[701-0662-00 L] Environmental Impacts, Threshold Levels...

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 1

[701-0662-00 L]

Environmental Impacts, Threshold Levels and

Health Effects

Lecture 10: Noise Part 4 (06.05.2020)

Mark Brink

ETH Zürich

D-USYS

Homepage:

http://www.noise.ethz.ch/ei/

http://www.noise.ethz.ch/ei/


• Health effects of noise (overview)

• Types of health effects (auditory vs. non-auditory)

• DALYs (Disability Adjusted Life Years) lost due to noise

• Exposure assessment in environmental epidemiology

• Exposure-response relationships

• Noise annoyance

• Moderator variables

• Setting of noise exposure limits based on annoyance

Topics covered in the previous lecture


Lecture overview for today

► Noise annoyance (cont'd)

► SiRENE study

► Example: aircraft noise annoyance

► Noise contours

► Differences in annoyance as a function of time of day

► Physiological activations due to noise

► Stress model of noise, Pathogenetic pathways

► Noise induced sleep disturbances

► What is sleep?


%HA as a function of Lden (SiRENE study, 2014-2015)

Source: Brink et al. (2019),

Environment International, 125, 277-290


▪ Environmental impacts may be the fundamental constraint on air

transportation growth in the 21st century (aside from fuel shortage in

the future)

▪ Among the environmental impacts, noise, air pollution, and air

transport induced climate change are the top issues to address

▪ The current situation is that aircraft noise is the single most

significant local objection to airport expansion and operation

London Frankfurt Zurich

Aircraft noise annoyance


Noise

Water Quality

Air Quality

Number of airportsMost serious problem currently

Most serious problem in the future

Compatibility with

nearby land uses

None applicable

Wetlands

United States General Accounting Office. (2000). Aviation and the environment. Airport Operations and Future

Growth Present Environmental Challenges, from http://transource.org/shared_files/GAO9-8-00.pdf

How relevant is the noise problem for Airports?


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

50 53 56 59 62 65 68

Leq, 6-22 Uhr in dB(A)

%H

A

1991

2001

Aircraft noise annoyance over the years


▪ Growing number of flights

▪ Decreasing sound pressure level per single

flight

▪ Fewer breaks across the day, more flights

within shoulder hours

▪ Noise contours around airports are actually

shrinking!

Development of aircraft operations in Europe

in the last decades


1 zus. Aufwachreaktion pro Tag

1 zus. Aufwachreaktion pro 2 Tage

N

Source: http://www.fluglaerm-frankfurt.de/349.0.html

Leq=57 dB(A) during day (06-22h)



What is a noise contour?Zurich Airport


179'163

193'909

204'309

214'470

216'313

227'615

228'994

236'977

238'232

251'209

271'147

281'808

296'379

314'714

299'344

275'999

262'586

259'091

258'790

252'892

259'473

265'735

253'477

1987:1988:1989:1990:1991:1992:1993:1994:1995:1996:1997:1998:1999:2000:2001:2002:2003:2004:2005:2006:2007:2008:2009:

150‘000 # of Flights 350‘000

Source: Flughafen Zürich AG, 2010

Development of the 60 dB-contour (Leq 06-22h)...

...caused by aircraft operations since 1987 at Zurich Airport


40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Year of study

Le

ve

l L

dn [

dB

(A)]

Zürich (2001/2003)

Frankfurt (2005)

Exposure level to get 25% highly annoyed (HA)

Aircraft noise annoyance increased over the past decades!


LAE, single plane = 108 dB → LAeq,16h = 60 dB



1 Event

10 Events

100 Events

1970 technology

1990 technology

todays technology

Blessings and burdens of quieter aircraft...


