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M a k i n g a e n t in S p e c i e s i sm

T . M . C A R O

Evolution and Human Behavior Program

Rackham Building

University of Michigan

Ann Arbor, MI

48109-1070 U.S.A.

A R e v i e w o f P a u l W . T a y l o r ,

Respe c t fo r Nature: A Theory o f Env i ron-

menta l E th ics

P r i n ce t o n Un i v e r s i t y P re s s , P r i n ce t o n , 1 9 8 6 , p p . 3 2 9 ,

3 7 . 5 0 h b ; S 1 2 . 5 0 p b .

R ead i n g P au l Tay l o r ' s f a s c i n a t i n g a l b e i t r a t h e r d i f f i cu l t b o o k o n t h e i n n e r

Ni g e r d e l t a i n Ma l i ' s s ah e l b e l t , an a r ea wh e re a l a rg e t r an s h u m an

p o p u l a t i o n h a s h ad a d ra s t i c i m p ac t o n i t s m am m al , b i rd an d f i s h

p o p u l a t i o n s , m ad e m e ex t r a s en s i ti v e t o t h e way i n wh i ch Tay l o r w o u l d

app ly h i s theory to rea l l i fe s i tua t ions . Al though in th i s I th ink he has been

less than success fu l , there i s much wi th in the book wi th which I en t i re ly

ag ree . W o u l d t h a t i n d ea l i n g w i t h co m p l ex i s s u es Tay l o r h ad g i v en u s a

s i m p l e t h ree p ag e i n t ro d u c t o ry s ec t i o n g i v i n g t h e l ay o u t o f t h e b o o k an d

s u m m ar i z in g t h e a rg u m e n t s ab o u t t o b e p re s en t ed .

Tay l o r o f f e r s u s a t h eo ry o f en v i ro n m en t a l e t hi c s, an d i t is p e rh ap s b e s t

t o q u o t e i n fu l l t h e q u es t i o n s wh i ch h e b e l i ev es m u s t b e ad d re s s ed b y an y

such the ory , i f i t i s to be judge d adeq ua te :

1. ls human condu ct in relation to natural ecosystems properly subject to moral

constraints, or are such constraints only applicable to the ways human beings treat

one another? Are there any ethical principles that we should follow in our treatment

of the natural environment? Does the fact that some of our actions affect the lives of

wild animals and plan ts for better or worse have any ethical significance at all? Does

such a fact in and of itself give us any reason, not necessarily a conclusive one, to

perform or refrain from performing the actions in question? Do we have duties and

obligations with regard to the natural world independent of our duties and obliga-

tions with regard to humans?

2. If the answer to any of the foregoing questions is yes, what are the moral constraints

involved, and how do they differ from those that govern our actions in relation to

other human beings? If we have duties toward nonhumans independent of our

duties toward humans, on what ground do those duties rest? What standards of

good character and what rules of right conduct apply in that ethical domain?

3. How would on e justify those standards and rules? Can a moral commitment to

follow principles of environmental ethics be shown to rest on rational grounds? Can

we establish that there are

valid

principles of environmental ethics, binding upon

everyone alike?

4. Finally, how are our obligations and responsibilities toward the natural world

(supposing we have them) to be weighed against human values and interests? Do the

duties of environmental ethics ever require us to act in ways that may be contrary to

Biology and l hilosophy 4: 353--3 57, 1989.

9 1989

Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

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3 5 4 T . M . C A R O

h u m a n e n d s , a n d i f so , w h e n i f e v e r ) d o t h o s e d u t i e s o v e r r i d e t h e f u l f il lm e n t of

h u m a n e n d s ? p p . 9 - - 1 0 )

Es s en t i a l l y i n an s wer i n g t h e s e q u es t i o n s , Tay l o r wo u l d h av e u s ad o p t a

biocentric p e r s p ec t i v e r a t h e r t h an an anthropocentric perspec t ive . By th i s ,

Tay l o r wo u l d h av e u s a rg u e t h a t we h av e d u t i e s an d o b l i g a t i o n s t o l i v i n g

th ings in themselves , and no t jus t to l iv ing th ings inasmuch as they serve

the ends o f o ther humans , l iv ing o r in the fu tu re . In th i s Tay lo r s tands in

s t ro n g d i s ti n c ti o n t o p rev i o u s t h eo r i e s o f en v i ro n m en t a l e t h ic s , m o s t

p a r t i cu l a r l y J o h n Pas s m o re ' s Ma n s Responsibility for Nature ( 1 9 7 4 ) a n d

