751291 (1)

Research ArticleA Quantitative Documentation of the Composition of TwoPowdered Herbal Formulations (Antimalarial and Haematinic)Using Ethnomedicinal Information from Ogbomoso Nigeria

Adepoju Tunde Joseph Ogunkunle Tosin Mathew OyelakinAbosede Oluwaseyi Enitan and Funmilayo Elizabeth Oyewole

Environmental Biology Unit Department of Pure and Applied Biology Ladoke Akintola University of TechnologyPMB 4000 Ogbomoso Oyo State Nigeria

Correspondence should be addressed to Adepoju Tunde Joseph Ogunkunle tjogunkunlelautechedung

Received 12 September 2013 Revised 8 January 2014 Accepted 8 January 2014 Published 20 February 2014

Academic Editor Rainer W Bussmann

Copyright copy 2014 Adepoju Tunde Joseph Ogunkunle et al This is an open access article distributed under the Creative CommonsAttribution License which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work isproperly cited

The safety of many African traditional herbal remedies is doubtful due to lack of standardizationThis study therefore attempted tostandardize two polyherbal formulations from Ogbomoso Oyo State Nigeria with respect to the relative proportions (weight-for-weight) of their botanical constituents Information supplied by 41 local herbal practitioners was statistically screened forconsistency and then used to quantify the composition of antimalarial (Maloff-HB) and haematinic (Haematol-B) powdered herbalformulations with nine and ten herbs respectively Maloff-HB contained the stem bark of Enantia chloranthaOliv (300) AlstoniabooneiDeWild (200)Mangifera indica L (100)Okoubaka aubrevillei Phelleg ampNomand (80) Pterocarpus osunCraib (40) rootbark of Calliandra haematocephalaHassk (100) Sarcocephalus latifolius (J E Smith) E A Bruce (80) Parquetina nigrescens (Afz)Bullock (60) and the vines of Cassytha filiformis L (40) while Haematol-B was composed of the leaf sheath of Sorghum bicolorMoench (300) fruit calyx of Hibiscus sabdariffa L (200) stem bark of Theobroma cacao L (100) Khaya senegalensis (Desr) AJuss (55) Mangifera indica (55) root of Aristolochia ringens Vahl (70) root bark of Sarcocephalus latifolius (55) Uvaria chamaeP Beauv (55) Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam) Zepern amp Timler (55) and seed of Garcinia kolaHeckel (55) In pursuance oftheir general acceptability the two herbal formulations are recommended for their pharmaceutical phytochemical and microbialqualities

1 Introduction

The Medical and Dental Practitioners (Amendment) Decreenumber 78 promulgated by the federal government ofNigeriaon September 30 1992 placed traditional and alternativemedicine side by side with the orthodox medicine [1] Eversince that time there had been an overwhelming increase inthe public awareness and usage of herbal medicines in thetreatment andor prevention of diseases This developmenthas been attributed to the active mass media advertisementembarked upon by the manufacturers and marketers ofherbal drugs who have taken advantage of the relatively highcost of the conventional medicines [2]

In an attempt to enhance the acceptability of herbalmedicines by consumers in Nigeria some manufacturers

licensed by the National Agency for Food Drug Administra-tion and Control (NAFDAC) and also many unregisteredlocal practitioners have come up with products usable inthe conventional dosage forms such as tablets capsules sus-pensions solutions and powders [2] Many of these herbalproducts usually contain two or more botanicals each ofwhich has a number of chemical compounds that may givethe anticipated activity in combination

In the development of polyherbal formulations pharma-cognosists undertake to analyze and evaluate those activeingredients from different medicinal plants for their possiblechemical interactions with various excipients [3 4] Informa-tion on which such studies are based usually originates fromthe traditional healers who make use of the herbs without

Hindawi Publishing CorporationEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2014 Article ID 751291 8 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552014751291

2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

any form of standardization Annexure I of the guidelinespublished by theWorldHealth Organization on evaluation oftraditional medicine provides among others for quantitativelist of active ingredients to accompany each herbal productfor the information of the consumer In cases where theactive ingredients have not been identified the whole herbserving as a constituent of a multiherbal formulation isregarded as one active ingredient [5] At the best traditionalherbal remedies display their constituent plant species andsometimes also the plant parts with little or no empiricalinformation on their relative proportions [6 7] Such detailsespecially to the traditional African herbalists constitute atrade secret that must be jealously guarded This practice haseffectively hindered the development of phytomedicine inthis part of the world

Although traditional herbal medicine has always beenpart of the peoplersquos culture in Africa this form of medicineis yet to be relatively well organized as for example in IndiaandChina [8] African herbal products have particularly beencalled to question on account of adulteration substitutioncontamination misidentification lack of standardizationincorrect preparation andor dosage inappropriate labelingandor advertisement [9 10] Also in the view of Idikaand Niemogha [11] there is an urgent need for developingsome systems and methods of standardization for traditionalmedicines in order to enhance the general acceptability toallay the skepticism and fears of the people to avoid dangersof toxicity side effects and overdosage and to ensure thata certain minimum level of hygiene in their preparation ismaintained