▪ As quieter aircraft have been phased in, the

boundaries of airport noise contours have shrunk

▪ People may move into these areas that were

previously impacted by noise

▪ In the future, as the number of aircraft operations

increases, the areas impacted by noise may expand

again, thus again increasing the number of people

affected

Potential effects of technological advancement(basically: quieter aircraft)


Change effect: "Overshoot" reactions after exposure changes

Residents south of Zurich Airport, 2003, 2004


Zurich Airport: Change of exposure between 2001 and 2003


40

45

50

55

60

65

7000-0

101-0

202-0

303-0

404-0

505-0

606-0

707-0

808-0

909-1

010-1

111-1

212-1

313-1

414-1

515-1

616-1

717-1

818-1

919-2

020-2

121-2

222-2

323-2

4

1h

-Le

q in

dB

(A)

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

% s

tark

Be

läs

tig

te

Osten (fern)

Communities to the East

The "Change effect"Swiss Noise Study 2000, Survey 2001


40

45

50

55

60

65

7000-0

101-0

202-0

303-0

404-0

505-0

606-0

707-0

808-0

909-1

010-1

111-1

212-1

313-1

414-1

515-1

616-1

717-1

818-1

919-2

020-2

121-2

222-2

323-2

4

1h

-Le

q in

dB

(A)

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

% s

tark

Be

läs

tig

te

Osten (fern)

40

45

50

55

60

65

7000-0

101-0

202-0

303-0

404-0

505-0

606-0

707-0

808-0

909-1

010-1

111-1

212-1

313-1

414-1

515-1

616-1

717-1

818-1

919-2

020-2

121-2

222-2

323-2

4

1h

-Le

q in

dB

(A)

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

% s

tark

Be

läs

tig

te

Norden

Gemeinden im OstenCommunities to the North

The "Change effect"Swiss Noise Study 2000, Survey 2003


Time

Exposure (increase)

Exposure (decrease)

Annoyance

Annoyance

up to 10 years

The "Change effect", principle


Percent HA (%HA) as a function of changeResidents near Zurich Airport, Surveys 2001 and 2003

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

Lden [dB(A)]

Pe

rcen

t

No change

Year 2003, morning model

5 dB decrease

5 dB increase

Average


-12 dB

-10 dB

-8 dB

-6 dB

-4 dB

-2 dB

0 dB

2 dB

4 dB

6 dB

8 dB

10 dB

12 dB

00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Time of day

Pen

alt

y [

dB

]

B

on

us

M

alu

s

0 – 24 hrs-Mean = 0dB

Differences in annoyance as a function of time of day(Zurich 2001, Aircraft noise annoyance)


Physiological activations due to noise


Hypothalamus

Pituitary gland

Adrenal glands

Release of

Catecholamines

Adrenocorticotropic

hormone

Sympathetic nervous system

Changes in the EEG

(Awakenings)

Noise-Stressors

Heart rate increase

Movements

Physiological activations (due to noise)Physiological systems involved

Cortisol release


Involves higher-level

processes (cognition,

emotion)

- autonomic nervous system

- reaction cascade

- "basic" responses

"direct pathway" "indirect pathway"

Noise exposure

Biochemical / neuronal

stress reactions

Psychological stress

responses

Stress model of non-auditory effects of noise


Stressorprimary

appraisal

relevant?

threatening?

"instrumental"

• problem-oriented

• modify environment

or change behavior

• seeking advice...

"palliative"

• perception-oriented

• change perceptions

• comforting cognitions

• denial/escapism

secondary

appraisal

Evaluation of possibilities

to cope with stressor

Perceived control

coping

Stress and copingTransactional model of stress and coping (Lazarus & Folkman 1984)


• wealthy people buying themselves out of noisy neighborhoods

• when the bedroom faces a busy road, people sleep with closed

windows / change bedroom

• people may take drugs and medication in order to sleep

• people may change their (sleeping) habits

• people may use earplugs

• people may seek (medical) advice

• ...

► Coping can be 'adaptive' or 'maladaptive'

► Unresolved question: What is the relationship between certain

coping behaviors and long-term outcomes?

