© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 1
Antiquity: Earthen bricks + timber floors (4 stories)
Romans: Bricks + timber (up to 10 stories)Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (27 BC - 14 AD)ordered max. 21 m - fire
Middle Ages: Brick, stone, timber, revelled timber, cast iron → steel1784 Cort - wrought iron1855 Bessemer - steel
FRAMES (skeletons):Timber, later steel structure: New York 1854 - 6 stories (wrought iron)Problems: Structure of frames, lifts, installation, walls, fire.
Lifts: steam 1857 N.Y. (Otis)hydraulic 1870 (Eiffel tower)electrical 1890 (Otis)
7. Tall buildings.• Tall buildings, history, the highest world buildings, types of bracing, tube
structures, peculiarity of design.
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 2
Antiquity: Earthen bricks + timber floors (4 stories)
Romans: Bricks + timber (up to 10 stories)Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (27 BC - 14 AD)ordered max. 21 m - fire
Middle Ages: Brick, stone, timber, revelled timber, cast iron → steel1784 Cort - wrought iron1855 Bessemer - steel
FRAMES (skeletons):Timber, later steel structure: New York 1854 - 6 stories (wrought iron)Problems: Structure of frames, lifts, installation, walls, fire.
Lifts: steam 1857 N.Y. (Otis)hydraulic 1870 (Eiffel tower)electrical 1890 (Otis)
7. Tall buildings.• Tall buildings, history, the highest world buildings, types of bracing, tube
structures, peculiarity of design.
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 3
TALLEST STRUCTURES IN THE WORLD (1/2013)
TV transmitters1. Transmitter Fargo (North Dakota), 629
m, (1963)1a. Transmitter Warsaw (Poland), 643
m, (1974-1991)
TV towers1. Tokyo Skytree (Japan), 634 m,
(2012)2. Canton Tower (China), 600 m, (2009)
Offshore structures1. Petronius platform (USA), 535+75 =
610 m, (1998)(oil, gas; deflection up to 12 m)
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 4
BUILDINGSLists are ranked by:
- the highest point of the building (e.g. antennae, shown in parenthesis)- the top of building (e.g. extension, spires - not shown)- the top of the highest roof (shown as the essential below, state 1/2013)
1. Burj Khalifa (Dubai) 636 (828) m 20102. Makkah R. Clock Tower (Mecca) 559 (601) m 20123. Shanghai WFC 487 (492) m 20084. Int. Commerce Centre (H.K.) 484 (484) m 2009 5. Taipei 101 449 (508) m 20046. Willis Tower (Sears Tower) 442 (527) m 19747. Kingkey 100 (Shenzhen) 442 (442) m 20118. Guangzhou Int. Fin. Center 438 (440) m 2010X. [World Trade Center N.Y. 417 (526) m 1973-2001]9. Two Inter. Fin. Centre (H.K.) 407 (416) m 2003
10. 23 Marina (Dubai) 395 (395) m 2012
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 5
1. Burj Khalifa, Dubai (UAE)
arch. Adrian Smith (Skidmore, Owings and Merrill)
Height: 636 (828) mYear: 2009Jan. 2009: reached 828 m,160 storeys,• high strength concrete +
steel;• top part (200 m) from steel;• max. horiz. deflect. 1,5 m;• opening: 1/2010.
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 6
Burj KhalifaButtressed core (Y shaped plan),
with 3 wings (buttresses) supporting hexagonal core.
Development of the shape in January 2009 reached 828 m
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 7
Burj Khalifa• founded on 152 piles ø 1,5 m, length 43 m,• concrete up to 586 m, steel to the top,• ascent to 768 m,• steel spire 200 m (350 t) assembled inside
and jacked to height of 828 m,• double-deck elevators (considered triple-deck)
Cross sections
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 8
2. Makkah Royal Clock Tower Hotel (Saudi Arabia)
Height: 559 (601) mYear: 2012Arch.: Dar Al-Handasah Architectsconstructed by Saudi Binladin Group.