H . J . M c C l o s k e y ,

Ecological Ethics a nd P olitics

( 1 9 8 3 ) . R a t h e r

W h e n a • e - c e n t r e d v i e w i s t a k e n , th e o b l i g a t io n s a n d r e s p o n s i b il i ti e s w e h a v e w i t h

r e s p e c t t o t h e w i l d a n i m a l s a n d p l a n t s o f t h e E a r t h a r e s e e n t o a r i s e f r o m c e r t a i n m o r a l

r e l a t i o n s h o l d i n g b e t w e e n o u r s e l v e s a n d t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d i t s e l f . T h e n a t u r a l w o r l d i s

n o t t h e r e s i m p l y a s a n o b j e c t t o b e e x p l o i te d b y u s , n o r a r e i t s l i vi n g c r e a t u r e s t o b e

r e g a r d e d a s n o t h in g m o r e t h a n r e s o u r ce s f o r o u r u s e a n d c o n s u m p t i o n . O n t h e

c o n t r a r y , w i ld c o m m u n i t i e s o f l if e a r e u n d e r s t o o d t o b e d e s e r v i n g o f o u r m o r a l c o n c e r n

a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e a k i n d o f v a l u e t h a t b e l o n g s t o t h e m i n h e r e n t l y .

p p . 1 2 - - 1 3 )

Th e q u es t i o n , o f co u r s e , i s wh e t h e r Tay l o r can m ak e t h i s t r an s i t i o n

f ro m o rg an i c ex i s t en ce t o o rg an i c v a l u e , o r wh e t h e r h e fo u n d e r s o n

t rad i t iona l fa l l ac ies , b io log ica l o r ph i losoph ica l . Tay lo r s ta r t s by a rgu ing in

C h a p t e r s 1 an d 2 , r e s p ec t i v e l y en t it l ed En v i ro n m en t a l E t h i c s an d H u m an

E t h ic s , a n d t h e T h e A t t it u d e o f R e s p e c t f o r N a t u r e , t h a t n o n h u m a n s

h av e i n h e ren t wo r t h . In o t h e r wo rd s , t h a t t h ey a re m o ra l s u b j ec t s

( a l t h o u g h n o t m o ra l ag en t s ) , a s a r e y o u n g ch i l d ren o r t h e m en t a l l y

h an d i cap p ed , an d t h a t m o ra l ag en t s (m o s t o t h e r h u m an s ) h av e a d u t y t o

p ro m o t e , o r a t l e a s t n o t i n t e r f e re w i t h, t h e ' g o o d ' o f n o n h u m an s . G o o d i s

n ev e r p rec i s e l y d e f i n ed a l t h o u g h we a re t o l d t h a t p h y s i ca l ex e rc i s e o r

m o v i n g t o a wa rm er c l i m a t e can d o s o m eo n e ' g o o d ' , an d we a re fu r t h e r

i n fo rm e d t h a t i n o rd e r t o k n o w wh a t a p a r t i cu la r o rg an i s m ' s g o o d

cons i s t s in , as wel l as what i s goo d o r ba d f o r i t, it i s nec essa ry to kn ow i ts

spec ies spec i f i c charac te r i s t i cs . Thus i t i s c lear tha t Tay lo r i s g rapp l ing

wi t h t h e b i o l o g i ca l co n cep t o f r ep ro d u c t i v e s u cces s . An i n d i v i d u a l ' s we l l

b e i n g i n t h e co l l o q u i a l s en s e i s u l t i m a t e l y m eas u red i n t h e n u m b er o f

o f fsp r ing i t has re la t ive to o the r ind iv idua l s ( see Da wk ins 1976) ; tho se

fac to rs tha t p romote i t s fecund i ty , longev i ty o r o f fsp r ing su rv iva l wi l l

en h an ce i ts r ep ro d u c t i v e s u cces s o r ' g o o d '.

Tay l o r ap p a ren t l y s eem s n o t t o r ea l i ze t h a t m o d e rn ev o l u t i o n a ry

b i o l o g y fo cu s es o n t h e r ep ro d u c t i v e s u cces s o f t h e i n d iv i d u a l r a t h e r t h an

o f t h e g ro u p . G i v en t h e u n fo r t u n a t e p rev a l en ce o f t h e n a tu ra l is t f a l l a cy i n

soc ie ty , i t hard ly needs say ing tha t a b io logy which s ta r t s f rom the

i n d i v i d u a l o u t , p e rh ap s ev en f ro m t h e g en e o u t , r a t h e r t h an f ro m t h e

g ro u p o u t , m ay h av e m o re h u rd l e s t o j u m p i n co n v i n c i n g t h e p u b l i c t o

ex tend m ora l con cern s to a ll living c rea tu res .

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M A K I N G A D E N T I N S P E C I E S I S M 3 5 5

C h a p t e r 3 , T h e B i o c e n t r ic O u t l o o k o n N a t u r e , i s t h e c o r e o f t h e

b o o k . I t i s h e re t h a t Tay l o r m ak es h i s ca s e fo r b i o cen t r i s m , a rg u i n g i n

par t i cu la r tha t there a re fou r be l ie fs than ru n th rough i t:

( a) T h e b e l i e f t h at h u m a n s a r e m e m b e r s o f th e E a r t h s C o m m u n i t y o f L i f e i n t he s a m e

sen se an d o n th e sa m e t e r m s in wh ich o th e r l i v in g th in g s a r e m em b er s o f th a t

C o m m u n i t y .

