settle conflicts betweengroups.

Some African societies also have another set ofrelationships important to people. Children of similarages form into groups called age sets. All membersof the age set take part in ceremonies. These signalthe movement from one stage of life to the next.

An important influence on the history of Africawas Islam, which arrived in the continent in thelate 600s. By 670, Muslims ruled Egypt and mostof North Africa. In their new states, the rulerserved as both political and religious leader. TheIslamic tradition of obeying the law helped pro-mote order and support the government. The com-mon influence of Islamic law also forged bondsbetween the different North African states.

Among the North Africans who converted toIslam were a group called the Berbers. In the 11thcentury, a group of Berbers became strongly com-mitted to spreading Islam. They were called theAlmoravids. They conquered modern Moroccoaround 1060, the empire of Ghana by 1076, andparts of Spain.

They were displaced in the 1100s by anothergroup of Berbers, the Almohads. They arose in theAtlas Mountains of Morocco and opposed theAlmoravids. They said Almoravids no longer fol-lowed strict Muslim teaching. Almohads, too, cap-tured Morocco and then Spain. They extendedtheir power as far east as the cities of Tripoli andTunis. Within about 100 years, this empire brokeup into smaller states.

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West African CivilizationsKEY IDEA West Africa contained several powerfulempires and states, including Ghana, Mali, and Songhai.

Trade was conducted across the vast SaharaDesert of North Africa as early as A.D. 200, but

it was not regular. The pack animals of the time—oxen, donkeys, and horses—could not travel far inthe desert. Then Berbers began using camels.Since these animals were ideally suited to dry con-ditions, trade became regular and frequent.

By the 700s, the rulers of the kingdom of Ghanawere growing rich. They taxed the goods that traderscarried through their land. The two most importanttrade goods were gold and salt. Gold was taken fromdeep mines or from streams in the western andsouthern parts of West Africa. The people there wereeager to trade for salt from the Sahara region. Arabtraders brought cloth and manufactured goods fromthe cities on the Mediterranean Sea to the north.

The king of Ghana made sure that the price ofgold stayed high. Only the king could own goldnuggets. As religious and military leader, as well ashead of the government, the king was powerful. Bythe year 800, Ghana had become an empire, con-trolling the people of different regions nearby.

Over time, Muslim merchants and tradersbrought their religion to Ghana. By the 1000s, thekings converted to Islam and began to use Muslimsas advisers. Many common people in the empire,though, stayed with their traditional beliefs. Later,Ghana fell to the Almoravids of North Africa. Afterthat, Ghana never regained its former power.

By 1235, a new kingdom began—Mali. It arosesouth of Ghana, but its wealth and power was alsobased on the gold trade. Founder of the kingdomwas Sundiata, who became the first emperor. After winning a series of battles, he set up a well-organized government to run his kingdom.

Later Mali rulers adopted Islam. One of themwas Mansa Musa. He used his skill in leading anarmy to make Mali twice the size of the old empireof Ghana. To rule this large empire, he named gov-ernors to head several provinces. Mansa Musa wasa devoted Muslim. He had new mosques, or housesof worship, built in two cities. One of those cities,Timbuktu, became known as a leading center ofMuslim learning. A later traveler to the area namedIbn Battuta described how peaceful Mali was. Mali,though, declined in the 1400s and was replaced byanother empire that grew wealthy from gold.

The next trading empire was Songhai, and itwas farther to the east than Mali. It arose in the1400s when Sunni Ali used river canoes and horsesto strike quickly. He gained control of new areas—including the city of Timbuktu. He was followed byAskia Muhammad. He was a Muslim with a deepsense of religious feeling who was determined torun the empire in the way of Islam. The SonghaiEmpire fell, however, because other people hadstronger weapons. In 1591, a Moroccan army usedgunpowder and cannons to beat a Songhai armythat had only swords and spears. This defeat endedthe period when empires controlled West Africa.

In other parts of West Africa, people gatheredin city-states that remained independent of theseempires. In what is today northern Nigeria, theHausa people built city-states between the years1000 and 1200. They depended on the food raisedby farmers and on trade in salt, grain, and cottoncloth. One city-state also traded people as slaves.No one city was powerful enough to control itsneighbors for long.

In the southern part of Nigeria and modernBenin another people arose—the Yoruba. Theylived in smaller communities that survived by farm-ing. Some of these villages were joined together insmall kingdoms. The people believed that the kingswere gods. Kings surrounded themselves with alarge court of musicians, magicians, and soldiers. Atthe same time, a secret society of religious andpolitical leaders reviewed the king’s actions andlimited his power. Two powerful Yoruba kingdomswere called Ife and Oyo. Ife lasted from 1100 untilthe late 1600s, when Oyo arose. Both were centeredin cities with high walls, and both were supportedby highly productive farms. Ife had skilled artistswho produced work in ivory, wood, pottery, bronze,brass, and copper.

To the south and west was another kingdom,Benin. The kingdom arose in the 1300s and reachedits peak of power 100 years later. At that time, KingEwuare extended his control over an area from thedelta of the Niger River as far east as the moderncity of Lagos, Nigeria. He made Benin City, hiscapital, stronger by building high walls. He also builta huge palace full of works of art. In the 1480s,ships from Portugal arrived in the major port ofBenin to trade. Their arrival marked the beginningof a long period of European interference in thehistory of Africa.

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Eastern City-States andSouthern Empires

KEY IDEA From 1000 to 1500, East African city-statesand southern African empires gained wealth and powerthrough trade.

The east coast of Africa became an area markedby a blend of cultures. Africans speaking Bantu

languages moved to the area from central Africa.Arab and Persian Muslims came from the northand east to make trading contacts. These peoplescreated a new blended language called Swahili. Itbecame common in the port cities of the east coastof Africa.

The Persian and Arab traders brought porcelainbowls from China and jewels and cotton cloth fromIndia. They bought ivory, gold, tortoise shells, andother goods in Africa to take back to Asia. By 1300,this thriving trade took place in more than 35 citieson the coast. Some cities became centers for manu-factured goods, such as weaving and the making ofiron tools.

One of the richest of these trading ports wasKilwa. It was located to the south—as far south astraders could reach from India and return in thesame season. Thus all trade goods from farthersouth had to come through Kilwa. In 1488, though,the situation changed. Ships arrived on the eastcoast of Africa from Portugal. Portuguese sailorswere looking for a route to India to join in thetrade for spices and other goods desired in Europe.Soon the Portuguese used their cannon power toattack Kilwa and other trading centers in Africa.They burned parts of some cities and took control ofothers. For the next two centuries, the Portugueseremained a powerful force in the region.

On the east coast of Africa, as in West Africa,the growing contract with Muslim traders resultedin the adoption of Islam. A sultan, or governor,ruled each city. Most government officials andwealthy merchants were Muslims. As in WestAfrica, though, most common people kept their tra-ditional beliefs.

Along with trade goods, the Muslim traders alsoengaged in the trade of human slaves. Enslavedpersons did household tasks in such areas as Arabiaand Persia. Some were sent to India to be used assoldiers. This slave trade was not large, however.Only about 1,000 people a year were traded asslaves. The later European-run slave trade wasmuch broader.

In southern Africa, a great city-state arose in the1000s. The Shona people lived in rich land, wherethey grew crops and raised cattle. Their city, calledGreat Zimbabwe, had a good location. It linked thegold fields inland with the trading cities on thecoast. From the 1200s through the 1400s, the citycontrolled this trade and grew wealthy. Around1450, though, the people left the city, although noone knows why. One explanation is that overusehad destroyed the grasslands, soil, and timber. It isthought the area could no longer support a largepopulation. Acres of ruins remain as silentreminders of the past of Zimbabwe. They includestone buildings and a high wall carved with figuresof birds.

Heir to Great Zimbabwe was the MutapaEmpire. It began around 1420 when a man namedMutota left the area and moved farther north look-ing for salt. He and his successors took control of alarge area—almost all of the land of the moderncountry of Zimbabwe. This empire gained wealthfrom the gold in its land. The rulers forced peoplethey had conquered to mine their gold, which theythen sold on the coast. The southern region of theempire formed its own kingdom. In the 1500s, thePortuguese moved in. They tried to defeat theempire but could not. Later, through trickery, theygained control of the government.

Review1. Comparing and Contrasting How did social

groupings in north and central African societiesdiffer from that of American society today?

2. Drawing Conclusions What religion hadinfluence throughout Africa? Did that influenceextend to all levels of society?

3. Determining Main Ideas What common fea-ture linked the kingdoms and empires of WestAfrica?

4. Developing Historical Perspective How doesSwahili symbolize the blending of cultures inEast Africa?

5. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing EffectsHow did location add to the power of Kilwa?

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The Muslim World Expands 69

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The Muslim World Expands,1300–1700

CHAPTER OVERVIEW A group of Turks called Ottomans set up a new empire inwhat is now modern Turkey. Farther to the east, the Safavid Empire arose inmodern Iran, where rulers embraced a special type of Islam that made them dif-ferent from their neighbors. Meanwhile, India saw the rise of yet another empireas Muslims created a powerful state there.

Summary

The Ottomans Build a Vast Empire

KEY IDEA The Ottomans established a Muslim Empirethat combined many cultures and lasted for more than600 years.

In 1300, the world of the eastern Mediterraneanwas seeing changes. The Byzantine Empire was

fading. The Seljuk Turk state had been destroyedby the Mongols. Anatolia, the area of modernTurkey, was now inhabited by groups of nomadicTurks. They saw themselves as ghazis, or warriorsfor Islam. They formed military groups and raidedthe lands where non-Muslims lived.

The most successful ghazi was Osman. WesternEuropeans took his name to be Othman and calledhis followers Ottomans. Between 1300 and 1326,Osman built a strong but small kingdom in Anatolia.Leaders who came after Osman called themselvessultans, or “ones with power.” They extended thekingdom by buying land, forming alliances withother chieftains, and conquering everyone theycould. The military success of the Ottomans wasaided by gunpowder—especially as used in cannons.

The Ottomans ruled kindly through local offi-cials appointed by the sultan. Muslims had to servein the army but paid no taxes. Non-Muslims paidthe tax but did not have to serve in the army. Manyjoined Islam simply to avoid the tax. Most people intheir empire adjusted quickly to their easy rule.