Malaria fever has been listed as a major public healthproblem in Nigeria where it accounts for more cases anddeaths than any other country in the world [12 13] It isresponsible for over 70 of outpatient hospital visitationand has a great toll on productivity being a major causeof absenteeism from school and work and of disease andcomplications in children and pregnant women [14] Thereis also evidence that people in Nigeria now attend hospitalsas often as they go to herbalists to treat themselves of thisdreaded disease which is most prevalent in southwesternnorth central and northwestern parts of the country [12 1516]

Much as in the orthodox medical practice herbalism inmany parts of the world including southwestern Nigeriaconsiders the care of the blood as paramount to preventiveand curative health care [7 17 18] Against this backgroundthe present study sought to address the issue of standard-ization of antimalarial and haematinic powdered herbalremedies popularly used in Ogbomoso Nigeria by way ofdocumenting their prevalent botanical composition partsused and relative proportions of these ldquoactive ingredientsrdquo

2 Materials and Methods

21 Preliminary Survey and Data Manipulation A prelim-inary survey among 55 local herbal practitioners (HPs) inOgbomoso land Nigeria in May 2011 revealed that 41 ofthem were noble in the production and sale of both types of

herbal remedies of interest The questionnaire-guided surveymade the respondents identify the botanicals by name andparts used for the antimalarial herbal remedy (AMHR) andhaematinic herbal remedy (HAHR)

Before the choice of a statistical tool for analyzing thedata collected it was found expedient to accept that thestatistical mode of each of the two distributions among the 41HPs should be taken as the most typical herbal formulationin the study area To that extent qualitative data on thebotanical composition of both remedies were independentlytransformed into frequency distribution tables each withclass interval size of 2 With the observation of the maximumfrequency occurring at the end of the two distributions themethod of grouping three classes at a time was adopted [19]and the mode in each case was calculated using the formulaaccording to Gupta [19] as follows

Mode = 119897 +ℎ

1003816100381610038161003816

1198911minus 1198910

1003816100381610038161003816

1003816100381610038161003816

1198911minus 1198910

1003816100381610038161003816

+

1003816100381610038161003816

1198911minus 1198912

1003816100381610038161003816

(1)

where 119897 is lower limit of themodal class1198911is frequency of the

modal class 1198910is frequency of the class preceding the modal

class 1198912is frequency of the class succeeding the modal class

and |119860| is the absolute (positive) value of 119860The exercise described above which respectively yielded

9 and 10 herbs as modes for AMHR and HAHR successfullyreduced the number of HPs to be included to 32 all of whichlisted both Enantia chlorantha Oliv and Alstonia boonei DeWild as part of AMHR and Sorghum bicolor Moench aspart of HAHR For consistency in the list of the plants ineach remedy three further respondents were excluded suchthat the number of HPs to be included in the next phase ofthe study was 29 Considering the fact that data for the twoherbal remedies under studywere independent and that somehealers offered one while others offered both remedies it waspossible to identify 33 herbal product outlets (HPOs) fromamong the 29 HPs comprised of 19 for AMHRs and 14 forHAHRs

22 Determination of Percent Composition ofHerbal FractionsBetween December 2011 and April 2012 visits were madeto the 33 identified HPOs to seek information concerningthe source of plant materials used relative quantity of eachfraction and procedure for preparing the powdered AMHRsand HAHRs An open plastic container of approximately5-litre volume (20 cm top diameter 17 cm bottom diameterand 18 cm depth) was used as a standardmeasure which eachrespondent was asked to reference for the final powderedproduct The respondents were made to select the quantityof each dried herbal component as if they were to carry outthe exercise on a good dayThe selections were procured intolabeled plastic bags with the assumption that the correspond-ing herbs collected from different outlets had been dried tofairly equal moisture contents

The weights (g) of the nine components of AMHR pro-cured from 19 outlets and the ten components of HAHR from14 outlets were each determined using a Measuretech triple-beam balanceMB-2610model In recognition of the necessityfor data consistency in this type of study the weight values

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3

Table 1 Local herbal product outlets visited for AMHRs andHAHRs in Ogbomoso Nigeria

Local government area Number of outletsAMHRs HAHRs Total

1 Ogbomoso North 3 4 72 Ogbomoso South 3 1 43 Surulere 2 1 34 Oriire 2 3 55 Ogo-Oluwa 4 2 6

Total 14 11 25AMHRs antimalarial herbal remediesHAHRs haematinic herbal remedies

for each remedy were fed as multivariate data matrix into thecomputer-based SPSS version 170 which was used to identifyand exclude outliers across the treatments (ie the outlets) ineach case This step reduced the number of outlets for finalconsideration to 25 that is 14 and 11 for AMHR and HAHRrespectively (Table 1)

Using the same statistical software two other analyseswere carried out on the quantitative data for the two remediesThese were Pearsonrsquos correlation test on the treatments andthe means of the variables (ie herbal fractions) The totalof the mean values of the herbal components in a remedy wasequated to 100 and the contribution of each component wascomputed with reference to 100

