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Personal TechnologyPersonal Technology

8.1 Managing Files: Basic Concepts

8.2 Database Management Systems

8.3 Database Models

8.4 Data Mining

8.5 Databases & The Digital Economy

8.6 Using Databases to Help Make Decisions

8.7 Artificial Intelligence

8.8 The Ethics of Using Databases

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McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Managing Files: Basic Managing Files: Basic ConceptsConcepts

A database is a logically organized collection of related data designed and built for a specific purpose

Data is stored hierarchically for easier storage and retrieval

Files: collections of related records Records: collections of related fields Field: unit of data containing 1 or more

characters Character: a letter number or special

character made of bits Bit: a 0 or 1

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Managing Files: Basic Managing Files: Basic ConceptsConcepts

Key Field – the field that identifies a recordOften an identifying number, such as social security

number

Primary keys must be unique Keys are used to pick records out of a database Unique keys make records stand out from each other If two records had the same key, then you might not pick

the correct one Nonprimary keys are used to sort records in different ways Foreign keys are fields that appear in two different tables and

are used to relate one table to another

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Managing Files: Basic Managing Files: Basic ConceptsConcepts

This example shows a sample database in Microsoft Access. Products is a table. ProductID is the primary key of the Product table. ProductID is also a foreign key in the Orders table

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Managing Files: Basic Managing Files: Basic ConceptsConcepts

Program files are files containing software instructionsSource program files are written by the software

developer in the programming language Double-clicking on them won’t run them They have file extensions like .cpp, .jav, .bas

Executable files are program files translated so they can be executed on the computer Double-clicking on them will cause them to run They have file extensions like .exe or .com

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Managing Files: Basic Managing Files: Basic ConceptsConcepts

Data files are files that contain data such as words, numbers, pictures, or soundsThese are the files that are used in databasesThey have extensions such as .txt .mdb, and .xlsGraphics files have extensions like .tiff, .jpeg, and .pngAudio files have extensions such as .mp3, .wav, and .midAnimation/video files have extensions such

as .qt, .mpg, .avi, and .rmData files are often compressed to save space and

transmit them faster Compression removes repetitive elements from a file

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Database Management SystemsDatabase Management Systems

Software written specifically to control the structure of a database and access to the dataReduced data redundancy

Redundant data is stored in multiple places, which causes problems keeping all the copies current

Improved data integrity Means the data is accurate, consistent, and up to date

Increased security Limits who can create, read, update, and delete the data

Ease of data maintenance Offer validation checks, backup utilities, and procedures for

data inserting, updating, and deletion

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Database Management SystemsDatabase Management Systems3 Principal Components3 Principal Components

Data DictionaryA repository that stores the data definitions and

descriptions of the structure of the data and the databaseDBMS Utilities

Programs that allow you to maintain the database by creating, editing, deleting data, records, and files

Also include automated backup and recoveryReport Generator

Program for producing an on-screen or printed document form all or part of a database

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Database Management SystemsDatabase Management SystemsDatabase AdministratorDatabase Administrator

Database Administrator (DBA)A high-paid, responsible position within an organizationCoordinates all related activities and needs for an

organization’s databaseEnsures the database’s

Recoverability Integrity Security Availability Reliability Performance

Discussion Question: Did you know that 93% of companies that lost their data center for 10 days or more due to a disaster filed for bankruptcy within a year?

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Database ModelsDatabase Models

Hierarchical database

Network database

Relational database

Object-oriented database

Multidimensional database

Fields or records are arranged in a family tree, with child records subordinate to parent or higher-level records

Like a hierarchical database, but each child record can have more than one parent record

Relates, or connects, data in different files through the use of a key, or common data element

Uses objects (software written in small, reusable chunks) as elements within database files

Models data as facts, dimensions, or numerical measures for use in the interactive analysis of large amounts of data

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Database ModelsDatabase Models Hierarchical Databases

Fields or records are arranged in related groups resembling a family tree with child (low-level) records subordinate to parent (high-level) records

Root record is the parent record at the top of the database, and data is accessed through the hierarchy

Oldest and simplest; used in mainframes

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Database ModelsDatabase Models Network Database

Similar to a hierarchical database, but each child record can have more than one parent record

Used principally with mainframe computers Requires the database structure to be defined in advance