One warrior did not. Timur the Lame, calledTamerlane in the west, arose in central Asia. Heclaimed to be descended from Genghis Khan. Theclaim probably is not true—but he was as fierce asthe Mongol conqueror. He conquered Russia andPersia, where he burned the city of Baghdad to theground. In 1402, he defeated the Ottomans in bat-tle and captured the sultan. Timur died three yearslater on his way to conquer China.

Back in Anatolia, the four sons of the last sultanfought for control of the empire. Mehmed I won

control, and his son and the four following sultansbrought the Ottoman Empire to its greatest power.One of them—Mehmed II—took power in 1451and captured Constantinople. At first, his shipswere unable to sail near the city because barriersblocked the way. So he had his soldiers drag theships over hills so they could be launched onanother side of Constantinople. After several weeksof fighting, the Ottoman force was simply too strongfor the tiny army left in the city. In 1453, Constan-tinople finally fell to the Ottomans. Mehmed madethe city his capital, which was renamed Istanbul.The famous and beautiful church of the HagiaSophia became a mosque. The rebuilt city becamehome to people from all over the Ottoman Empire.

Other emperors used conquest to make theempire grow. After 1514, Selim the Grim took Persia,Syria, and Palestine. He then captured Arabia, tookthe Muslim holy cities of Medina and Mecca, andgained control of Egypt.

His son, Suleyman I, brought the OttomanEmpire to its greatest size and most impressiveachievements. He conquered parts of southeasternEurope by 1525. He won control of the entire easternMediterranean Sea and took North Africa as far westas Tripoli. Although he was defeated in a battle forVienna in 1529, his Ottoman Empire remained huge.

Suleyman ruled his empire with a highly struc-tured government. Serving the royal family and thegovernment were thousands of slaves. Among themwas an elite group of soldiers called janissaries.They were Christians taken as children and madeslaves with personal loyalty to the sultan. They weretrained as soldiers and fought fiercely for the sultan.Other slaves held important government jobs. Theempire allowed people to follow their own religion.Jews and Christians were not mistreated by theOttomans. Suleyman revised the laws of theempire, which won him the name Suleyman theLawgiver. Suleyman also oversaw an empire that

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was full of accomplished works of art. Using anexcellent architect, he built many fine buildings inhis capital.

The empire lasted long after Suleyman butspent the next few hundred years in decline. Noneof the sultans were as accomplished as he hadbeen, and the Ottoman Empire’s power slipped.

Cultural BlendingCase Study: The SafavidEmpire

KEY IDEA Many world cultures incorporate influencesfrom various peoples and traditions.

Throughout history, different peoples have livedtogether, and their cultures have influenced one

another. Often these people have blended one culture with another. This can be due to trade, conquest, movement of people from one area toanother, or conversion to a new religion.

Changes often happen in places where culturalblending takes place. Changes in language, arts andarchitecture or religion are examples. For example inthe Safavid empire the spoken language was Persian.But after Muslims came to live in the empire, Arabicwords appeared in the Persian language.

Cultural blending took place in the SafavidEmpire of Persia. The Safavids began as membersof an Islamic group that claimed to be related to theprophet Muhammad. In the 1400s, they becameallied with the Shi’a, a branch of Islam. The majorgroup of Muslims, the Sunnis, persecuted the Shi’afor their views. The Safavids, fearing their strongneighbors who were Sunni Muslims, decided tobuild a strong army to protect themselves.

In 1499, a 14-year-old leader named Isma’il ledthis army to conquer Iran. He took the traditionalPersian title of shah, or king, and made the newempire a state of Shi’a. He destroyed Baghdad’sSunni population. Ottoman Turk rulers—who wereSunni Muslims—in turn killed all the Shi’a thatthey met. This conflict between the two groups ofMuslims continues today.

The Safavids reached their height in the late1500s under Shah Abbas. He reformed the military,making two armies that were loyal to him and himalone. He also gave new weapons to the army tomake them better fighters. He reformed the gov-ernment, getting rid of corrupt officials. He alsobrought gifted artists to his empire, who helpedmake his capital and other cities very beautiful. In

taking these steps, Shah Abbas drew on good ideasfrom other cultures. He used Chinese artists andenjoyed good relations with nations of Europe.Through this contact, the demand for Persian rugsincreased greatly in Europe. In this period, rug-making, which had simply been a local craft inPersia, was changed into a major industry for thecountry.

As with the Ottoman Empire, the SafavidEmpire began to decline soon after it had reachedits greatest height. Shah Abbas had killed orinjured his most talented sons—just as Suleimanhad done—fearing that they would seize powerfrom him. As a result, a weak and ineffective grand-son became shah after him. Under his poor leader-ship, the empire lost power.

While the empire fell, the blended culture thatthe Safavid Empire had created continued. Themain elements of that culture were the joiningtogether of the Persian tradition of learning andsophistication and the devout faith of the Shi’a.These elements are found in Iran even today.

The Mughal Empire in IndiaKEY IDEA The Mughal Empire brought Turks, Persians,and Indians together in a vast empire.

Starting in the 600s, India went through a longperiod of unsettled life and trouble. After the

Gupta Empire fell, nomads from central Asiainvaded the area and created many small kingdoms.In the 700s, Muslims arrived on the scene. Theirarrival launched a long history of fighting betweenthem and the Hindus who had lived in India forcenturies.

The Hindus were able to prevent the Muslimsfrom taking their land for about 300 years. Then agroup of Muslim Turks conquered a region aroundthe city of Delhi and set up a new empire there.They treated the Hindus in their area harshly. Theirrule ended in 1398, when Timur the Lame totallydestroyed Delhi.

A little over a hundred years later, a new powerarose. Babur had a small kingdom north of India.He raised an army and began to win large parts ofIndia. Babur had many talents. He was a lover ofpoetry and gardens and a sensitive man who usedhis feelings for others to become a superb leader. Hewas also an excellent general. He once led a forceof only 12,000 soldiers to victory over an enemyarmy of 100,000. His empire was called the Mughal

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Empire because he and his families were related tothe Mongols.

Babur’s grandson, Akbar, was equally talented.His name means “Greatest One,” and the nameseems suitable to the man. He ruled with great wis-dom and fairness for almost 40 years.

Akbar was a Muslim, but he believed stronglythat people should be allowed to follow the religionthey chose. He set an example by letting his wivespractice whatever religion they chose. In his gov-ernment, too, Akbar hired people based on theirability and not their religion. Both Hindus andMuslims gained jobs as government workers.

Akbar ruled fairly. He ended the tax that Hindupilgrims had to pay. He also ended the tax that allnon-Muslims had to pay. To raise money, he imposeda tax based on a percentage of the food grown. Thismade it easier for peasants to pay the tax. His landpolicy was less wise. He generously gave land togovernment officials. However, when they died hetook it back and handed it to someone else. As aresult, workers did not see any point in caring forthe land because they were not preserving it fortheir children.

He had a strong, well-equipped army that helpedhim win and maintain control of more lands. Hisempire held about 100 million people—more thanlived in all of Europe at the time.

During Akbar’s reign, many changes in culturetook place. His policy of blending different culturesproduced two new languages. Hindi blended Persianand local languages. It is still widely spoken in Indiatoday. Urdu grew out of a mixture of Arabic, Persian,and Hindi and was spoken by the soldiers in Akbar’scamp. Today it is the official language of Pakistan.The empire became famous for its book illustra-tions, which were adapted from the art of Persia.Akbar—who could not read—had a huge library ofbooks and served as a patron to many writers. Healso sponsored the building of a new capital cityand many buildings.

After Akbar’s death in 1605, the empire beganto decline. During the reign of Jahangir, the realpower was his wife, Nur Jahan. She was an ableruler but had a bitter political battle with one ofJahangir’s sons. Since that son found help from theSikhs—members of a separate religion—that groupbecame the target of attacks by the government.

Jahangir’s successor was Shah Jahan, and he toochose not to follow Akbar’s policy of religious toler-ation. Shah Jahan was a great patron of the arts

and built many beautiful buildings, including thefamous Taj Mahal. It was a tomb for his belovedwife. However, his ambitious building plans requiredhigh taxes, and the people suffered under his rule.

His son Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years and made the empire grow once again with newconquests. However, his rule brought about newproblems. A serious Muslim, the new ruler putharsh new laws in place. He punished Hindus anddestroyed their temples, which produced a rebellionthat managed to take control of part of his empire.At the same time, the Sikhs had become skilledfighters, and they won control of another part ofthe empire. To fight these battles, Aurangzeb hadto increase taxes. Since he only taxed Hindus, notMuslims, this move only made large numbers ofpeople more and more angry.

After his death, the empire fell apart, and localleaders took control of small areas. There continuedto be a Mughal emperor, but he was only a figure-head, not a ruler with any real power.

Review1. Clarifying How did the Ottomans treat non-

Muslims?2. Summary What were Suleyman’s major

accomplishments?3. Determining Main Ideas Despite their bril-

liant rule, what critical mistake did Suleiman andShah Abbas make?

4. Drawing Conclusions What evidence of cul-tural blending can you find in Akbar’s rule?

5. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing EffectsHow did Akbar’s successors contribute to theend of the Mughal Empire?

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Maps – Chapters 12, 15, and 18


Locations: o Grand Canal (China) o Beijing o Heian o Sahara Desert o Timbuktu o Benin City o Kilwa o Great Zimbabwe o Baghdad o Anatolia o Constantinople o Mediterranean Sea o Delhi o Taj Mahal

Draw the boundaries of: o Tang China o Song China o Mongol Empire o Khmer Empire o Dai Viet o Koryu Dynasty Korea o Kingdom of Ghana o Kingdom of Mali o Songhai Empire o Benin Kingdom o Mutapa Empire o Ottoman Empire o Safavid Empire o Mughal Empire

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF European Middle Ages, 500–1200CHAPTER OVERVIEW German peoples invaded the Roman Empire, causing it tofall. Small Germanic kingdoms arose. The kingdom of Charlemagne finallyreunited western Europe but split apart after his death. As different groupsinvaded Europe, people sought protection and gave up some rights to powerfullords, producing a system called feudalism. The Church proved an important spir-itual and political force throughout the Middle Ages.

Summary

Charlemagne UnitesGermanic Kingdoms

KEY IDEA Many Germanic kingdoms that succeeded theRoman Empire were reunited under Charlemagne’sempire.