3 Results and Discussion

The results of this study are shown in Figures 1 2 and 3 andTables 2 to 5 A wide variation in the botanical constituentsand their relative quantities in the two herbal remedies wasencountered during the survey Between 1 and 14 differentplant species were identified as constituents of AMHRs whilethose of HAHRs ranged between 1 and 12 Similar obser-vations were made by Odugbemi et al [20] with regard tomalaria therapy in Okeigbo Ondo State southwest of Nige-ria The multistage preparation of the powdered remediesalso followed diverse protocols but with two main possiblealternatives namely A and B The majority (ie 84) ofthe HPs usually adopted alternative A while alternative Bwas common with 16 who incidentally were small scalemanufacturers (Figure 3) The first alternative was probablymore preferable because of the merit that the herbal fractionscould more accurately be measured out in the desiredproportionsMoreover according to the respondents millingof the fractions separately was advantageous because an herbsomilledwas usable in the formulation ofmore than one typeof herbal remedies The practice also ensured homogeneityof surface area in the final powdered product since twodifferent herbal materials might not respond equally tothe milling process These observations are in consonancewith the bottlenecks to polyherbal formulations identifiedby Mallavadhani [21] namely large variations in differentsamples of the same formulation variations in ingredientsvariation in quantity of the ingredients and lack of uniformmanufacturing protocols

Figure 1 Samples of the herbs used in combination as antimalarialherbal formulation (Maloff-HB) in Ogbomoso Nigeria ENCHEnantia chlorantha ALBO Alstonia boonei CAHA CalliandrahaematocephalaMAINMangifera indicaOKAUOkoubaka aubre-villei SALA Sarcocephalus latifolius PANI Parquetina nigrescensCAFI Cassytha filiformis PTOS Pterocarpus osun STB stem barkROT root VIN vines

Figure 2 Samples of the herbs used in combination as haematinicherbal formulation (Haematol-B) in Ogbomoso Nigeria SOBISorghum bicolor HISA Hibiscus sabdariffa THCA Theobromacacao ARRI Aristolochia ringens GAKO Garcinia kola KHSEKhaya senegalensis MAIN Mangifera indica SALA Sarcocephaluslatifolius UVCH Uvaria chamae ZAZA Zanthoxylum zanthoxy-loides LES leaf sheath FRC fruit calyx STB stem bark ROT rootSED seed RTB root bark

The composition of antimalarial and haematinic herbalremedies from Ogbomoso in parts per hundred is shownin Tables 4 and 5 respectively Not only have the botanicalsmaking up these remedies been documented from this studybut also their relative quantities have been objectively definedOn this account the two remedies were respectively namedMaloff-HB and Haematol-B herbal formulations for thepurpose of proper identification On the question whetherthese formulations are representative of the practice in


Table 2 Similarity matrix based on correlation coefficients of data collected from antimalarial herbal remedy outlets in Ogbomoso Nigeria

OT1 OT2 OT3 OT4 OT5 OT6 OT7 OT8 OT9 OT10 OT11 OT12 OT13 OT14OT1 1OT2 0844lowastlowast 1OT3 0737lowast 0978lowastlowast 1OT4 0806lowast 0991lowastlowast 0978lowastlowast 1OT5 0733lowast 0978lowastlowast 100lowastlowast 0977lowastlowast 1OT6 0815lowast 0984lowastlowast 0968lowastlowast 0991lowastlowast 0968lowastlowast 1OT7 0796lowast 0993lowastlowast 0991lowastlowast 0992lowastlowast 0991lowastlowast 0986lowastlowast 1OT8 0676lowast 0949lowastlowast 0959lowastlowast 0977lowastlowast 0959lowastlowast 0958lowastlowast 0962lowastlowast 1OT9 0764lowast 0979lowastlowast 0995lowastlowast 0970lowastlowast 0944lowastlowast 0958lowastlowast 0988lowastlowast 0937lowastlowast 1OT10 0727lowast 0979lowastlowast 0992lowastlowast 0987lowastlowast 0993lowastlowast 0976lowastlowast 0989lowastlowast 0979lowastlowast 0981lowastlowast 1OT11 0481ns 0835lowastlowast 0886lowastlowast 0876lowastlowast 0884lowastlowast 0821lowastlowast 0958lowastlowast 0936lowastlowast 0866lowastlowast 0906lowastlowast 1OT12 0671lowast 0948lowastlowast 0969lowastlowast 0875lowastlowast 0970lowastlowast 0970lowastlowast 0965lowastlowast 0987lowastlowast 0944lowastlowast 0987lowastlowast 0911lowastlowast 1OT13 0789lowast 0992lowastlowast 0991lowastlowast 0986lowastlowast 0992lowastlowast 0980lowastlowast 0996lowastlowast 0958lowastlowast 0989lowastlowast 0985lowastlowast 0853lowastlowast 0958lowastlowast 1OT14 0923lowast 0949lowastlowast 0890lowastlowast 0935lowastlowast 0886lowastlowast 0916lowastlowast 0992lowastlowast 0872lowastlowast 0899lowastlowast 0883lowastlowast 0743lowastlowast 0842lowastlowast 0926lowastlowast 1lowastlowastCorrelation is significant at the 001 level (2-tail) lowastsignificant at the 005 level (2-tail) ns not significant OT1 OT2 OT3 OT14 antimalarial herbalremedy outlets 1 to 14 used for the study