- composite steel and concrete structure,
- 120 storeys,
- assembly hall for 10 000 pilgrims,
- accommodation for 100 000 pilgrims,
- clock 43x43 m (minute „hand“ 22 m),
- two heavy fires (2008, 2009).Design 2002, construction 2004-12
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 9
3. Shanghai WFC (China)
Height: 487 (494) mYear: 2008 (opening 30.8.2008)Arch.: Kohn Pedersen Fox, steel structureSkidmore, Owings and Merrill
- 101 storeys,
- originally circular aperture ∅ 46 m
(= “sky"), similarity with rising sun
(Japan. flag) → trapezoidal („bottle opener“)
- observation deck: 472 m (94. floor),
- 2 tuned dampers below the deck,
- after 11.9.01 design for airplane bump,
and 2 external lifts added.Proposal 1997 Proposal 2005 and realization
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 10
Photos from construction
Shanghai WFC2007 – fire due to welding
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 11
4. International CommerceCentre (H.K.)
Height: 484 (484) mYear: 2009
Arch.: Wong & Ouyang (HK),Kohn Pedersen Fox Associates
Design: Arup
Built on top of Kowloon station.
- steel frame with concrete core.
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 12
5. Taipei 101 (TAI)
Height: 449 (508) mYear: 2004
Arch.: C. Y. Lee & partners
- recall a stalk of bamboo (or pagoda),
- uses the happy "8",
- 101 storeys,
- tuned damper 660 t,
- lifts 1000 m/min,
- 2002 earthquake 6,8° RS.
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 13
Taipei 101
View from observation deck Vestibule of the building
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 14
6. Willis Tower (USA)(formerly Sears Tower)
Height: 442 (527) mYear: 1974
Arch.: Skidmore, Owings and Merrill
- bundled tube system,
- 110 storeys,
- 9 “tubes" 23 x 23 [m]
(from 90th story two only),
- column flanges 609x102 [mm].
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 15
7. Kingkey 100 (Shenzhen)
Height: 442 (442) mYear: 2011
Arch.: Terry Farrell and PartnersStructural Engineer: Arup
- 100 storeys,
- observatory at 427 m.
- under construction:
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 16
8. Guangzhou Int. Fin. Center(China)
South of China, 120 km from HK
Height: 438 (440) mYear: 2006-2010
Arch.: Wilkinson Eyre (e.g. also Gateshead Millennium Bridge)
- tube latticed system,
- 103 floors,
- observation deck at 100th floor.
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 17
9. Two InternationalFinancial centre (HK)
Height: 407 (416) mYear: 2003
Arch.: Rocco Design Ltd. , César Pelli: WTC,
One Canada Square,Petronas Towers ...
- 88 floors,
- “unhappy numbers" 14, 24 omitted.
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 18
10. 23 Marina (Dubai)
Height: 395 (395) mYear: 2012
Arch.: Hafeez Contractor,KEO Int. Consult.
Design: KEO International Consultants
- 90 floors,
- tallest all-residential building.
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 19
Jin Mao Building (China)
Height: 370 (421) m,Shanghai (Pudong)Year: 1998
Arch.: Skidmore, Owings and Merrill
- 88 floors (happy number),
- 8 composite mega-columns and 8 steel columns,
- atrium along all height,
- designed for typhoons 200 km/h and earthquakes
up to 7° RS.
Other prominent skyscrapers
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 20
Tuntex Building (TAI)
Heights: 348 (378) mYear: 1998Arch.: C. Y. Lee (also Taipei 101)
- 85 floors.
Rector’svisit
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 21
Aon Center (USA)(Amoco, Standard Oil)
Height: 346 mYear: 1973
Arch.: Edward Durell Stone
- 83 floors.
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 22
John Hancock Center( USA)
Heights: 343 mYear: 1969
Arch.: I. M. Pei & Partners
- 100 floors,- tube system (mega-structure).