By the end of the fourth century, invaders frommany different Germanic groups overran the

Roman Empire in the west. Their arrival and thecollapse of Roman rule had several effects. Theattacks put a halt to all trade, as it was not safe tomove goods from one place to another. The end ofRoman government and the decline in trade madecities less important. As cities faded, nobles movedto the countryside. Poorer people followed, hopingto be able to grow their own food. The general levelof education in society became lower. As Germanicpeople settled in different areas, they began toblend Latin with phrases of their own. Their lan-guage developed different dialects. Europe nolonger had a single language understood by all.

From about A.D. 400 to 600, Europe was thescene of turmoil and chaos as small Germanic king-doms fought each other for power. Long-held Romanideas about law were replaced by Germanic ideas ofsociety based on close personal ties. The CatholicChurch provided the only sense of order. In 496,Clovis, the king of the Franks, became a Christianwith all his warriors. From then on, the pope inRome supported the military efforts of Clovis.

Clovis was one of many leaders to becomeChristian. The Church made an effort to bringthese people to the religion. It also set up newcommunities called monasteries, where mencalled monks and women called nuns lived livesdevoted to God. These monasteries became impor-tant because their libraries preserved some of thewritings of the ancient world.

The Church also grew in importance whenGregory I became pope in 590. He made the pope

the guardian of the spiritual lives of all Christians.He also made the pope an important power in gov-erning part of Italy.

The kingdom of the Franks covered much ofmodern France. By the 700s, the most importantofficial was the mayor of the palace, even morepowerful than the king. He made laws and con-trolled the army. In 719 Charles Martel becamemayor and expanded the lands controlled by theFranks. He also won a battle in 732 against aMuslim force moving north from Spain. That endedthe Muslim threat to Europe and made Martel aChristian hero. His son, Pepin, was crowned king.

One of Pepin’s sons, Charlemagne, became kingof all the land of the Franks in 771. At six feet, fourinches tall, Charlemagne towered over most peopleof his time. With military skill, he expanded hiskingdom to make it larger than any known sinceancient Rome. By 800, he held most of modernItaly, all of modern France, and parts of modernSpain and Germany. Pope Leo III crowned himemperor. With that, the power of the Church andthe German kings joined the heritage of the oldRoman Empire.

Charlemagne cut the power of the nobles in hisempire and increased his own. He traveled through-out his lands, visiting the people and judging cases.He brought well-read men to his court and spon-sored a revival of learning. However, Charlemagne’sempire broke into pieces soon after his death.

Feudalism in EuropeKEY IDEA Feudalism, a political and military system ofprotective alliances and relationships, develops in Europe.

Between 800 and 1000, Europe was threatenedby new invasions. Muslims captured Sicily in

southern Italy. Magyars struck from the east. Fromthe north came the most feared fighters of all, theVikings, or Norsemen.

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The Vikings came from Scandinavia (nowSweden, Norway, and Denmark). In small, quickraiding parties, they attacked villages and monaster-ies. They took anything of value. The Vikings struckterror in the hearts of Western Europeans. Byaround the year 1000, though, the Vikings hadadopted Christianity and stopped raiding tobecome traders and farmers.

The Magyars, Turkish nomads, attacked fromthe east and reached as far as Italy and westernFrance. The Muslims invaded what are now Spainand Italy from the south. The worst years of theinvaders’ attacks were from 850 to 950. People inWestern Europe suffered and feared for theirfutures. With no strong central government, theywent to local leaders for protection. In this way,Europe’s feudal system began.

The feudal system was based on rights and obli-gations. For example, a local leader, or lord, gaveland to person of lower status, called a vassal. Inreturn, the vassal promised to supply soldiers whenthe lord needed them. The structure of feudal soci-ety was like a pyramid. At the top was the king.Next came the most powerful vassals, such asnobles and bishops. Beneath them were knights,mounted horsemen who pledged to defend theirlord’s land. At the bottom were landless peasantswho toiled in the fields.

Peasants were by far the largest group. Many ofthem were not free to move about as they wished.They were tied to the land of their lord.

The lord’s land was called the manor, and manorsbecame the centers of economic life. Lords gavepeasants land, a home, and protection from raiders.

The peasants worked the land to grow food, giv-ing part of each year’s crop to the lord. They also paidtaxes every year and had much of their lives con-trolled by the lord. Peasants lived in small villages of15 to 30 families. They found everything they neededin that small community and rarely traveled far fromtheir homes. Their cottages had only one or tworooms with only straw mats for sleeping. They hadpoor diets. They endured these lives, believing thatGod had set their place in society.

The Age of ChivalryKEY IDEA The code of chivalry for knights glorified com-bat and romantic love.

Nobles were constantly at war with one another.They employed knights, who were soldiers

who fought on horseback. Using the saddle andstirrup to stay firmly in place on the horse, theseknights became the most important military weaponof the time in Europe. By about the year 1000,nobles used their armies of mounted knights to fightone another for control of land. When they wonbattles, they gave some of the new land to theirknights. The knights could use the income fromthis land to support their need for costly weapons,armor, and horses. They devoted much of their timeto improving their skill at fighting.

By the 1100s, a new code of conduct for knightshad developed. This code of chivalry said that aknight had to fight fiercely for three masters: hislord, God, and his chosen lady. Knights were alsorequired to protect the weak and poor. While thecode set high standards, few knights met all ofthem. For example, most treated peasants harshly.

The sons of nobles and knights began trainingto become knights at an early age. They gainedexperience by fighting in staged combats calledtournaments. These fights were fierce, but real bat-tles were very bloody and harsh. To protect theirlands and homes, nobles built stone castles. Whena castle was attacked, defenders poured hot oil orboiling water on people trying to attack.

The literature about knights did not reflect thisbloody reality. Poems and stories stressed the codeof chivalry, life in the castle, and the knight’s loyaltyto the woman he loved. Some long poems, calledepics, told the story of regal or legendary heroessuch as King Arthur and Charlemagne. Songs toldthe joys and sorrows of romantic love. Many of thewriters of these songs traveled to the court ofEleanor of Aquitaine, the rich and powerful rulerof a land in southern France.

The knights’ ideals of love and devotion to anoble lady seemed to give women a high position inthe society of the Middle Ages. In fact, most womenin feudal society had little power. The Church taughtthat they were inferior. They were limited to work-ing in the home or living in convents. Noblewomencould sometimes rule the land when their husbandswere away from home, but they could not inheritland. It usually passed from father to son.

Peasant women had to work in the fields withtheir husbands and children simply to grow enoughfood to survive—just as they had always done.

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The Power of the Church KEY IDEA Church leaders and political leaders com-peted for power and authority.

With the central governments of Europe weak,the Church became the most important

force unifying European society. An early pope hadsaid that God had made two areas of influence inthe world—religious and political. The pope was incharge of spiritual matters, he said. The emperorand other rulers were in charge of political affairs.Over the years, though, the difference was not soclear. Popes often tried to influence the actions ofrulers, who clashed with them in a struggle forpower.

The Church was organized into a structure thatmirrored society. At the bottom were the priestswho led services at local churches. Above themwere bishops, who oversaw all the priests in a largearea. At the top was the pope, the head of theChurch.

The Middle Ages was an Age of Faith, whenpeople were bound together by their belief in Godand the teachings of the Church. Though life washard, the peasants hoped that by obeying God anddoing their work they would earn the reward ofbeing saved and being taken into heaven afterdeath. The local church served as both a religiousand a social center for the community. Holidayssuch as Easter and Christmas were especially fes-tive times of the year.

The Church developed a body of law calledcanon law. It set standards for the conduct of peo-ple and officials of the Church. These laws ruledover such matters as marriage and religious prac-tices. They applied to all Christians, from kings topeasants. The Church also set up courts that tookcharge when people broke these laws.

Two punishments were especially harsh. If theChurch excommunicated a person, he or she wasbanished from the Church. The person was deniedthe chance for eternal life in heaven. Popes oftenused this power as a threat to try to force rulers todo what they wanted. When a ruler refused to obeythe pope, the Church leader could place his landunder interdiction. That meant that no sacramentsand religious services of the Church could officiallytake place in those lands. The ruler’s subjectsdeeply feared this punishment, for without sacra-ments they were doomed to hell.

Otto I was the strongest ruler of medievalGermany. He set up an alliance with the Church.In 962, the pope crowned him emperor of whatbecame the powerful Holy Roman Empire. It wasmade up of what are now Germany and Italy.

Eventually, popes and emperors came into con-flict. Rulers had, for a long time, enjoyed the powerto name the bishops who led the Church in theirlands. In 1075, Pope Gregory VII banned this prac-tice. Emperor Henry IV was angry and persuadedhis bishops to say that this pope had no real author-ity. Gregory then excommunicated Henry. WhenHenry’s nobles rebelled against him, he went to thepope and asked for forgiveness. But the larger issueof lay investiture was left open until 1122. Then anagreement stated that only the pope could namebishops. However, the emperor had the right toturn down any appointment that he did not like.

In the late 1100s, a new German ruler—Frederick I—tried to rebuild the power of theHoly Roman Empire. He invaded Italy but wasdefeated at an important battle in 1176. When hedied in 1190, his empire fell to pieces. Later kingstried to revive the empire. However, real power inGermany was held by the German nobles.

Review1. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

What were the effects of the arrival of theGermans and the fall of the Roman Empire?

2. Determining Main Ideas Why wasCharlemagne important? Did his achievementslast long?

3. Synthesizing How did invasions contribute tothe beginnings of the feudal system?

4. Determining Main Ideas What was the posi-tion of women during the Middle Ages?

5. Forming and Supporting Opinions Howimportant do you think the Church was in theMiddle Ages? Why?

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Church Reform and the Crusades

KEY IDEA The Catholic Church underwent reform andlaunched Crusades (religious wars) against Muslims andothers.

Beginning in the 1000s, a new sense of spiritualfeeling arose in Europe, which led to changes

in the Church. Popes began a reform movement.Launching the reform was the founding of themonastery at Cluny, France, in 910. During the900s, about 300 related monasteries were begun inEurope.

Popes Leo IX and Gregory VII made otherreforms. They enforced laws against the marriageof priests and the selling of Church offices. Laterpopes reorganized Church structure. To advise thepope, they created a group called the Curia, whichmade church law—canon law—and enforced it.The Church collected a tax from all believers,which it used to care for the sick and poor.

In the early 1200s, a new Church group arose.Called friars, they moved from place to placespreading the ideas of the Church. They ownednothing and begged for food. Some became scholarsbecause they studied the Bible and other writings.Women joined in this spiritual revival as well. Manyjoined convents to dedicate themselves to God.