Table 3 Similarity matrix based on correlation coefficients of data collected from haematinic herbal remedy outlets in Ogbomoso Nigeria

OT1 OT2 OT3 OT4 OT5 OT6 OT7 OT8 OT9 OT10 OT11OT1 1OT2 0981lowastlowast 1OT3 0971lowastlowast 0985lowastlowast 1OT4 0987lowastlowast 0964lowastlowast 0964lowastlowast 1OT5 0966lowastlowast 0979lowastlowast 0999lowastlowast 0959lowastlowast 1OT6 0978lowastlowast 0988lowastlowast 0997lowastlowast 0975lowastlowast 0996lowastlowast 1OT7 0975lowastlowast 0951lowastlowast 0957lowastlowast 0991lowastlowast 0951lowastlowast 0972lowastlowast 1OT8 0961lowastlowast 0958lowastlowast 0935lowastlowast 0952lowastlowast 0931lowastlowast 0935lowastlowast 0911lowastlowast 1OT9 0953lowastlowast 0949lowastlowast 0984lowastlowast 0954lowastlowast 0986lowastlowast 0981lowastlowast 0954lowastlowast 0916lowastlowast 1OT10 0985lowastlowast 0977lowastlowast 0982lowastlowast 0979lowastlowast 0977lowastlowast 0988lowastlowast 0981lowastlowast 0917lowastlowast 0963lowastlowast 1OT11 0951lowastlowast 0980lowastlowast 0991lowastlowast 0941lowastlowast 0988lowastlowast 0989lowastlowast 0946lowastlowast 0895lowastlowast 0965lowastlowast 0977lowastlowast 1lowastlowastCorrelation is significant at the 001 level (2-tail) OT1 OT2 OT3 OT11 haematinic herbal remedy outlets 1 to 11 used for the study

the study area the answer is in the affirmative for tworeasons In the first place the results were a product of wideconsultations among referred individuals in the act of localherbal formulation and secondly the formulations obtainedfrom them have been statistically screened to an acceptablelevel of consistency (Tables 2 and 3)

As expected the results of this study have shown thequalitative and quantitative variations in the two herbalformulations considered to be diverse However the mosttypical lists of herbs for AMHRs and HAHRs in this part ofNigeria have been statistically identified and quantitativelycharacterized (Tables 4 and 5) These efforts were not meanteither to prejudice the practice in the study location or toforce the manufacturers to conform to the most popular listof plants for each remedy In fact one would recommendthat all the variants of the two herbal formulations should begiven adequate attention if the holistic view of the situationon ground is intended But then for any form of herbal drugstandardization to be valid and workable it should be based

on the representative practice in the localities that offer theremedy

Of the 49 herbal product outlets identified across the 41healers initially interviewed 28 and 21 offered AMHRs andHAHRs respectively Similarly 19 and 14 were respectivelyidentified across the 29 healers subsequently considered foranalysis This implies that the newly standardized Maloff-HBincluded the listed nine species of plants (Table 4) that wereused by 68 of the outlets while the standardized Haematol-B included the 10 identified species that were favouredby 67 of the outlets A total of nine (32) antimalarialand seven (33) haematinic herbal products outlets wereat variance with the standardized formulations in termsof the composition of their recipe While Maloff-HB andHaematol-B can be said to be representative of the practicein Ogbomoso in terms of the quality and quantity of theircomposition the proportion of the dissenting practice wouldnot allow the information therefrom to be ignored in futureinvestigations


Table 4 Botanical characterization and composition (wtwt) of antimalarial herbal formulation (Maloff-HB) from Ogbomoso Nigeria

Plant species Family Indigenousname (Yoruba) Part used Total weight (g) Mean weight (g) Parts per 100

1 Enantia chlorantha Oliv Annonaceae AwopaDokitaigbo Stem bark 192486 13749

(10395ndash20055) 30

2 Alstonia boonei DeWild Apocynaceae Ahun Stem bark 128323 9195(5275ndash12320) 20

3 Calliandra haematocephalaHassk Fabaceae Tude Root 64306 4598

(3100ndash7400) 10

4 Mangifera indica L Anacardiaceae Mongoro Stem bark 30772 4605(1378ndash3800) 10

5 Okoubaka aubrevilleiPhelleg amp Nomand Santalaceae Igi nla Stem bark 50929 3663

(1343ndash5233) 8

6 Sarcocephalus latifolius(J E Smith) E A Bruce Rubiaceae Egbesi Root bark 51402 3672

(2320ndash5547) 8

7 Parquetina nigrescens (Afz)Bullock Periplocaceae Ogbo Root bark 38205 2739

(1950ndash3575) 6

8 Cassytha filiformis L Lauraceae Omonigelegele Vine 20391 1817(1199ndash2780) 4

9 Pterocarpus osun Craib Papilionaceae Igi osun Stem bark 26860 1857(1278ndash2868) 4

Total 45895 100wtwt weight-for-weight 119899 (number of outlets) = 14 values in parentheses are the ranges of the measurements

Table 5 Botanical characterization and composition (wtwt) of haematinic herbal formulation (Haematol-B) from Ogbomoso Nigeria