Examples of noise coping behaviors


► Noise sensitivity

• Evidence of a strong link between noise sensitivity and annoyance

• (Self reported) noise sensitivity does not well predict differences in

physiological reactions to sound

► Individual differences & genetic predispositions

• e.g. Differences in „Locus of control“

• Genetic component of noise sensitivity

• Evidence of genetic predispositions playing a role in inter-individual

differences in sleep regulation and sleep depth

► Coping behavior

• Coping is a natural (i.e. normal) response to stressors

• Coping strategies may be beneficial or detrimental to health

Important moderating and mediating factors(List is incomplete...)


coping behavior (examples)

Noise exposure

Psychological stress responsesBiochemical/neuronal stress reactions

seeking relief

through drug

consumption

changing

sleeping

habits

closing

bedroom

windows

Reduced

indoor air

quality (temp.

CO2 level...)

Reduced sleep

amount

Addictive

diseases &

aftereffects

movingHypertensionDiabetes

mellitus

Dislipo-

proteinemia

Appraisal

Long term

effects on

immune

system

HPA-axisSympatico-

adrenal axis

Arteriosclerosis

Depression?

Glucocorticoid

secretion

Myocardial

infarction

Stroke

... relaed

Health

problems

Catecholamine

secretion

Susceptibility

for cancer?

chronic

chronic

Changes in sleep structure

(Awakenings

Arousals

Delayed sleep onset etc.)

Macro-

structural

effects on

sleep

Impaired well-being

Reduction of performance

Increased Sleepiness

Increased accident risk

etc.

Noise sensitivity

Genetic factors

2ndary effects

Obesity

long termshort term

Pathogenetic

pathways


► 'Direct' physiologic explanations

• development of cardiovascular diseases as a consequence of

repeated noise-induced autonomic responses (especially

cardiovascular arousals)

• → Dysregulation of / difficulty in keeping homeostasis

• Prevention of blood pressure dipping in the night

• Elevation of critical "body fluids" that are characteristic for stress

responses: e.g. coagulation factors, glucose, cholesterol,

triglycerides etc. (and of course "stress" hormones)

Potential pathogenetic pathways (Part 1)


► Chronic noise-induced partial sleep loss

Sleep loss plays a role in the epidemics of:

- Obesity (negative association between BMI and sleep duration)

- Diabetes (suppression of deep sleep leads to impaired glucose

tolerance)

- Cardiovascular diseases

- Mortality (U-shaped relationship)

Possible initial reasons for sleep loss:

- reduction of total sleep time or sleep depth due to noise intrusions

- side-effect of certain coping styles (e.g. going to bed late)

► Open question: Do noise exposures in ecological settings truly have the

potential to induce amounts of sleep loss in a way, that these dramatic

effects unfold?



► Psychological explanations I: Effects of coping strategies

• Emergence of poor health practices / escapism:

e.g. increased alcohol consumption, sleep medication, drug use,

smoking etc...

• Changing sleeping habits: - close bedroom window → air quality?

- reduce time in bed → sleep

deprivation?



► Psychological explanations II: other effects

Development of certain expectancies or beliefs

- expectancies may foster selective attention → vicious circles

- "nocebo" effect/response (lat. "It will harm")

Negative appraisal effects ("there is nothing I can do about the noise")

- may foster development of depressive symptoms

- "learned helplessness"

- Typical accompaniment: activation of HPA axis with increased cortisol

release

Noise exposure reduces the frequency and quality of social interactions

→ "social support" is an important health modifier



Sleep disturbances

Annoyance

Sleep disturbances

Cardiovascular diseases

Other long term outcomes

Performance & Behavior


▪ What is sleep?

▪ Effects of noise on sleep

▪ What happens if sleep is disturbed?