This new Age of Faith was shown in anotherway, as many towns in Europe built magnificentcathedrals. In the early 1100s, these huge churchesused a new style of architecture called Gothic.These buildings were tall, reaching toward heaven.They had walls covered with windows of colorfulstained glass, which let in beautiful light.

The renewed faith also led to war. In 1093, theByzantine emperor asked for help against MuslimTurks who were threatening Constantinople, hiscapital. The pope urged the leaders of WesternEurope to begin a holy war. He wanted Christiansto gain control of Jerusalem and the entire Holy

Land. This was the first of several Crusades foughtover the next 200 years. Rulers and the Churchfavored the Crusades because they sent warlikeknights out of their lands. Common people joinedthe Crusades out of deep religious feeling.

The First Crusade, begun in 1096, was badlyorganized. Yet the Crusaders still captured some ofthe Holy Land, including Jerusalem. Muslims laterwon back some of this land, and other Crusadesbegan to try to seize it again. Finally, a FourthCrusade ended in disaster. The Western armyattacked not the Muslims but the Byzantine Empireitself. In 1204, the Crusaders looted Constantinople.This helped make a lasting split between westernand eastern Christian churches.

A later Crusade took place in Spain. Christianrulers tried to win back the land that Muslims hadconquered in the 700s. This fight lasted from the1100s until 1492, when the last Spanish Muslimland fell. Thousands of Jews had lived in SpanishMuslim lands. Many became Christians so that theycould remain after the reconquest was completed.

The Crusades had many effects on Europe. Thefailure of later ones cut the power of the popes,and the deaths of many knights reduced the powerof nobles. Contact with the East revived trade.However, the Christians’ harsh treatment ofMuslims in the Holy Land led to bitterness that haslasted to the present.

Changes in Medieval SocietyKEY IDEA European cities challenged the feudal systemas agriculture, trade, finance, and universities developed.

At the same time, Europe enjoyed an improvedfood supply. The climate warmed between the

years 800 and 1200, which helped farming. Asfarmers moved into areas that were once too cold,they also developed new ways of farming that pro-duced better crops. One technique was to pull

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The Formation of WesternEurope, 800–1500

CHAPTER OVERVIEW A new spirit of religion led to reforms in the CatholicChurch and to wars against Muslims. Prosperity followed improved farming andthe growth of trade and cities. England and France developed as nations andincluded some government participation by the people. In the 1300s, however, aterrible plague, a long war, and religious conflict ended this Age of Faith.

Summary

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plows with horses that worked twice as fast as oxen.A new harness made the use of horses possible.Another new technique was a method of takingturns with the crops planted in an area. In the past,farmers had planted half their land and let theother half go unplanted each year. That preventedthe soil from becoming overworked, but the newsystem was better. Farmers now planted two-thirdsof their fields, leaving only one-third unplanted.This increased the amount of food they could grow.

Along with the growth in the food supply, tradeand finance increased. Craft workers began to makegoods that were sent all over Europe in trade. Fairswere held each year in towns, where merchantssold cloth, food, leather, and other goods.

Supporting the fairs were new organizations—the guilds. Guilds were formed in each town by theworkers in the same craft, such as cloth makers,bakers, or glass makers. Members set standards fortheir products and set fair prices. They also maderules for how young people could enter the craft.

With more trade, merchants needed more cash.They had to borrow money to buy goods to sell.Christians didn’t lend money because the Churchhad rules against charging a fee for loaning money.So, because Jews were outside the ChristianChurch, they became the chief sources of loans.Later, the Church relaxed its rules, and Christiansbegan to form banks.

In the early 1100s, the population of westernEurope grew rapidly. Towns grew larger and moreimportant. Towns were dirty places, with narrowfilthy streets. Built entirely of wood, they were firehazards. Still, many peasants fled to the townsbecause, by living there a year and a day, theybecame free—no longer subject to the power ofwealthy lords. Wealthier people in the towns foughtfor—and won—the right not to pay taxes to lordsand to govern themselves.

Growing trade and wealth helped lead to agrowing interest in learning. Many towns developedschools linked to the cathedrals, which taught reli-gion and church law. These were called universities.Several writers also began to write in their nativelanguages—not Latin, but English or Italian—pro-ducing great works of literature that many peoplestill enjoy today.

Helping this new interest in learning was thecontact with Muslims brought about by theCrusades. Muslim scholars had preserved booksfrom ancient Rome and Greece, which came back

to Europe in this period. Christian thinkers becameinfluenced by the thinking of these ancients. Theytried to bring together the logic of old thinkers withthe teachings of the Church.

England and France DevelopKEY IDEA As the kingdoms of England and Francebegan to develop into nations, certain democratic tradi-tions evolved.

England was formed by the blending of cultures.Danish Vikings came to the island in the 800s,

uniting with the Anglo-Saxons who had come therefrom Germany hundreds of years earlier. Over time,these peoples became one kingdom. In 1066, theking died, and the duke of a land in northern Franceinvaded and won control of the island. William theConqueror, as he was called, declared England tobe all his.

Later English kings, descendants of William,tried to expand the amount of land they still held inFrance. They also wanted to increase their controlover the government. Henry II, who ruled from1154 to 1189, was one of the strongest of thesekings. He married Eleanor of Aquitaine, thus gain-ing control of more of France. At home, he beganthe practice of trial by jury.

One of Henry’s sons, King John, had seriousproblems. Lack of money and his own harsh ruleled nobles to rebel against him. They forced Johnto sign a paper called the Magna Carta that putlimits on the power of the king. The document pro-tected the power only of nobles, but later commonpeople said that the protections applied to them aswell. Another step toward limiting the king came inthe 1200s. Edward I hoped to raise taxes to pay fora war in France. He called a meeting of representa-tives to approve his tax plan. His Model Parliamentwas famous because for the first time it includednot only bishops and nobles but also common peoplefrom the towns.

In France, a new dynasty of kings, theCapetians, ruled from 987 to 1328. France was splitinto 30 separate small territories, each ruled by adifferent lord. The kings—who held only a smallarea centered in Paris—tried to gain control of allof the land.

One of the most successful kings was Philip II,who ruled from 1180 to 1223. He tripled the landsunder his control, in part by seizing the Frenchland held by the English King John. He also made

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a stronger central government, giving the kingmore control over his subjects. His grandson, LouisIX, ruled from 1226 to 1270, and carried on Philip’swork. Louis set up royal courts where people could appeal decisions made by their lords. Thisincreased the king’s power. In 1302, Philip IVcalled for a meeting of the kingdom’s most impor-tant groups. He, like Edward in England, invitedcommoners to this meeting of the Estates General,as the assembly was called.

The Hundred Years’ War and the Plague

KEY IDEA During the 1300s, Europe was torn apart byreligious strife, the bubonic plague, and the HundredYears’ War.

In 1300, the pope challenged Philip IV of France,claiming to have supreme authority over the king.

Philip held the pope as a prisoner for trial. He wasrescued but died shortly thereafter. The king forcedthe election of a French cardinal as pope, and in1305 the new pope moved to a city in France, tolead the Church from there. This action weakenedthe Church. In 1378 the French pope at that timedied. An Italian was elected the next pope, but theFrench elected their own pope. Confusionresulted. Church officials had two popes—one inFrance and one in Rome. The situation, called theGreat Schism, lasted 39 years.

At the same time, the pope’s authority was beingchallenged. The English scholar John Wycliffe andthe Bohemian John Huss argued that the Biblealone was the final authority for Christian teach-ing—not the pope.

People of the late 1300s experienced an evenmore severe shock. A fearful disease—the bubonicplague—swept across Europe starting in 1347 andlasting for decades. The disease killed millions ofpeople—about one-third of the population ofEurope.

The plague had a serious effect on Europe’seconomy. Trade declined, prices rose, and townsbecame smaller. Fewer people meant fewer work-ers. Peasants demanded wages or their freedom.When nobles resisted these demands, peasantsoften revolted. The Church lost prestige, as it wasunable to stop the plague. The plague helped bringabout the end of the Middle Ages.

A century-long war contributed as well. Whenthe last Capetian king of France died in 1328, he

left no heir. Edward III of England claimed thethrone—he was a grandson of Philip IV of France.In 1337, he began a war, known as the HundredYears’ War, to win France.

English forces won three important battles. Atone, their archers used longbows to launch arrowsthat destroyed the French troops—even armoredknights. By 1429, the French were in desperateshape. Their army held the town of Orléans, whichthe English were about to capture. A teenage girlnamed Joan of Arc arrived on the scene. Convincedby voices of the saints that she could save the day,she persuaded French leaders to allow her to leadthe army of France, which was victorious. Withthat, the French crowned a new king, Charles VII.Later, Joan of Arc was captured by English allies,turned over to the English, tried, and burned at the stake.

The Hundred Years’ War finally ended in 1453.It had been fought mostly in France and broughtmuch suffering to that nation. However, the warproduced a strong national feeling in both Englandand France, a sense that the king was not just afeudal lord but also the leader of a nation. TheEnglish king’s constant need for money led him toask Parliament many times for taxes. This increasedthe power of Parliament.

Review1. Determining Main Ideas How was the renewed

religious feeling of the Middle Ages shown?2. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

What were the effects of the Crusades?Clarifying3. What social, economic, and cultural changes took

place in the Middle Ages?4. What changes occurred in England and France

in the Middle Ages?5. Forming and Supporting Opinions Which of

the three problems that affected Europe—theGreat Schism, the bubonic plague, or theHundred Years’ War—do you think was worst,and why?

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Locations: o Viking territory o Magyar territory o Rome o Constantinople o Jerusalem o Normandy

Draw the borders of: o Charlemagne’s Empire o Holy Roman Empire o England – 1189 C.E. o England – 1453 C.E. o France – 1328 C.E. o France – 1453 C.E.

Path of Crusades: o 1st Crusade o 4th Crusade

Show the path of the bubonic plague spreading through Asia & Europe

Peoples and Empires in the Americas 61

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF People and Empires in theAmericas, 500–1500

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Native North Americans followed several ways of life. Yet,they shared trade links and religious and social practices. The Maya of CentralAmerica developed a complex civilization of independent city-states. The Aztecof Mexico had a huge empire, but their harsh rule over conquered people causedbitterness. The Inca of South America built a vast empire in the Andes Mountains.