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Database ModelsDatabase Models

Relational DatabaseRelates or connects data in different files through the use

of a key, or common data elementExamples are Oracle, Informix, SybaseData exists independently of how it is physically storedUsers don’t need to know data structure to use the

databaseUses SQL (structured query language) to create, modify,

maintain, and query the dataQuery by Example uses sample records or forms to allow

users to define the qualifications for choosing records

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Database ModelsDatabase Models

Object-oriented DatabasesUse “objects”, software written in small, manageable

chunks, as elements within data filesAn object consists of

Data in any form, including audio, graphics, and video Instructions on the action to be taken with the data

Examples include FastObjects, GemStone, Objectivity DB, Jasmine Object Database, and KE Express

Types include Web database Hypermedia database

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Database ModelsDatabase Models

Multidimensional DatabaseModels data as facts, dimensions, or numerical answers

for use in the interactive analysis of large amounts of data for decision-making purposes

Allows users to ask questions in colloquial EnglishUse OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) software to

provide answers to complex database queries

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Data MiningData Mining

Is the computer-assisted process of sifting through and analyzing vast amounts of data to extract hidden patterns and meaning and to discover new knowledge

Data is fed into a Data Warehouse through the following stepsIdentify and connect to data sourcesPerform data fusion and data cleansingObtain both data and meta-data (data about the data)Transport data and meta-data to the Data Warehouse

Data Warehouse is a special database that shows detailed and summary data from multiple sources

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Data MiningData Mining

Methods for searching for patterns in the data and interpreting the resultsRegression analysis

Develops a formula to fit patterns in the data that has been extracted

Formula is applied to other data sets to predict future trendsClassification analysis

A statistical pattern recognition process that is applied to data sets with more than just numerical data

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Data MiningData Mining

Applications includeA phone company identifying customers with large bills,

who were really small businesses trying to pay the cheaper residential rate

A coach in the Gymnastics Federation used it to discover what long-term factors contributed to athletes’ performance

Retail stores use it to predict future purchase patterns to help them choose which products to stock for the future

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Databases & The Digital EconomyDatabases & The Digital Economy

E-CommerceThe buying and selling of products and services through

computer networksExamples of some e-tailers (electronic retailers):

www.amazon.com sells books and music online www.sees.com sells candy online www.ebay.com connects buyers with sellers online using

online auctions

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Databases & The Digital EconomyDatabases & The Digital Economy

Innovative e-tailer technologies make online shopping easierOne-click option

Allows you to click on an item and immediately go to the check-out process

360-degree images Allow you to see all sides of an item

Order tracking Bar codes are assigned to items being shipped that allow

customers to check shipping progress via the internetShop bots

Are programs that help users search for a particular product of service

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Databases & The Digital EconomyDatabases & The Digital Economy

Types of E-CommerceBusiness-to-business (B2B)

A business sells to other businesses using the internet or a private network to cut transaction costs and increase efficiencies

Business-to-consumer (B2C) A business sells goods or services to consumers

Consumer-to-consumer (C2C) Consumers sell goods or services directly to other

consumers with the help of a third party, such as eBay.

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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions

What are the qualities of good information?Correct and verifiableComplete yet conciseCost effectiveCurrentAccessible

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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions

Most organizations have 6 departments to which information must flowResearch and developmentProduction (or operations)Marketing and salesAccounting and financeHuman resources (personnel)Information systems (IS)

Information flows horizontally between departments

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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions

Besides the 6 departments, many organizations also have 3 levels of managementStrategic-level management

Top managers concerned with strategic or long-term planning and decisions

Tactical-level management Middle level managers who make decisions to implement

the strategic goals set for the organizationOperational-level management

Low-level supervisors make daily operational decisionsInformation flows vertically between management

levels

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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions

Decentralized Organizations – a new structureEmployees increasingly telecommute – some staff have

no desk or office at workEmployees communicate with each other more via email

than in personCompanies use Groupware CSCW (computer-supported

cooperative work) systems to enable cooperative work by groups of people

The management structure is flattened as employees are given more authority to make day-to-day decisions

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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions

6 computer-based information systems Office information systems Transaction processing systems Management information systems Decision support systems Executive support systems Expert systems

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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions

Transaction Processing System (TPS)Transactions are recorded events of routine business

activities such as bills, orders, and inventoryTPS systems keep track of the transactions needed to

conduct a businessTPS systems are used by operational managers to track

business activitiesTransactions database provides the basis for

management information systems and decision support systems

Has anyone seen the movie “Office Space”? In that movie, the hero’s boss is nagging him about formatting the TPS report correctly. Now you know what TPS means!