1 Sorghum bicolor Moench Poaceae Oka baba Leaf sheath 133711 12154(9170ndash16320) 30

2 Hibiscus sabdariffa L(red variety) Malvaceae Isapa pupa Fruit calyx 91040 8276

(4600ndash9720) 20

3 Theobroma cacao L Sterculiaceae Koko Stem bark 45652 4150(2415ndash4945) 10

4 Aristolochia ringens Vahl Aristolochiaceae Akogun Roots 31742 2886(1404ndash4530) 70

5 Garcinia kolaHeckel Guttiferae Orogbo Seed 24734 2250(1040ndash3095) 55

6 Khaya senegalensis (Desr)A Juss Meliaceae Agano Stem bark 25050 2277

(2110ndash2830) 55



(970ndash3250) 55

9 Uvaria chamae P Beauv Annonaceae Eruju Root bark 24919 2275(1730ndash3403) 55

10Zanthoxylum

zanthoxyloides (Lam)Zepern amp Timler

Rutaceae Ata Root bark 24803 2257(1204ndash3037) 55


Single herbs are the common form in which herbalformulations are presented and used This practice appearsto be the easiest way to consume herbs and most economicalmethod of presenting them to individuals as well as herbalsupplement manufacturers [22] From all the herbalists

contacted during the study the names Enantia chloranthaand Alstonia boonei consistently occurred in the list of herbsfor antimalarial remedies and so did Sorghum bicolor in thelist for haematinic remedies These findings are consistentwith those of Odugbemi et al [20] and could be a pointer


A B

Herbs procurement

Chipping

Cleaning

Sorting (separation) of fractions

Sun drying

Milling

Sieving

Measurement (quantification) of fractions

Compose (blending) Sieving

Milling

Compose (mixing chips)


Herbal product

Figure 3 Flow chart of the processes for manufacturing powderedantimalarial and haematinic herbal remedies by the herbal prac-titioners in Ogbomoso Nigeria Option A was adopted by 84Option B was adopted by 16 of the 25 respondents

to the general opinion that a single or at most two herbscould be potent enough to cure one or more ailments[23ndash25]

With great experience and knowledge of herbs spanningmany centuries indigenous people are believed to have learntthat some herbs required the inclusion of other ingredients(and also other herbs) as catalyst or else the brew of the herbsbeing used for therapeutic purposes was ineffective [26]Thisdiscovery probably marked the origin of polyherbal or multi-herbal formulations which are obtained by subjecting herbalingredients from a number of specified medicinal plantparts to various processes such as extraction distillationexpression fractionation purification concentration andfermentation [21] It is however important to note that as wefrequently see many herbs go into a medicinal preparationso we do have certain medicinal plants each having multipletherapeutic uses [23 27]

Mallavadhani [21] identified two key parameters of herbaldrugs namely standardization and quality evaluation Whilequality evaluation pertains to requirements for authenticity

Pharmacognostical

Physicochemical Phytochemical

Heavy metals pesticides toxins radioactives fumigants pathogens and fungicides

Residual analyses

Herbal drugs

∙ Taxonomical∙ Morphological∙ Biological∙ Biochemical∙ Biotechnical∙ Biotechnological

∙ Ash values∙ pH∙ Optical rotation∙ Specific gravity∙ Hardness∙ Disintegration time∙ Elemental composition

∙ Extractive values∙ Chemical profiling∙ TLC fingerprinting∙ Markers

- Bioactive- Chemical

∙ HPTLCHPLC-basedquantifications

Figure 4 The triple P-based protocols along with residual analysesfor standardization and quality control of herbal drugs (source [21])

purity and safety standardization deals among other thingswith assay that is analyzing herbal drug preparation andadjusting them to a defined content of a constituent Tothat extent herbal product standardization has been definedas the body of information and controls necessary to pro-duce materials of reasonable consistency [28] Rukangira [6]believes that the quality of traditional medicines is highlydependent on individual practitioner who in his wisdomdetermines the correctness of identity and quantity of plantparts and as a result there is no guarantee of the authenticityand quantity of plant material used in the preparation Tothis extent there is a need to select proper and appropriatetechnologies for the industrial production of medicines suchthat the effectiveness of the preparation can be ensured Oneof the ways to achieve this goal is to minimize the inherentvariation in natural product composition through qualityassurance practice applied to manufacturing processes andtechniques

Efforts of the World Health Organization and a numberof countries dealing with herbal drugs have yielded the tripleP-based protocols for standardization and quality control ofherbal drugs that is pharmacognostical physicochemicaland phytochemical along with residual analyses (Figure 4)Since standardization of herbal medicines arose out of theneed to create a uniform product for clinical trials [29] thispresent study can be said to have contributed a piece to thestandardization of herbal medicine in Nigeria It has qualita-tively and quantitatively defined the botanical constituents ofantimalarial and haematinic powdered herbal formulationscommonly used in Ogbomoso southwest of Nigeria


4 Conclusion and Recommendation

Antimalarial (Maloff-HB) and haematinic (Haematol-B)powdered herbal formulations from Ogbomoso Nigeriahave been botanically characterized andquantifiedAn aspectof the pharmacognostical approach to their standardizationhas thus been addressed It would therefore be of greatinterest if researchers could work further to evaluate thepharmaceutical phytochemical and microbial qualities ofMaloff-HB and Haematol-B with a view to considering themfor general acceptability