Summary

North American Societies KEY IDEA Complex North American societies werelinked to each other through culture and economics.

Between about 40,000 and 12,000 years ago,hunter-gatherers moved from Asia to North

America. (At that time the two continents had aland connection.) These were the first Americans,and they spread down throughout North and SouthAmerica. They followed many different ways of life,each suited to the environment in which they lived.

The peoples of the Pacific Northwest, frommodern Oregon to Alaska, lived in an area withmany resources. They hunted whales in the sea andgathered food from the forests on the coast.

The peoples of the Southwest lived in a moredifficult region. Still, they began farming the land.The Anasazi built cliff dwellings. Later, they builtlarge apartment-style compounds. They used stoneand clay baked in the sun for these buildings. Theyused irrigation to bring water to their crops. Laterpeoples living in this area continued the traditionsof the Anasazi.

In the woods east of the Mississippi River,another culture arose. These people are called theMound Builders. They built large mounds of earththat were filled with copper and stone objects.Some mounds were made in the shape of animalswhen seen from above. The Mississippians were apeople who lived later in this area. They built asmall city that was the center for their culture. Ithad a flat-topped pyramid with a temple on top.

The peoples of the eastern woodlands had manydifferent cultures and spoke many different lan-guages. They often fought over control of land.Some groups formed alliances to put an end to this fighting. The most successful of these was theIroquois League, which linked together five differ-ent tribes in upper New York.

While these North American groups had manydifferences, they had some features in common,

too. Trade linked people of all regions of NorthAmerica. Religious ideas were similar across thecontinent as well. Nearly all native North Ameri-cans thought that the world was full of spirits andthat people had to follow certain rituals and cus-toms to live in peace. They also shared greatrespect for the land, which they did not believethat people could own. They also shared an empha-sis on the family as the most important social unit.Family included parents, children, grandparents,and other relatives. In some tribes, families werelinked together with others who shared a commonancestor. These larger groups, called clans, wereidentified with something in nature, such as an ani-mal, called totems.

Maya Kings and CitiesKEY IDEA The Maya developed a highly complex civilization based on city-states controlled by dynastiesof kings.

Agreat civilization arose in what is today south-ern Mexico and northern Central America.

This was the Maya civilization, and it appearedaround A.D. 250. In their Classic Period—from 250to 900—the Maya built large cities such as Tikal,Copán, and others. Each city was independent andruled by a god-king. Each city was both a religiouscenter and a trade center for the area around it.These cities were large, holding tens of thousandsof people, and were full of palaces, temples, andpyramids. Archaeologists have found at least 50Maya cities.

Trade linked these many cities. Among the tradegoods were salt, flint, feathers, shells, cotton cloth,and ornaments made of jade. Cacao beans—whichare used to make chocolate—were sometimes usedas money. Farming of maize, or corn, beans, andsquash provided the Maya’s main source of food.Maya society was divided into social classes. Thebest warriors and priests were at the top, followed

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by merchants and craft workers. Peasant farmers—the majority of the people—were at the bottom.

The Maya had a complex religion that was thecenter of their society. There were many gods,including one for each day. The actions of the day’sgod could be predicted, they thought, by followinga calendar. The Maya sometimes cut themselves tooffer their blood to the gods in sacrifice. Sometimesthey killed enemies and sacrificed them.

To understand their gods, the Maya developedknowledge of mathematics, calendars, and astron-omy. Maya math included the idea of zero, whichwas used to help make calendars. They had two calendars, a religious one that had thirteen 20-daymonths and one based on the sun that had eighteen20-day months. They linked the two together toidentify days that would bring good fortune. Mayaastronomy was very accurate. The Maya observedthe sun, moon, and stars to make their calendars asaccurate as possible. They calculated the length ofthe solar year—the time it takes the earth torevolve around the sun—almost perfectly.

In the late 800s, the Maya began to decline.Historians do not know why. One explanation maybe growing war between the different city-states,which drove many people out of the cities into thejungle. Another may be that the soil became lessproductive due to intensive farming over a longtime. Whatever the cause, the Maya became a lesspowerful people. They continued to live in thearea, but their cities were no longer the thrivingtrade and religious centers they had been.

The Aztecs Control Central Mexico

KEY IDEA Through alliances and conquest, the Aztecscreated a powerful empire in Mexico.

The Valley of Mexico is a mountain valley morethan a mile above sea level. Full of lakes and

fertile soil, it was a good place for people to settle.In this area, an early city-state called Teotihaucán(“City of the Gods”) arose in the first century A.D.At its peak in the sixth century, the city had as manyas 200,000 people, many of whom were involved inthe trade of obsidian. This hard green or black vol-canic glass was found nearby and could be used tomake very sharp weapons. In the city was the hugePyramid of the Sun, larger at its base than thelargest pyramid of Egypt. By 750, Teotihuacán wasabandoned for reasons that are not clear.

The next people to dominate the area were theToltecs, who rose to power around 900 and ruledover central Mexico for about 300 years. The Toltecsworshiped a fierce war god. They were very warlikeand based their empire on conquest. Around 1000,a ruler named Topiltzin encouraged the Toltec peo-ple to worship a peaceful god, Quetzalcoatl.Followers of the war god rebelled, however, anddrove Topiltzin away. In time, Topiltzin andQuetzalcoatl became one in the legends of the peo-ple of the Valley of Mexico. According to these leg-ends, he would return one day, bringing a newreign of light and peace. The legend ofQuetzalcoatl lived on in central Mexico for cen-turies.

Around 1200, as the Toltecs were losing controlof the region, another people arrived on the scene—the Aztecs. The Aztecs founded a city and grew inpower. By the early 1500s, they controlled a largeempire that included somewhere between 5 and 15million people. This empire was based on militaryconquest and collecting tribute from conqueredpeoples.

Military leaders, who owned huge amounts ofland, led the Aztec nation along with governmentofficials and priests. Below them were common-ers—merchants, craft workers, soldiers, and farm-ers who owned their land. At the bottom of societywere the slaves taken as captives in battle. At thetop was the emperor, who was treated as a god aswell as a ruler.

The capital city—Tenochtitlán—was built on anisland in a lake. The Aztecs made long causeways to connect the city to the land. The city was large,with between 200,000 and 400,000 people. It waswell-planned and had a huge government and reli-gious complex at its center.

Religion played a major role in Aztec society.Their cities held many temples built for the differ-ent gods they believed in. Priests led rituals, andthe most important was for the sun god. Priests hadto make the sacrifice of human blood to ensure thatthe sun god was happy and the sun would rise everyday. People taken captive in war were sacrificed. Sothe need for a steady supply of victims helped pushthe Aztecs to fight their neighbors.

When Montezuma II became emperor in 1502,the Aztec empire began to have problems. TheAztecs ordered the other peoples they had con-quered to hand over even more people forsacrifice. These other peoples finally rebelled

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against the Aztecs. In the midst of this conflict, theSpanish arrived and made first contact with theAztecs. Some Aztecs saw the Spaniards’ arrival asthe legendary return of Quetzalcoatl.

The Inca Create a Mountain Empire

KEY IDEA The Inca built a vast empire supported bytaxes, governed by a bureaucracy, and linked by exten-sive road systems.

Another great civilization—the Inca—arose inthe Andes Mountains of South America. It was

built on the foundations made by several earliercultures. This culture, though, united much of theAndes under one rule.

The Inca first settled in the Valley of Cuzco, inmodern Peru. It had a kingdom there by the 1200s.They believed that their ruler was related to the sungod, who would bring wealth and power to them.Only men from one of 11 noble families could serveas king.

In 1438, Pachacuti became the ruler of theInca, and he launched a campaign of conquest thatexpanded the empire’s size. By 1500, the Inca ruledan empire that stretched along the Andes Mountainsfrom modern Ecuador all the way south to Chileand Argentina. It held about 16 million people. Theempire did not grow only through military conquest.Often the Inca offered new peoples the chance tojoin the empire peacefully as long as they sworeloyalty to the emperor. Many peoples became partof the empire in this way. When force was needed,though, the Inca were fierce fighters.

The Inca had a very organized system for thegovernment of their empire. Families were placedin groups of 10, 100, 1,000, and so on. Each groupwas led by a chief. The Inca usually let local rulersstay in place when they conquered a people—aslong as the ruler and the people met key Incademands. The most important was the need for alladult workers to spend some days each year work-ing for the state. They might work on state farms orstate building programs.

The Inca built a complex network of roads tolink all parts of the empire. The Inca also built allgovernment buildings in the same style to create acommon identity for the government throughoutthe empire. They made all people speak a commonlanguage—the Inca tongue, called Quechua.

The Inca controlled the economy, telling peoplewhat to grow or make and how it would be distrib-uted. They used irrigation to ensure that farmlandsgot enough water. They also found a way to freeze-dry potatoes—a staple crop—for times when foodwas scarce. The government also took care of peo-ple who needed help, such as the very old or ill.

In spite of all these advances, the Inca neverdeveloped a system of writing. All records werekept in peoples’ memories. They did have a systemof counting. They also had day and night calendarsfor information about their gods.

The Inca religion played a central role in Incalife. They believed in fewer gods than the peoplesof Mexico. The most important of them were thecreator god and the sun god. Cuzco, the capital,was the most important religious center. It was dec-orated with gold and other precious objects.

Review1. Clarifying What divided and what linked native

North Americans?2. Determining Main Ideas What Maya cultural

advances were connected to their religiousbeliefs? Why?

3. Comparing and Contrasting Compare andcontrast the Maya and the Aztec in terms of gov-ernment.

4. Drawing Conclusions Were the Aztec peoplegood engineers? Explain your answer.

5. Summarizing What steps did the Inca take tounify the different peoples in their empire?

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European Renaissance and Reformation 65

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Name Date

CHAPTERS IN BRIEF European Renaissance andReformation, 1300–1600

CHAPTER OVERVIEW In the 1300s, a renewed interest in classical learning and thearts arose in Italy. Thinkers in northern Europe adopted these ideas as well butwith a spiritual focus. The desire for a more satisfying spiritual life led some torevolt against the Catholic Church, as new churches were founded. In response,the Catholic Church undertook some reforms of its own, strengthening the faith.

Summary

Italy: Birthplace of the Renaissance

KEY IDEA The European Renaissance, a rebirth of learn-ing and the arts, began in Italy in the 1300s.