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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions

Management Information Systems (MIS)Computer-based information system that uses data

recorded by a TPS as input to programs that produce routine reports as output

Features Inputs are processed transaction data. Outputs are

summarized structured reports Designed for tactical managers Draws from all departments Produces several kinds or reports: summary, exception,

periodic, and demand

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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions

Decision Support Systems (DSS)Computer information system that provides a flexible tool

for analysis and helps management focus on the futureFeatures

Inputs are external data and internal data such as summarized reports and processed transaction data. Outputs are demand reports

Mainly for tactical managers Produces analytic models

Developed to support the types of decisions faced by managers in specific industries

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Using Databases to Help Make Using Databases to Help Make DecisionsDecisions

Executive Support SystemsAn easy-to-use DSS made especially for strategic

managers to support strategic decision-makingMight allow executives to call up predefined reportsIncludes capability to browse through summarized

information on all aspects of the organization and drill down for detailed data

Allows executives to perform “what-if” scenarios

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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence

Expert System One of the most useful applications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) AI is a group of related technologies used to develop software

and machines that emulate human qualities such as learning, reasoning, communicating, seeing, and hearing

Areas include Expert systems Natural language processing Intelligent agents Virtual reality and simulation devices Pattern recognition Fuzzy logic Robotics

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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence

Three components of an expert systemKnowledge base

An expert system’s database of knowledge about a particular subject

Inference engine The software that controls the search of the expert system’s

knowledge base and produces conclusions User interface

The display screen the user used to interact with the expert system

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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence

Natural language processing Allows users to interact with a system using normal English The study of ways for computers to recognize and understand

human languageIntelligent agents

A form of software with built-in intelligence that monitors work patterns, asks questions, and performs work tasks on your behalf

Pattern recognition Involves a camera and software that identify recurring patterns

in its vision and maps the pattern against patterns stored in a database

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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence

Fuzzy logicA method of dealing with imprecise data and uncertainty,

with problems that have many answers rather than oneHas been applied in running elevators to determine

optimum times for elevators to waitVirtual reality

A computer-generated artificial reality that projects a person into a sensation of 3-D space

Often used with simulators to represent the behavior of physical or abstract systems

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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence

RoboticsThe development and study of machines that can

perform work that is normally done by peopleCommonly found in manufacturing plants and also in

situations where people would be in danger Nuclear plants Assembly lines, especially paint lines Checking for land mines Fighting oil-well fires

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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial IntelligenceWeak vs. Strong A.I.

Weak A.I. claims computers can be programmed to simulate human cognition

Strong A.I. claims that computers can think on a level that is equal to or better than humans, and can also achieve consciousness Cyc approach to strong A.I.

A database in Austin, TX that holds 1.4 million basic truths Plan is that Cyc will automatically make human-like

assumptions Hope is that Cyc will learn on its own

Cog approach to strong A.I. MIT project that is a humanoid robot Tries to identify and search for patterns instead of following

rules and facts

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Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence

Test for Human Intelligence In 1950, Allen Turing predicted computers would be able to

mimic human thinkingThe Turing test determines whether the machine is human

Judge is in another location and doesn’t see the computer If the computer can fool the judge, it is said to be intelligent

Ethics in A.I. Prof. William Wallace from R.P.I. says that computer software

is subtly shaped by the ethical judgments of its creators For example, H.M.O. software used by health insurers steers

doctors to cheaper procedures – but are they better?

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The Ethics of Using DatabasesThe Ethics of Using Databases

Identity Theft concernsA crime in which thieves hijack your identity and use your

good credit rating to get cash, take out loans, order credit cards, and buy things in your name

Privacy concernsName migration: getting endless junk mail and

telemarketing callsRésumé rustling and online snoopingGovernment prying and spying

Discussion Question: Has any one had their identity stolen? How long did it take you to get it straightened out?