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 23
storeys height [m] construction• Ping An Finance Center (Shenzhen) 115 588 (660) 2009-15 • Shanghai Tower 128 566 (632) 2008-14• Goldin Finance 117 (Tianjin) 117 597 (597) 2008-15• Lotte World Tower (J. Korea) 123 555 (555) 2011-15 • One World Trade Center (N.Y.) 105 419 (542) 2006-13-----
• Federation Tower (Moskva) 93 360 (506) 2003-13
Visions (realistic only)• India Tower 126 (700) 2010-16• Al Burj (Dubai) 228 (1400) in preparation• Murjan Tower (Bahrain) ? (1022) in preparation
BUILDINGS UNDER CONSTRUCTION
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 24
The highest buildings in the Czechia
City Tower (Raiffeisenbank)Height: 108,5 m
- 24 floors (reinforced concrete core + steel frame)modifications by arch. Richard Meier (USA),
- year: 2007.
City Empiria(Motokov)Height: 103,5 m
- 26 floors (reinf. concrete core + steel frame),- year: 1977.
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 25
Structural systems
Trend: steel composite high-strength concrete and steel combinationExamples:
1992 Bank of China H.K., 309 m 4 composite mega-columns;1997 Petronas Tower, 387 m concrete mega-columns, concrete 80 MPa; 1998 Jin Mao B., 371 m 8 compos. mega-col. + concrete core2003 Taipei 101, 448 m 8 compos. mega-col. + core 16 comp. col.
Fazlur Khan(1930-1982)
compo
site
mega-
struc
t.
30405060708090
100110120130140
2010
0
3040 40
60
80
100
>120
t bk é té é
rám
o vé př
íhra
dov
víc e
number of floors
frames
truss
esco
res
belts tube systems
fram
e truss
tube
in tu
bebu
ndle
d tu
bes
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 26
Tube systems
a. Frame tube systems- shell (< 30 % openings) – mostly from concrete;- with high horizontal beams (Canary Warf ≈ 1 m, column distance 1-3 m);- with truss belts.
b. Truss tube systems- latticed (Alcoa B. San Francisco).- megastructure (John Hancock).
c. Multi-tube systems- tube in tube, WTC – outer for bending, inner for shear;- bundled tube, Sears Tower.
facade viewplan view
concretesteel H/2 ÷ H/4
tube in tube
bundled tube
megastructure
a. FRAME b. TRUSS c. MULTITUBE
latticed
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 27
Deflections of tall buildings
- special systems with „belts” have deflection of „S” shape(will be used in dynamic and earthquake calculations).
přibližněpřímka: základy - vrchol
wall:bending defl.
frame:shear defl.
interaction:“S” shape defl.
approx. line(basement to top
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 28
Sears Tower1974 (height 442 m)
půdorys(9 modulů)
module 22,9 x 22,9 [m]
0-50
50-66
66-90
90-110
truss 1 m
sheeting 73 mm+ concrete 63 mm
assembly part
3,9 7,6
4,6
technical floor(belt)
primary beams: flange 406 x 70 [mm]
columns: flange 609 x 102 [mm]
5 x 4,6 = 22,9
77 000 t of steelbetter distribution of stresses
due to bundled cross section(smaller shear lag)
cross section
simple bundled
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 29
Taipei 1012003 (height 448 + 60 m)
Ductile steel: Cekv < 0,29 High strength concrete: C69fy = 510 MPa Headed stud shear connectors.fu = 720 MPa
Level 10 - Tower Framing Plan
g
Level 32 - Tower Framing Plan
10th floor 32th floor
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 30
EL151.2M
EL352.8M
EL319.2M
EL285.6M
EL252.0M
EL218.4M
EL184.8M
EL113.4M
EL79.8M
EL37.8M
EL390.6M
EL448M
EL508M
R6-235
Taipei 101 – cross sections
- 8 composite mega-columns(size 3 x 2,4 [m])
- core: 16 composite mega-columns (22,5 x 22,5 m), t = 80 mm
- from 63rd floor steel only
- interconnected by trusses with heightof 1- 3 floors
- deflection at top: h/200 = 2,2 m
- reinforced concrete walls up to 9th floor
- 380 steel piles Ø 1,5 m filled up byconcrete; into depth of 30 m(expected settlement of 50 mm)
448 m
508 m
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 31
448
508
R6-235 Damper 660 t
(0,24 % G)
Suspended from 92 to 88 flooron 4 cables, supported by 8 hydraulicpistons.