The years 1300 to 1600 saw a rebirth of learningand culture in Europe. Called the Renaissance,

it spread north from Italy. It began there for threereasons. First, Italy had several important cities,whereas most of northern Europe was still rural.Second, these cities included a class of merchantsand bankers who were becoming wealthy and pow-erful. Third, Italian artists and scholars were inspiredby the ruined buildings and other reminders ofclassical Rome.

That new interest in the classical past led to animportant value in Renaissance culture—human-ism. This was a deep interest in what people havealready achieved as well as what they could achievein the future. Scholars did not try to connect classicalwritings to Christian teaching but tried to under-stand them on their own terms. Renaissance thinkersstressed the things of the world. In the MiddleAges, the emphasis had been mostly on spiritualvalues. One way that powerful or wealthy peopleshowed this interest in worldly things was by payingartists, writers, and musicians to create beautifulworks of art.

Men tried to show that they could master manyfields of study or work. Someone who succeeded in many fields was admired greatly. The artistLeonardo da Vinci was an example of this ideal. Hewas a painter, a scientist, and an inventor. Menwere expected to be charming, witty, well-educated,well-mannered, athletic, and self-controlled. Womenwere expected not to create art but to inspire artists.

Renaissance artists sometimes used new meth-ods. Sculptors made figures more realistic thanthose from the Middle Ages. Painters used per-spective to create the illusion that their paintings

were three-dimensional. The subject of artworkchanged also. Art in the Middle Ages was mostlyreligious, but Renaissance artists reproduced otherviews of life. Michelangelo showed great skill as anarchitect, a sculptor, and a painter.

Renaissance writers reached high achievementsas well. Several wrote in their native languages,whereas most writing in the Middle Ages had beenin Latin. Writers also changed their subject matter.They wrote to express their own thoughts and feel-ings or to portray in detail an individual. Dante andothers wrote poetry, letters, and stories that wereself-expressive and more realistic. NiccolòMachiavelli took a new approach to understandinggovernment. He focused on telling rulers how toexpand their power, even if that meant taking stepsthat the Church might view as evil.

The Northern RenaissanceKEY IDEA In the 1400s, northern Europeans began toadopt the ideas of the Renaissance.

By 1450, the bubonic plague had ended innorthern Europe and the population was

recovering. Also, the Hundred Years’ War betweenFrance and England was ending. The sufferingcaused by these two events was fading, and the new ideas from Italy spread to northern Europe,where they were quickly adopted. The northernRenaissance had a difference, however. While theeducated people there became interested in classi-cal learning, they were more likely to combine thatwith interest in religious ideas.

Major artists appeared in parts of Germany,France, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The use ofoil-based paints became popular. Dürer paintedreligious subjects and realistic landscapes. Holbein,van Eyck, and Bruegel painted lifelike portraits andscenes of peasant life. They revealed much aboutthe times.

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The new ideas of Italian art moved to the north,where artists began to use them. Painters inFlanders were deeply interested in showing life inrealistic ways. They painted members of the risingmerchant class and peasants, revealing much aboutlife of the period. One pioneered in the use of oil-based paints.

Writers of the northern Renaissance combinedhumanism with deep Christian faith. They urgedreforms in the Church and society to try to makepeople more devoted to God and more just. ThomasMore wrote a book about an imaginary ideal societywhere greed, war, and conflict did not exist.

William Shakespeare is widely viewed as thegreatest playwright of all time. His plays showed abrilliant command of the English language and adeep understanding of people and how they inter-act with one another.

One reason that learning spread so rapidly duringthe Renaissance was the invention of movable type.The Chinese had invented the process of carvingcharacters onto wooden blocks. They then arrangedthem in words, inked the blocks, and pressed themagainst paper to print pages. In 1440, a German,Johann Gutenberg, adopted this practice. He pro-duced his first book—a Bible—in 1455. The tech-nology then spread rapidly. By 1500, presses inEurope had printed nearly 10 million books.

Printing made it easier to make many copies ofa book. As a result, written works became availablefar and wide. Fewer books were printed in Latin,and more books were printed in languages such asEnglish, French, Spanish, Italian, or German. As aresult, more people began to read the Bible on theirown. Some formed ideas about Christianity thatdiffered from those of the Church.

Luther Leads theReformation

KEY IDEA Martin Luther’s protest over abuses in theCatholic Church led to the founding of Protestantchurches.

By 1500, Renaissance values emphasizing theindividual and worldly life weakened the

influence of the Church. At the same time, manypeople sharply criticized the Church for some of itspractices. Popes seemed more concerned with lux-ury and political power than with spiritual matters.Critics resented the fact that they paid taxes to sup-port the Church in Rome. The lower clergy had

faults. Many local priests lacked education andcouldn’t teach people. Others took actions thatbroke their vows as priests.

In the past, reformers had urged that theChurch change its ways to become more spiritualand humble. Christian humanists such as Erasmusand More added their voices to calls for change. Inthe early 1500s, the calls grew louder.

In 1517, a German monk and professor namedMartin Luther protested some actions of a Churchofficial. That person was selling what were calledindulgences. By paying money to the Church, peoplethought they could win salvation. Luther challengedthis practice and others. He posted a written proteston the door of a castle church. His words werequickly printed and began to spread throughoutGermany. Thus began the Reformation, the move-ment for reform that led to the founding of newChristian churches.

Soon Luther pushed for broader changes. Hesaid that people could win salvation only throughfaith, not good works. He said that religious beliefsshould be based on the Bible alone and that thepope had no real authority. He said that each per-son was equal before God. He or she did not needa priest to explain the Bible to them.

The pope punished Luther for his views, but he refused to take them back. The Holy RomanEmperor, a strong Catholic, called Luther an out-law. His books were to be burned. No one was toshelter him. Meanwhile, many of his ideas werebeing put into practice. The Lutheran Church wasborn around 1522.

In 1524, peasants in Germany hoped to useLuther’s ideas to change society. They demanded anend to serfdom—a condition like slavery. When itwas not granted, they revolted. Luther disagreedwith this revolt, and the German princes killed thou-sands in putting the revolt down. Some nobles sup-ported Luther because they saw a chance to weakenthe emperor’s power. German princes joined forcesagainst Luther. Some princes protested this. Warbroke out between Catholics and these Protestantforces in Germany. It finally ended in 1555 with thePeace of Augsburg. That treaty granted each princethe right to decide whether his subjects would beCatholic or Protestant.

The Catholic Church faced another challenge toits power in England. Henry VIII, the king, wasmarried to a princess of Spain. She had borne hima daughter, but he wanted a son. This could

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prevent a civil war erupting when he died. His wifewas too old to have another child, but the poperefused to grant him a divorce. In 1534, Henry hadthe English Parliament pass a number of laws thattook England out of the Catholic Church. The lawsmade the king or queen, not the pope, head of theChurch of England. Henry remarried four times,gaining his only son from his third wife.

One of Henry’s daughters, Elizabeth, becamequeen in 1558 and completed the task of creating a separate English church. New laws gave the newreligion some traits that would appeal to bothProtestants and Catholics. In this way, Elizabethhoped to end religious conflict in England.

The Reformation ContinuesKEY IDEA John Calvin and other Reformation leadersbegan new Protestant churches. The Catholic Churchalso made reforms.

Protestantism arose elsewhere in the 1530s underthe leadership of John Calvin. Calvin wrote an

important book that gave structure to Protestantbeliefs. He taught that people are sinful by natureand only those God chooses—“the elect”—will besaved. He said that God knew from the beginningwhich people would be saved and which would not.

Calvin created a government run by religiousleaders in a city in Switzerland. The city had strictrules of behavior that urged people to live deeplyreligious lives. Anyone who preached different reli-gious ideas might be burned at the stake.

A preacher named John Knox was impressed byCalvin’s high moral ideals. Knox put these ideas intopractice in Scotland. This was the beginning of the Presbyterian Church. Others in Switzerland,Holland, and France adopted Calvin’s ideas as well.In France, his followers were called Huguenots.Conflict between them and Catholics often turnedto violence. In 1572, mobs killed about 12,000Huguenots. Another Protestant church that arosewas the Anabaptists. They preached that peopleshould be baptized into the faith as adults. Theyinfluenced some later groups.

Protestant churches grew, but millions remainedtrue to the Catholic faith. Still, the Catholic Churchtook steps to reform itself. A Spanish noble namedIgnatius founded a new group in the Church basedon deep devotion to Jesus. Members started schoolsacross Europe. They tried to convert people to

Catholicism who were not Christians. In addition,they tried to stop the spread of Protestant faiths inEurope.

Two popes of the 1500s helped bring aboutchanges in the Church. Paul III took several steps,including calling a great council of church leadersat Trent, in northern Italy. The council, which metin 1545, passed these doctrines:

• the Church’s interpretation of the Bible was final;• Christians needed good works as well as faith to

win salvation;• the Bible and the Church had equal authority in

setting out Christian beliefs; and• indulgences could be sold.

Paul also put in action a kind of court called theInquisition. It was charged with finding, trying, andpunishing people who broke the rules of the Church.His successor, Paul IV, put these policies into prac-tice. These actions helped revive the Church andallowed it to survive the challenge of the Protestants.

Review1. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

Why did the Renaissance arise in Italy?2. Making Inferences Why do you think that a

person who is accomplished in many fields iscalled a “Renaissance” man or woman?

3. Contrasting How did the northern Renaissancediffer from the Italian Renaissance?

4. Drawing Conclusions What role did politicalconcerns play in the Reformation?

5. Forming and Supporting Opinions Whichleader—Calvin or Luther—do you think had agreater impact? Explain why.

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Locations: o Anasazi territory o Mound Builders territory o Mississippi River o Iroquois territory o Teotihuacan o Tenochtitlan o Andes Mountains o Macho Pichu o Rome o Venice o Florence o London

Draw the borders of: o Maya Empire o Aztec Empire o Incan Empire o Holy Roman Empire – 1500 C.E.

An Age of Exploration and Isolation 73

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF An Age of Exploration andIsolation, 1400–1800

CHAPTER OVERVIEW “God, glory, and gold” drove Europeans’ early exploration ofAsia. They took control of Asian trade, with Portugal leading the way. Eventually,nations of northern Europe displaced the Portuguese. Two dynasties in Chinaresisted the growing power of Europeans in Asia, limiting Chinese contact withforeigners. In Japan, a new system of government brought peace and isolation.

Summary

Europeans Explore the EastKEY IDEA Driven by the desire for wealth and to spreadChristianity, Europeans began an age of exploration.