Conflict of Interests

The authors have read and understood the editorial policystatement of the journal on declaration of conflict of interestsand as such declare (a) that there was no support from anyorganization for the submitted manuscript to the journal (b)that there are no financial relationships with any individualsor organizations that might have interest in the submittedwork (c) that there are no other relationships or activitiesthat could appear to have influenced the research otherthan the authorsrsquo interest in contributing their quota to thestandardization of herbal medicine in Nigeria As a resultof the foregoing the authors hereby declare that there is noconflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper bythe journal

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to those medicinal herb sellersat Oja-jagun Ogbomoso who offered to assist in locatingsome traditional herbal product outlets in the study areaand to those herbal practitioners in Ogbomoso ArowomoleAjaawa Odo-Oba Iresaapa and Iresaadu who graciouslyoffered information and the herbal materials used for thestudy

References

[1] ABFR amp CO Chronology of Nigerian Decrees ABFR amp CO LawOffice Lagos Nigeria 1996

[2] A Okunlola A A Adewoyin and O A Odeku ldquoEvaluationof pharmaceutical and microbial qualities of some herbalmedicinal products in SouthWestern Nigeriardquo Tropical Journalof Pharmaceutical Research vol 6 no 1 pp 661ndash670 2007

[3] S G Bhope D H Nagore V V Kuber P K Gupta and M JPatil ldquoDesign and development of a stable polyherbal formula-tion based on the results of compatibility studiesrdquo Pharmacog-nosy Research vol 3 no 2 pp 122ndash129 2011

[4] P V Gomase P S Shire S Nazim andA B Choudhari ldquoDevel-opment and evaluation of polyherbal formulation for anti-inflamatory activityrdquo Journal of Natural Product and PlantResources vol 1 no 1 pp 85ndash90 2011

[5] World Health Organization General Guidelines for Methodoli-gies on Research and Evaluation of Traditional Medicine WorldHealth Organization Geneva Switzerland 2000

[6] E Rukangira ldquoThe African herbal industry constraints andchallengesrdquo in Proceedings of the Natural Products and Cosme-ceuticals Conference pp 1ndash23 2001 httpencuteducneclassmydocuments8292820080515181239pdf

[7] M Alamgir and S J Uddin ldquoRecent advances on the eth-nomedicinal plants as immunomodulatory agentsrdquo in Eth-nomedicine A Source of Complementary Therapeutics D Chat-topadhyay Ed pp 227ndash244 Research Signpost Kerala India2010

[8] B Patwardhan D Warude P Pushpangadan and N BhattldquoAyurveda and traditional Chinese medicine a compara-tive overviewrdquo Evidence-Based Complementary and AlternativeMedicine vol 2 no 4 pp 465ndash473 2005

[9] A Lau M J Holmes S Woo and H Koh ldquoAnalysis ofadulterants in a traditional herbal medicinal product using liq-uid chromatography-mass spectrometry-mass spectrometryrdquoJournal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis vol 31 no2 pp 401ndash406 2003

[10] World Health Organization WHO Guidelines on Good Agri-cultural and Collection Practices (GACP) for Medicinal PlantsWHO Geneva Switzerland 2003

[11] N R Idika and M T Niemogha ldquoThe diversity of uses ofmedicinal plants in Nigeriardquo in A Textbook of Medicinal Plantsfrom Nigeria T Odugbemi Ed pp 71ndash79 University of LagosPress Lagos Nigeria 2008

[12] United States Embassy in Nigeria ldquoNigeria Malaria fact sheetrdquoU S Embassy in Nigeria Abuja Nigeria 2011

[13] WorldHealthOrganizationMalaria Fact SheetsWorldHealthOrganization Geneva Switzerland 2013 httpwwwwhointmediacentrefactsheetsfs094en

[14] WOyibo A F Fagbenro-Beyioku andU Igbasi ldquoUses ofmedi-cinalplants in the treatment of malaria and gastrointestinalparasitic infectionsrdquo in A Textbook of Medicinal Plants fromNigeria T Odugbemi Ed pp 243ndash256 University of LagosPress Lagos Nigeria 2008

[15] A O OkunadeTheUnderdevelopment of Health Care System inNigeria Faculty of Clinical Scieces and Dentistry University ofIbadan Vantage Publishers Limited Ibadan Nigeria 2001

[16] A T J Ogunkunle and S B Ashiru ldquoExperience and percep-tions of the residents of Ogbomoso land Nigeria on the safetyand efficacy of herbal medicinesrdquo Journal of Herbal Practice andTechnology vol 1 pp 22ndash28 2011

[17] P O Fabeku and O Akinsulire ldquoThe role of traditional medi-cine among the Yoruba South-West Nigeriardquo in A Textbook ofMedicinal Plants from Nigeria T Odugbemi Ed pp 43ndash54University of Lagos Press Lagos Nigeria 2008