Produced by welding of steel platesof 125 mm thickness, coated with gold.
Tuned mass damper (TMD)(shortening of cables, blocking).
Taipei 101
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 32
28th July 1945 8:55
Empire State Building
Clouds 120 m above ground, bomber B25 hit 79th floor (at height of 278 m).The bump created opening 5,5 x 6 [m], 13 deads (3 crew),
floor beam bent about 450 mm, column remained nearly undamaged.
Apart from building quake, fire and claims no other problems (thanks to structural reserves).
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 33
Influence of extreme height to building frame
In addition to usual checks:
1. Dynamic effects of wind.2. P - Δ effect (2nd order effect).3. Influence of member shortening.4. Static and dynamic rigidity:
δmax ≤ H/500acceleration a ≤ amax ≈ 0,015 g
5. Interaction with ground (especially if H/B > 5).
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 34
Dynamic effects of wind
Generally:• analysis including vibration: - longitudinal (in the wind direction)
- lateral (in transversal direction):circular, elliptic shapes: "vortex shedding"rectangular shapes: "galloping" (occurs rarely)
Vortex shedding, vortex separation(called also Karman periodic set of whirlwinds)results on condition that:
mcrit 25,15 vnbSt
nbv <≈=
The first frequency of a building: n ≈ 46/hStrouhal number: circle St = 0,18
• rearrangement of the building shape wind tunnel, each variationis significant.
mean wind velocityw
b
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 35
Wind loading for area Aref according to EN 1993-1-4:
- if h ≤ 100 m and b > 30 m, coefficient of the structure cscd = 1;- otherwise use „detailed method" (depends on natural frequency n ,
parameters of wind and structure ...)- Eurocode enables to determine even deflection and vibration acceleration.
refp(Z)fdsw AqcccF =
force coefficient dynamic wind pressure
coefficient of the structure
hn 46
1 ≈
fictitious cantilever
w
h
b
i mi
natural shapes(vibration shapes)
Longitudinal dynamic wind effects
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 36
P - Δ effect (2nd order effect)
Represents effect of horizontal shift on internal forces. Solution:- 2nd order theory (or geometrically nonlinear analysis GNA),- or approximately (see also determination of αcr in global analysis):
If SLS is fulfilled, the approximate guess of V, H (for all building or floor)gives coefficient of 2nd order m. The horizontal loading then multiply with m:
1
5001
1
500
11
111
111
1
Ed
Ed
Ed
Ed
EdH,Ed
Edcr
>−
=
⎟⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛−
=
⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛−
≈−
≈
HV
/hh
VHh
VH
m
δ
α
Iteration procedure:
1st step base moment:
next:
20
H0ΔVMM +=
20
HΔΔ ′+
+=′ VMM
V h
b
V V h/2H
V
b
h
ℓ
≤ h/500
first step other steps
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 37
Influence of member shortening
The shortening of member axes is covered by computer FEM analysis!
Shortening of members due to stress:
EhsΔσ =s
Thereof stress of diagonal:2
sd ⎟⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛===
dh
ddEE σ
Δεσ
The stress in diagonals from vertical loading is, therefore, of the same orderas in columns!
Measures:- final connection of diagonals not until assembly of all building,- or prestressing of diagonals to eliminate compression due to vertical loading.
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 38
EarthquakeEarthquake scales, solution of effects, vibration damping.
Scales:- magnitude scales (number expressing relative size of an earthquake):
Richter scale, moment magnitude scale (Mw), also other like Ms, Mb etc.
- intensity scales (describe the severity of effects on structures):Modified Mercalli scale (MMI, MCS), Rossi-Forel scale etc.