For many centuries, Europeans had been largely,though not completely, isolated from contact

with people from other lands. That changed in the 1400s. One reason for this change was thatEuropeans hoped to gain new sources of wealth. Byexploring the seas far from Europe, traders hopedto find new, faster routes to Asia—the source ofspices and luxury goods. Their goal was to win accessto these lands and bypass the Muslims and Italianswho currently controlled this trade. Another reasonwas the desire to spread Christianity to new lands.The Crusades had ended, but bad feelings betweenChristians and Muslims remained. The Christiansof Europe wanted to convert the people of Asia.

Advances in technology made these voyagespossible. A new kind of ship, the caravel, wasstronger built than earlier ships. It had triangle-shaped sails that allowed it to sail against the wind.Ships could now travel far out into the ocean. Themagnetic compass allowed sea captains to betterstay on course.

The first nation to develop and use these newtechnologies was Portugal. Prince Henry ofPortugal was deeply committed to the idea ofexploring beyond the seas. In 1419, he started aschool of navigation where sea captains, mapmak-ers, and navigators could meet, learn, and exchangeideas. Over the next few decades, Portuguese cap-tains sailed farther and farther down the west coastof Africa. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias led the first voy-age to reach the southern tip of Africa. Ten yearslater, Vasco da Gama led a ship 27,000 milesaround Africa, to India, and back. The Portuguesehad found a sea route to Asia.

The Spanish, meanwhile, had plans of their own.Italian sailor Christopher Columbus convinced theking and queen that he could reach Asia by sailing

west. In 1492, instead of landing in Asia, Columbustouched land in the islands of the Americas, landunknown to Europeans. At first, though, peoplestill thought that he had landed in Asia. Spain andPortugal argued over which nation had the rights tothe land that Columbus had claimed. In 1494, theysigned the Treaty of Tordesillas. It divided the worldinto two areas. Portugal won the right to controlthe eastern parts and Spain the western parts—including most of the Americas.

Portugal moved quickly to make the new IndianOcean route pay off. In 1509, it defeated a Muslimfleet off the coast of India and thus became the mas-ter of Indian trade. Soon, it captured cities in Indiaand on the Malay peninsula. Portugal now hadpower over islands that were so rich in desirablespices that they were called the Spice Islands. Spicesnow cost Europeans one-fifth of what they had costbefore, while still making Portugal very wealthy.

Other European nations joined in this trade. Inthe 1600s, the English and Dutch entered the EastIndies to challenge Portugal. The Dutch fleet—about 20,000 ships—was the largest in the world.These two nations quickly broke Portuguese powerin the area. Then both nations set up an East IndiaCompany to control Asian trade. These companieswere more than businesses. They were like govern-ments, with the power to make money, signtreaties, and raise their own armies. The Dutchmanaged to drive out the English and grab theAsian trade for themselves.

The Dutch made their trading headquarters onthe island of Java in the East Indies. By 1700, theDutch ruled much of Indonesia. They had tradingposts in many other Asian countries and com-manded the southern tip of Africa. At the sametime, both England and France finally gainedfootholds in India.

While the Europeans controlled the tradebetween Asia and Europe, they had little impact

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on most people living in these areas. From 1500 to1800, the people of Asia were largely untouched bythe European traders.

China Limits EuropeanContacts

KEY IDEA Advances under the Ming and Qing dynastiesleft China self-contained and uninterested in Europeancontact.

Mongol rule in China ended in 1368 whenHongwu led a rebel army that took control of

the country. He declared himself the first emperorof the Ming Dynasty, which was to last for almost300 years. Hongwu began his rule by increasing the amount of food produced, improving irrigation,and raising cotton and sugar cane. He also madechanges that improved the government of China.Later he grew suspicious and untrusting. He causedthe deaths of many people whom he suspected ofplotting against him.

His son Yonglo continued his better policies andalso launched a major effort at making contact withother Asian peoples. Beginning in 1405, an admiralnamed Zheng He led several voyages to SoutheastAsia, India, Arabia, and Africa. The goal was toimpress other people with the power and wealth ofChina. He also wanted to convince them to paytribute to China each year. By sending gifts eachyear, these peoples would recognize that China wassuperior to them. Gifts did flow to China, butscholar-officials said that the voyages wasted valu-able resources. Zheng He’s journeys were stoppedafter seven years.

China allowed Europeans to trade officially atonly three ports. China became isolated. However,illegal trade took place all along the coast. BecauseEuropeans wanted Chinese silk and ceramics, thepeople began making large amounts of these goods.Europeans paid silver for them. Manufacturingnever grew very large in China, however. TheConfucian ideas that shaped Chinese thinking saidthat farming was a better way of life, so manufac-turing was heavily taxed. European missionariesentered China at this time, bringing bothChristianity and new technology.

The power of the Ming Dynasty declinedbecause the government could not solve several

problems. Rebels from Manchuria—a land to thenorth of China—took control of the country in1644 and started a new dynasty called the Qing. Atfirst, the Chinese people did not accept the newrulers, who were not Chinese. However, the Qingemperors won their support by taking steps toimprove conditions in the country and by preserv-ing Chinese traditions.

Two emperors were the most effective. Kangxiruled from 1661 to 1721 and his grandson Qian-longserved from 1736 to 1795. They brought China toits largest size, increased its wealth, and sponsoredan increase in artistic production.

Qian-long had problems to face, however. Onewas the matter of trade. The Chinese insisted thatEuropeans had to follow certain rules in order tocontinue trading with them. The Dutch were will-ing to do so, and they carried on the largest share oftrade with China. The British, though, did notagree to following these rules. This disagreementlater led to conflict that broke up China’s empire.

In China, the production of rice and the longperiod of peace gave the people better lives. In the1600s and 1700s, the number of people in Chinaalmost doubled, rising to more than 300 million by 1800. The huge majority of these people werefarmers. Because of the use of fertilizer and betterirrigation, they could grow more food. They alsobegan to grow new crops brought over from theAmericas, such as corn and sweet potatoes. As aresult, the level of nutrition improved, which led tothe growth in population.

Women suffered in this period, however. Sonswere valued over daughters. It was felt only sonscould carry out family religious duties and tend tothe family farm. For that reason, many infant girlswere killed, and adult women were given fewrights.

The invasions by the foreigners from Manchuriaand the pressure from European traders botheredthe Chinese. Artists created books and paintingsthat showed traditional Chinese values and ideas.Plays about Chinese history and heroes were popu-lar. They helped to unify the Chinese people. Atthe same time, a feeling of national pride also wasrising in neighboring Korea, a land that had longbeen dominated by China.

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Japan Returns to IsolationKEY IDEA The Tokugawa regime unified Japan and begana 200-year period of isolation, autocracy, and economicgrowth.

From 1467 to 1568, Japan entered a long, darkperiod of civil war. Powerful warriors took con-

trol of large areas of land. They were called daimyo.They became the most important powers in thecountry in a feudal system similar to that ofEurope’s Middle Ages. The daimyo built strongcastles. They also had small armies of samurai war-riors on horses and soldiers on foot with guns. Theyfought each other constantly to gain more land forthemselves.

In 1568, one of the daimyo took control of Kyoto,the site of the emperor’s capital. He was unable towin complete control of Japan, however. Anothergeneral, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, continued the workof bringing all of Japan under one rule. Using mili-tary conquest and clever diplomacy, he won thatgoal in 1590. He failed in his effort to captureKorea, however, and died in 1598.

The work of unifying Japan was completed byTokugawa Ieyasu, who became the shogun, or soleruler. He moved the capital of Japan to a smallfishing village named Edo. Later, it grew to becomethe city of Tokyo. While all of Japan was ruled byTokugawa, the daimyo still held much power in theirlands. Tokugawa solved that problem by forcing themto follow his orders. He required them to live everyother year in his capital—and leave their families inthe capital with him during the other years. As aresult, no daimyo was able to rebel against his power.Tokugawa died in 1616. All of the shoguns to followhim were from his family. They maintained a strongcentral government in Japan. This system of rule,called the Tokugawa Shogunate, lasted until 1867.

The new government brought about a longperiod of peace and prosperity for most people.Peasant farmers suffered greatly during this time,however. They worked long and hard on the farmsand paid heavy taxes. Many left the countryside tomove to the cities. By the mid-1700s, Edo hadmore than a million people and was perhaps thelargest city in the world. Women found moreopportunities for work in this and other cities thanthey had in the country.

A traditional culture thrived. It preferred cere-monial Noh dramas, stories of ancient warriors, andpaintings of classical scenes. However, in cities, newstyles emerged. Townspeople attended kabuki the-ater dramas of urban life. They hung woodblockprints of city scenes in their homes.

Europeans began to arrive in Japan. In 1543,the Portuguese were first. They brought such goodsas clocks, eyeglasses, and guns. Japanese merchantsand the daimyo welcomed them at first. They evenwelcomed the Christian missionaries who came after1549, hoping to convert the Japanese to Christianity.

Some missionaries scorned traditional Japanesebeliefs, though. Tokugawa became worried. In 1612,he banned Christianity from the country. Over thenext 20 years or so, Japan managed to rid the coun-try of all Christians. This effort became part of alarger plan to protect the country from Europeaninfluence. In 1639, leaders sealed Japan’s bordersexcept for one port city. It was open to only theChinese and the Dutch. The Tokugawa shogunscontrolled that port city, so they had tight controlover all foreign contact. For the next 200 years,Japan remained closed to virtually all Europeancontact.

ReviewAnalyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects1. Why did the Europeans begin to explore over-

seas, and what technological changes made itpossible?

2. Why did the Chinese stop the voyages of ZhengHe?

3. What factors led to the growth in the Chinesepopulation?

4. Determining Main Ideas What social changestook place in Tokugawa Japan?

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Spain Builds an American Empire

KEY IDEA The voyages of Columbus prompted theSpanish to carve out the first European colonies in theAmericas.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus, an Italian sailor,led a voyage on behalf of Spain. He sailed west

from Europe intending to reach Asia but insteadlanded in the Americas. This was land that Europeanshad not known existed before. Columbus thoughtat first that he had reached Asia, or the Indies. Hemisnamed the natives he met Indians and claimedthe land for Spain. The king and queen agreed tolet him lead another voyage. This one was an expe-dition to form colonies, or controlled lands, thatSpain would rule.