[18] I I Olatunji-Bello and B O Iranloye ldquoPhysiological actions ofsome medicinal plantsrdquo in A Textbook of Medicinal Plants fromNigeria T Odugbemi Ed pp 257ndash272 University of LagosPress Lagos Nigeria 2008

[19] S C Gupta Fundamentals of Statistics Himalaya PublishingHouse PVT Limited Mumbai India 6th edition 2011

[20] T OOdugbemi O R Akinsulire I E Aibinu and PO FabekuldquoMedicinal plants useful for malaria therapy in Okeigbo OndoState Southwest Nigeriardquo African Journal of Traditional Com-plementary and Alternative Medicines vol 4 no 2 pp 191ndash1982007

[21] U V Mallavadhani Standardization and Quality Control ofMultiherbal Formulations HerbalDrugs andBio-RemediesCellRegional Research Laboratory Bhubaneswar India 2011

[22] Holistic Herbalist ldquoHerbal formulation why the balance andsynergy of Herbs are the life of any herbal formulationrdquo 2013httpwwwholistic-herbalistnetherbal-formulationhtml

[23] E Kafaru Immense Help from Naturersquos Workshop Elikaf HealthServices Limited Lagos Nigeria 1994


[24] S Muhammad and N A Amusa ldquoThe important food cropsand medicinal plants of North-Western Nigeriardquo ResearchJournal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences vol 1 no 3 pp254ndash260 2005

[25] D Kubmarawa G A Ajoku NM Enwerem and D A OkorieldquoPreliminary phytochemical and antimicrobial screening of 50medicinal plants from Nigeriardquo African Journal of Biotechnol-ogy vol 6 no 14 pp 1690ndash1696 2007

[26] I Aibinu E Adenipekun and T O Adelowotan ldquoFactors thatmay be responsible for the ineffectiveness of medicinal plantswhen used in therapyrdquo in A Textbook of Medicinal Plants fromNigeria T Odugbemi Ed pp 319ndash325 University of LagosPress Lagos Nigeria 2008

[27] S B Zailani and A H Ahmed ldquoSome medicinal plants usedas traditional recipes for some disorders among northern com-munities in Nigeriardquo in A Textbook of Medicinal Plants fromNigeria T Odugbemi Ed pp 55ndash69 University of Lagos PressLagos Nigeria 2008

[28] F Gaedcke B Steinhoff and H Blasius ldquoHerbal medici-nal productsrdquo in Scientific and Regulatory Basis for Develop-ment Quality Assurance and Marketing Authorisation by Wis-senschaftfliche Stuttgart pp 37ndash52 CRC Press Boca Raton FlaUSA 2003

[29] T Odugbemi and A Ayoola ldquoMedicinal plants from Nigeriasn overviewrdquo in A Textbook of Medicinal Plants from NigeriaT Odugbemi Ed pp 9ndash17 University of Lagos Press LagosNigeria 2008

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

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Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of



Disease Markers


BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of



Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity


PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom


any form of standardization Annexure I of the guidelinespublished by theWorldHealth Organization on evaluation oftraditional medicine provides among others for quantitativelist of active ingredients to accompany each herbal productfor the information of the consumer In cases where theactive ingredients have not been identified the whole herbserving as a constituent of a multiherbal formulation isregarded as one active ingredient [5] At the best traditionalherbal remedies display their constituent plant species andsometimes also the plant parts with little or no empiricalinformation on their relative proportions [6 7] Such detailsespecially to the traditional African herbalists constitute atrade secret that must be jealously guarded This practice haseffectively hindered the development of phytomedicine inthis part of the world

Although traditional herbal medicine has always beenpart of the peoplersquos culture in Africa this form of medicineis yet to be relatively well organized as for example in IndiaandChina [8] African herbal products have particularly beencalled to question on account of adulteration substitutioncontamination misidentification lack of standardizationincorrect preparation andor dosage inappropriate labelingandor advertisement [9 10] Also in the view of Idikaand Niemogha [11] there is an urgent need for developingsome systems and methods of standardization for traditionalmedicines in order to enhance the general acceptability toallay the skepticism and fears of the people to avoid dangersof toxicity side effects and overdosage and to ensure thata certain minimum level of hygiene in their preparation ismaintained

Malaria fever has been listed as a major public healthproblem in Nigeria where it accounts for more cases anddeaths than any other country in the world [12 13] It isresponsible for over 70 of outpatient hospital visitationand has a great toll on productivity being a major causeof absenteeism from school and work and of disease andcomplications in children and pregnant women [14] Thereis also evidence that people in Nigeria now attend hospitalsas often as they go to herbalists to treat themselves of thisdreaded disease which is most prevalent in southwesternnorth central and northwestern parts of the country [12 1516]

Much as in the orthodox medical practice herbalism inmany parts of the world including southwestern Nigeriaconsiders the care of the blood as paramount to preventiveand curative health care [7 17 18] Against this backgroundthe present study sought to address the issue of standard-ization of antimalarial and haematinic powdered herbalremedies popularly used in Ogbomoso Nigeria by way ofdocumenting their prevalent botanical composition partsused and relative proportions of these ldquoactive ingredientsrdquo