P - waveshypocentre
epicentreseismicvibration
S - w
aves
Waves:P - primary (direct, fast, push-pull);S - secondary (transversal, shear, slower);Q - Love waves (no vertical movement);R - Rayleigh waves (surface waves, with
both vertical and horizontal movements).
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 39
Richter’s scale:Charles Richter 1935 (California Institute of Technology)
Logarithmic scale of released energy (each magnitude increases energy √1000 = 31,6 x):
M = log10 A (mm) + distance correlation factor
(usually based on recording time of seismograph station)
Earthquakes are: moderate (4-5º), strong (6-8º), great (> 8º).
Since 1900: Casualties:
1. Chile 1960 9,5º 1. China 1556 830 0002. Alaska 1964 9,2º 2. Sumatra 2004 283 1063. Alaska 1957 9,1º 3. China 1976 255 0004. Kamchatka 1952 9,0º 4. Syria 1138 230 0005. Sumatra 2004 9,0º 5. Iran 56 200 000
A (amplituda)A (amplitude)
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 40
Mercalli scale:Subjective, determination of "zones".
USA: MMI (Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale), 12ºČR: MCS (Mercalli-Cancani-Siber, ČSN 73 0036)
1 - 4º not felt,5 - 7º felt by everyone, slight damages,
(Czechia: Aš, Přimda, Liberec, Trutnov, Opava) 8 - 12º great and destroying damages.
Eurocode (EN 1998):Maps of ground design accelerations agR.
Analysis:- not necessary for agRγ1S < 0,05 g.
γ1 ... coefficient of the building significance (0,8 - 1,4);S ... ground parameter (1,0 - rock, up to 1,6).
- Introduced so called „design spectrum" Sd(T)(= acceleration a, depending on ground and natural period of the structure T).
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 41
Map of Czechia according to EN 1998-1:
Seismic mapof the Czech Republic
ground design accelerations agR
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 42
very highbuildings
Analysis of earthquake effects1. Direct (response of the structure from ground movement)
2. Approximate (suitable for small earthquakes)- uses an equivalent static horizontal loading:
accel.(up to 0.4 g)
elasticresistance
inertiaforce
damping dynamicforce
a. Determination of horizontal forceat base:
H = K V(influence of zone, ground, naturalfrequency, importance ...);
b. Determination of H distribution.
Model of“inverted pendulum"
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 43
eccentric diagonals plastic hinges isolators
laminatedrubber
lead plug (damper)
LRB (Lead Rubber Bearing)
Seismic movement
LRB
Damping of structural vibrations
Goals: - to reduce internal forces from vibrations (due to wind, earthquake),- to reduce accelerations (< 0,15 g).
1. Natural damping (activated by own structure)- internal (due to deformations), plastic behaviour (eccentric diagonals),
base isolators, structural shape).
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 44
2. Dampers: - passive (frictional, piston, spring)- active (still in development)
Passive dampers
Active dampers
visco-elastic plates
pistondamperHIDAM
springconnection
sliding placedmass
wind
cables
sensor
cables effect
jets withcompr. air
sensor
flaps
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 45
Examples of dampers
LED Lead Extrusion Damper(plastic deformation of lead)
Steel tubewith a bulge connection
seal
sealtube
lead
TMP-RPTuned Mass Damper
- Roller Pendulum(mass anti-movement)
viscous fluiddamper
additionalmass
rolling pendulumdamper
TMP-RP
LED
multilayer shearplanes
loadingplate
MS Stopper(viscous material among shear planes)
material of highviscosity
© 7 Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.
OK3 46
Yielding brace system (YBS), „Scorpion“, Toronto, 2011(www.castconnex.com)
The diagonal brace member is equipped with two cast connectors. Each connector resemblesa claw, with a heavy „elastic arm“ welded to the diagonal end and protruding triangular shaped„yielding fingers“ that are bolted to a splice plate connection at the beam-column joint. When under an earthquake, the fingers plastically deform and their curvature results in a tensile force in each finger that increase the strength and stiffness of the brace (unwanted „soft storey“ isavoided).