In 1500, a Portuguese explorer landed in Braziland claimed that land for his country. In 1501,another Italian sailor on behalf of Spain, AmerigoVespucci, explored the eastern coast of SouthAmerica. He said that these lands were not Asiabut a new world. Soon after, a mapmaker showedthe lands as a separate continent. He named themAmerica after Vespucci.

Other voyages gave Europeans more knowledgeabout the world. One explorer reached the westcoast of Central America and first saw the PacificOcean. Another, Ferdinand Magellan, led a boldexpedition from Spain that sailed completelyaround the world. Magellan himself died abouthalfway around. However, a few members of hiscrew survived. They returned to Spain after sailingfor almost three years.

Spanish conquistadors, or conquerors, alsobegan to explore the lands of the Americas. Therethey found great riches. In 1519, Hernando Cortéscame to Mexico and defeated the powerful AztecEmpire. The Spanish had the advantage of riflesand cannons. They also had the aid of severalnative groups who were angry over harsh Aztec

rule. In addition, the Aztec were seriously weak-ened by new diseases brought to the Americas withthe Spanish. Native peoples had no resistance tomeasles, mumps, and smallpox, which killed themby the hundreds of thousands.

About 15 years later, another Spanish force, ledby Francisco Pizarro, conquered the mighty IncaEmpire of South America. Once again, the Spanishgained access to huge amounts of gold and silver.By the mid-1500s, Spain had formed an Americanempire that stretched from modern-day Mexico to Peru. After 1540, the Spanish looked north ofMexico and explored the future United States.However, one large area of the Americas—Brazil—remained outside the control of Spain. Brazil wasthe possession of Portugal. Colonists there builthuge farms called plantations to grow sugar, whichwas in demand in Europe.

The Spanish had a pattern of living among thepeople they conquered. Because few Spanish set-tlers in the Americas were women, Spanish men hadchildren with native women. These children andtheir descendants formed a large mestizo popula-tion, people with mixed Spanish and NativeAmerican blood. The Spanish also formed largefarms and mines that used natives as slave labor.Many landowners treated the native workers harshly.Some Spanish priests criticized this treatment. In1542, the Spanish stopped making slaves of nativepeoples. They soon, however, would bring enslavedAfricans to the Americas to meet labor demands.

European Nations Settle North America

KEY IDEA Several European nations fought for controlof North America, and England eventually emerged victorious.

In the early 1500s, the French began to exploreNorth America. Jacques Cartier came across and

named the St. Lawrence River. He then followed it

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Name Date

CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The Atlantic World, 1492–1800CHAPTER OVERVIEW Starting in 1492, the Spanish built a large empire in theAmericas, but the native peoples suffered. In North America, the Dutch, French,and English fought for control. England finally won. The labor of enslaved per-sons brought from Africa supported the American colonies. The contact betweenthe Old World and the New produced an exchange of new ideas.

Summary

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inward to reach the site of modern Montreal. In1608, Samuel de Champlain sailed as far as modernQuebec. In the next 100 years, the French exploredand claimed the area around the Great Lakes andthe Mississippi River all the way to its mouth at theGulf of Mexico. The area became known as NewFrance. The main activity in this colony was tradein beaver fur.

The English also began to colonize NorthAmerica. The first permanent settlement came atJamestown, in modern Virginia, in 1607. The colonystruggled at first. Many settlers died from disease,hunger, or war with the native peoples. Soon farmersbegan to grow tobacco to meet the high demandfor it in Europe.

In the 1620s and 1630s, other groups fromEngland began to settle in modern Massachusetts.These settlers were deeply religious people whodid not agree with the practices of the Church ofEngland. They wanted to purify the church andwere called Puritans. They hoped to build a modelcommunity dedicated to God. They succeeded overtime in part because many families settled there.

Meanwhile, the Dutch also started a new colony.They settled in the location of modern New YorkCity and called it New Netherland. Like the French,they engaged in the fur trade and set up trading postsalong the Hudson River. The colony did not growvery large, but it did attract people from otherEuropean countries. New Netherland becameknown as a home to people of many different cul-tures. Europeans also took possession of many islandsof the Caribbean. There they built tobacco and sugarplantations that used enslaved Africans as workers.

The European powers began to fight for controlof North America. First, the English forced theDutch to give up their colony. New Amsterdam was renamed New York. The English also plantedother colonies along the Atlantic coast, from Maineto Georgia. These colonists came in conflict withthe French settlers in Canada on many occasions.The final fight started in 1754 and was called theFrench and Indian War. When it ended in 1763,France was forced to give up all its land in NorthAmerica to Britain.

The native peoples responded to these events inmany different ways. Many worked closely with theFrench and Dutch, joining in the fur trade andbenefiting from it. Those who lived near the English,though, had stormier relations with colonists. Morethan just trade, the English were interested in

acquiring land for settlers’ living and farming. Thiswas land that Native Americans would not be ableto use for hunting or growing their own food. Thisconflict erupted into war several times. Natives,though, could not overcome the settlers’ guns andcannons. As in Spanish lands, the native peoplessuffered even more from disease. Thousands uponthousands of natives died from European illnesses,making it impossible for them to resist the growthof the colonies.

The Atlantic Slave TradeKEY IDEA To meet their growing labor needs, Europeansenslaved millions of Africans in forced labor in theAmericas.

Slavery has a long history in Africa and in theworld. For most of that history in Africa, though,

no large numbers of people were enslaved. Thatchanged in the 600s, when Muslim traders startedto take large numbers of slaves. Between 650 and1600, Muslims took about 17 million Africans toNorth Africa and Southwest Asia. Most did havecertain rights. The European slave trade that beganin the 1500s was larger. Also, the enslaved Africanswere treated far more harshly.

In the Americas, when the natives began dyingfrom disease, the Europeans brought in Africans,for three reasons. Africans had resistance toEuropean diseases, so they would not get sick anddie. Also, many Africans knew about farming sothey would be accustomed to the work involved.Third, Africans were strangers to the Americas andwould know no places to hide from slavery. From1500 to 1870, when the slave trade in the Americasfinally ended, about 9.5 million Africans had beenimported as slaves.

The Spanish first began the practice of bringing Africans to the Americas. However, thePortuguese—looking for workers for sugar planta-tions in Brazil—increased the demand for slaves.During the 1600s, Brazil received more than 40 per-cent of all the Africans sent to the Americas. OtherEuropean colonies also brought slaves to work ontobacco, sugar, and coffee plantations. About400,000 slaves were brought to the English coloniesin North America. Their population increased overtime, though, to number about 2 million in 1830.

Many African rulers joined in the slave trade.They moved inland to capture people and broughtthem to the coast to sell to European traders.

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This trade was part of a triangular trade thatlinked Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Europeanships brought manufactured goods to Africa, trad-ing them for people. They carried Africans acrossthe Atlantic to the Americas, where they were soldinto slavery. The traders then bought sugar, coffee,and tobacco, which they carried back to Europe.Another triangle involved ships sailing from thenorthern English colonies in North America. Theycarried rum to Africa, people to the West Indies,and sugar and molasses back to the colonies tomake more rum.

The part of the voyage that brought people tothe Americas was called the middle passage. It washarsh and cruel. People were crammed into ships,beaten, and given little food. Many died, and manyothers simply jumped overboard trying to escape.About 20 percent of the people on these ships died.

Life on the plantations was harsh as well.People were sold to the highest bidder and thenworked from dawn to dusk in the fields of the plan-tations. They were given little food and lived insmall huts. Africans kept alive their traditionalmusic and beliefs to try to maintain their spirits.Sometimes they arose in rebellion. From NorthAmerica to Brazil, from 1522 to the 1800s, therewere small-scale slave revolts.

The Columbian Exchangeand Global Trade

KEY IDEA The colonization of the Americas introducednew and different items into the Eastern and Westernhemispheres.

There was constant movement of people fromEurope and Africa to the Americas. This large-

scale mixing of people and culture was called theColumbian Exchange. Important foods such ascorn and potatoes were taken from the Americas,where they originated, to Europe, Africa, and Asia.

Some foods moved from the Old World to theNew. Bananas, black-eyed peas, and yams weretaken from Africa to the Americas. Cattle, pigs, andhorses had never been seen in the Americas untilthe Europeans brought them. Of course, deadly ill-nesses also moved to the Americas. They killed alarge portion of the Native American population.

The settling of the Americas and the growth oftrade led to a new set of business practices still fol-lowed today. One was the rise of an economic sys-tem called capitalism. It is based on private owner-

ship of property and the right of a business to earna profit. Another new business idea was the joint-stock company. With this, many investors pooledtheir money to start a business and share in theprofits. European governments began to follow anidea called mercantilism. In this theory, a country’spower depended on its wealth. Getting more goldand silver increased its wealth, as would sellingmore goods than it bought. Colonies played animportant role because they provided goods thatcould be sold in trade.

With the American colonies, European societysaw changes. Merchants grew wealthy and power-ful, and towns and cities grew larger. Still, mostpeople lived in the countryside, farmed for a living,and were poor.

Review1. Drawing Conclusions What single factor was

most devastating for the native peoples of theAmericas and what effect did it have?

Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects2. How did settlement patterns in the Spanish

colonies lead to a mixing of Spanish and nativecultures?

3. Why did the French and Dutch have better rela-tions with the native peoples than the English?

4. Comparing and Contrasting Compare andcontrast the Muslim slave trade in Africa withthe European slave trade that began in the1500s.

5. Summarizing What was exchanged in theColumbian Exchange?

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Locations: o Portugal o East Indies o Java o Manchuria o Kyoto o Edo/Tokyo

Draw the borders of: o Ming Dynasty China o Qing Dynasty China o Aztec Empire o Incan Empire o Spanish Empire in the Americas o Brazil (Portuguese colony) o British territory in America

Show the path & dates for the voyages of: o Bartolomeu Dias o Vasco de Gama o Christopher Columbus o Zheng He o Amerigo Vespucci o Ferdinand Magellan

Show the line for the Treaty of Tordesillas o Show which side belonged to Spain and which side belonged to Portugal

Show the routes for the Atlantic Triangular Trade o Also show what main items were transported on EACH part of the triangular

trade route On a blank space on the map, make a chart that is labeled “Columbian Exchange”, with

two columns o Name the left column “Americas” and list some items that were from the

Americas and were introduced to Europe o Name the right column “Old World” and list some items that were from

Europe/Africa/Asia and were introduced to the Americas

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