2 Materials and Methods

21 Preliminary Survey and Data Manipulation A prelim-inary survey among 55 local herbal practitioners (HPs) inOgbomoso land Nigeria in May 2011 revealed that 41 ofthem were noble in the production and sale of both types of

herbal remedies of interest The questionnaire-guided surveymade the respondents identify the botanicals by name andparts used for the antimalarial herbal remedy (AMHR) andhaematinic herbal remedy (HAHR)

Before the choice of a statistical tool for analyzing thedata collected it was found expedient to accept that thestatistical mode of each of the two distributions among the 41HPs should be taken as the most typical herbal formulationin the study area To that extent qualitative data on thebotanical composition of both remedies were independentlytransformed into frequency distribution tables each withclass interval size of 2 With the observation of the maximumfrequency occurring at the end of the two distributions themethod of grouping three classes at a time was adopted [19]and the mode in each case was calculated using the formulaaccording to Gupta [19] as follows

Mode = 119897 +ℎ

1003816100381610038161003816

1198911minus 1198910

1003816100381610038161003816

1003816100381610038161003816

1198911minus 1198910

1003816100381610038161003816

+

1003816100381610038161003816

1198911minus 1198912

1003816100381610038161003816

(1)

where 119897 is lower limit of themodal class1198911is frequency of the

modal class 1198910is frequency of the class preceding the modal

class 1198912is frequency of the class succeeding the modal class

and |119860| is the absolute (positive) value of 119860The exercise described above which respectively yielded

9 and 10 herbs as modes for AMHR and HAHR successfullyreduced the number of HPs to be included to 32 all of whichlisted both Enantia chlorantha Oliv and Alstonia boonei DeWild as part of AMHR and Sorghum bicolor Moench aspart of HAHR For consistency in the list of the plants ineach remedy three further respondents were excluded suchthat the number of HPs to be included in the next phase ofthe study was 29 Considering the fact that data for the twoherbal remedies under studywere independent and that somehealers offered one while others offered both remedies it waspossible to identify 33 herbal product outlets (HPOs) fromamong the 29 HPs comprised of 19 for AMHRs and 14 forHAHRs

22 Determination of Percent Composition ofHerbal FractionsBetween December 2011 and April 2012 visits were madeto the 33 identified HPOs to seek information concerningthe source of plant materials used relative quantity of eachfraction and procedure for preparing the powdered AMHRsand HAHRs An open plastic container of approximately5-litre volume (20 cm top diameter 17 cm bottom diameterand 18 cm depth) was used as a standardmeasure which eachrespondent was asked to reference for the final powderedproduct The respondents were made to select the quantityof each dried herbal component as if they were to carry outthe exercise on a good dayThe selections were procured intolabeled plastic bags with the assumption that the correspond-ing herbs collected from different outlets had been dried tofairly equal moisture contents

The weights (g) of the nine components of AMHR pro-cured from 19 outlets and the ten components of HAHR from14 outlets were each determined using a Measuretech triple-beam balanceMB-2610model In recognition of the necessityfor data consistency in this type of study the weight values


























(10395ndash20055) 30



(3100ndash7400) 10



(1343ndash5233) 8


(2320ndash5547) 8


(1950ndash3575) 6








(4600ndash9720) 20





(2110ndash2830) 55



(970ndash3250) 55


10Zanthoxylum







A B

Herbs procurement

Chipping

Cleaning


Sun drying

Milling

Sieving



Milling



Herbal product





Pharmacognostical



Residual analyses

Herbal drugs














Acknowledgments


References




































of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of









































(10395ndash20055) 30



(3100ndash7400) 10



(1343ndash5233) 8


(2320ndash5547) 8


(1950ndash3575) 6








(4600ndash9720) 20





(2110ndash2830) 55



(970ndash3250) 55


10Zanthoxylum







A B

Herbs procurement

Chipping

Cleaning


Sun drying

Milling

Sieving



Milling



Herbal product





Pharmacognostical



Residual analyses

Herbal drugs














Acknowledgments


References




































of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of





























(10395ndash20055) 30



(3100ndash7400) 10



(1343ndash5233) 8


(2320ndash5547) 8


(1950ndash3575) 6








(4600ndash9720) 20





(2110ndash2830) 55



(970ndash3250) 55


10Zanthoxylum







A B

Herbs procurement

Chipping

Cleaning


Sun drying

Milling

Sieving



Milling



Herbal product





Pharmacognostical



Residual analyses

Herbal drugs














Acknowledgments


References




































of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of




















(10395ndash20055) 30



(3100ndash7400) 10



(1343ndash5233) 8


(2320ndash5547) 8


(1950ndash3575) 6








(4600ndash9720) 20





(2110ndash2830) 55



(970ndash3250) 55


10Zanthoxylum







A B

Herbs procurement

Chipping

Cleaning


Sun drying

Milling

Sieving



Milling



Herbal product





Pharmacognostical



Residual analyses

Herbal drugs














Acknowledgments


References




































of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of

















A B

Herbs procurement

Chipping

Cleaning


Sun drying

Milling

Sieving



Milling



Herbal product





Pharmacognostical



Residual analyses

Herbal drugs














Acknowledgments


References




































of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of





















Acknowledgments


References




































of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of




























of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of





















of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of
















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