▪ Classification of noise effects on sleep

▪ Types of studies to investigate noise effects on sleep

▪ Research methods

▪ Polysomnography (PSG)

▪ Actimetry (recording of body movements)

▪ Seismosomnography (SSG)

▪ Brief overview over recent studies and important findings

▪ Swiss noise study 2000

▪ Effect of slope of rise of noise events; effects of noise at different times of day

▪ Awakening probability for different noise sources - empirical findings

▪ Practical applications

▪ Countermeasures

Sleep disturbances due to noiseOverview


S4

S3

S2

S1

wake

REM

Sleep profile

The three "cardinal states of

consciousness":

non-REMsleep

wake

REM-sleep

Biologicalocillator

Sleep ≠ Rest

no

n-R

EM

What is sleep?


Undisturbed

normal sleep →

Sleep Profiles

Disturbed sleep →

Source: Muzet, A. (2007). Environmental

noise, sleep and health. Sleep Medicine

Reviews, 11(2), 135-142.


Obesity

Concentration decreased

Increased mortality

Increased morbidity

Emotional instability

Drowsiness

Driving ability reduced

Memory functions impaired

Increased risk behavior

etc...

What happens if sleep is reduced or disturbed?


Interruption of sleep process

internal

sensorial

neuronal

psychophysiological

external

- acoustic stimuli

- thermal stimuli

- bright light

- ...

Sleep disturbances: many reasons, one effect...


Autonomic Arousal

Sleep Stage Change

or short EEG-Arousal

Short EEG Awakening (> 15s)

Long Awakening (> 1 min) with

Regaining of Consciousness

Simplified scheme of the body's reaction to external stimuli- Questionnaire in

the morning

- Push button

- Actimetry

- PSG

- PSG

- (Actimetry)

- PSG

- ECG (RR

measurements,

Heart rate)

- Actimetry

Thalamo-cortical gating

~ 1-3 / night

~ 20-30 / night

~ 100 / nightstimulation of

ARAS

by internal or

external stimuli


Sleep disturbances

Reactions to the noise

SituationalIndividual Acoustic characteristics

• Age, Gender

• Noise sensitivity...

• Sound pressure level

• Duration, Slope of rise etc.

• Current sleep stage

• Time since sleep onset etc.

• Awakenings, Arousals

• Body movements

• Blood pressure increases, etc...

• Quantitative: Reduction of sleeping time, Increased awakenings

• Qualitative: Reduction of slow wave sleep, Reduction of REM-Sleep...

Sleep disturbances due to noise: General framework


Tertiary effectsLong term effects (e.g. hypertension)

Primary effectsAcute effects of noise (arousals, awakenings)

Secondary effectsSubsequent effects during next day (e.g. fatigue)

PSG recordings

Cognitve performance tests, e.g.

Serial reaction time task (SRT)

Epidemiologcial studies

Measurement of effects

(examples):

NOISE

?

Classification of environmental noise effects on sleep


Immediate effects related

to one single event

Single eventcharacterizable by e.g.

LA,max

‘Noise’ during nighttime

characterizable by e.g.

- LA,eq 8h

- Number of events

- etc.

Effects as a function of

total exposure per night

•Cortical arousals, awakenings

•Body movements

•Cardiovascular arousals

•Sleep stage changes

Event-related: global:

• Total sleep time

• Number of awakenings

• Self-assessed sleep quality

• Sleepiness, etc...

• Secreted stress hormones...

Event-related vs global analysis of sleep disturbances


• Controlled laboratory experiments

• Field studies / Field experiments

Acute reactionsIndividual noise

events

‘Subjective’ methods:

▪ Questionnaires (« how many

times did you wake up? »)

▪ Signaled awakenings (e.g. press a

marker button)

Physiological ‘objective’

methods:

▪ Polysomnography (PSG)

▪ Actimetry (Recording of

body movements)

▪ Seismosomnography (SSG)

Study types and methods

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Actimetry, Field study

PSG, Field study

PSG, laboratory experiment

Instrumentation (Field study)

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