( b) T h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e h u m a n sp ec i e s , a lo n g wi th a l l o th e r sp ec i e s , a r e i n t eg r a l

e l em en t s i n a sy s t em o f i n t e r d ep e n d en ce su ch th a t t h e su r v iv a l o f e ach l i v in g th ing ,

a s we l l a s i t s ch an ces o f f a r in g we l l o r p o o r ly , i s d e t e r m in ed n o t o n ly b y th e

p h y s i ca l co n d i t i o n s o f i t s en v i r o n m en t b u t a l so b y i t s r e la t i o n s t o o th e r l i v in g

things.

( c ) T h e b e l i e f t h a t a l l o r g an i sm s a r e t e l eo lo g ica l c en te r s o f l i f e i n t h e sen se th a t e ach i s

a u n iq u e in d iv id u a l p u r su in g i t s o wn g o o d in it s o wn way .

( d ) T h e b e l i e f, t h a t h u m an s a r e n o t i n h e r en t ly su p e r io r t o o th e r l i v in g th in g s . ( pp .

9 9 - - 1 0 0 )

Th e s e b e l ie f s Ta y l o r a rg u es i n t u rn .

F i r s t ( a ) t h e t h e s i s t h a t h u m an s a re p a r t o f t h e ea r t h ' s co m m u n i t y an d

h e re o n t h e s am e t e rm s a s o t h e r o rg an i s m s i s a r e l a t i v e l y ea s i l y d e fen d ed

p ro p o s i t i o n . W e a re liv in g b e i n g s , we h av e ev o l v ed j u s t l ik e o t h e r

o rg an i sm s an d ( c ruc i a ll y ) a s o t h e r o rg an i s m s a re d ep en d en t o n u s, s o we

a r e d e p e n d e n t o n o t h e r o r g a n is m s . W e a r e p a r t o f o n e o v e r r e a c h i ng w e b

o r n e t o f lif e. So m u c h w e can s u re l y g ran t t o Tay l o r , a l th o u g h h e d o e s

p e rh ap s m u d d y w a t e r s b y s p eak i n g o f an y o rg an i s m ' s h av in g a g o o d o f i ts

o wn , an d f r eed o m o f a k i n d t o s t ru g g l e t o r ea l i ze t h a t f r eed o m . W h e t h e r

t h e s m a l l p o x v i ru s h a s e i t h e r g o o d o r f r eed o m , an d wh e re i n l i e s f r eed o m

o r g o o d wh en a r eed warb l e r i s t r i ck ed i n t o r a i s i n g a cu ck o o , a t t h e

ex p en s e o f i ts o w n o f f s p r in g a re t h o rn y p ro b l em s i n d eed .

Se co n d C o) s o m ew h a t r ep ea t i n g p o i n t s m ad e a l r ead y , Tay l o r a rg u es

t h e re i s a s y s t em o f o rg an i c i n t e rd ep en d en ce , fo r u s a s we l l a s fo r o t h e r

o rgan ic be ings . We need o ther l iv ing th ings , jus t as they need us . One

m i g h t p e rh ap s w i s h t h a t Tay l o r h ad n o t ed t h a t a l t h o u g h we (h u m an s ) m ay

n e e d

s o m e

l iv ing th ings, i t i s by no me ans obv ious tha t w e need

l l

living

th in gs . W e s u re l y d o n o t n e ed d i s ea s e o rg an is m s , a l t h o u g h i t m ay p e rh ap s

b e t h a t t h ey h av e p ro fo u n d l y a l te r ed o u r ev o l u t i o n . Th a t we a re p a r t o f a

w eb d o es n o t d en y t h a t v a l u e b eg in s an d en d s w i t h u s.

Th i rd (c ) w e have ind iv idua l o rgan isms as t e leo log ica l cen ter s o f l ife .

He re , ap p a ren t l y , we co n ce i v e o f t h e o rg an i sm a s s tr iv in g to p re s e rv e

i t se lf and rea l ize i ts go od in it s ow n un iqu e wa y (p. 121) . H er e the

p ro b l em , a s I h av e h i n t ed ab o v e , i s t o s ay s o m e t h i n g m ean in g fu l, w h i ch is

n o t e i t h e r s i m p l e f ac tu a l b i o l o g y o r m y s t i ca l v a l u e - i m p reg n a t ed n o n s en s e .

B i o l o g i ca l l y , o rg an i s m s h av e b een s e l ec t ed t o p u r s u e t h e i r o wn b i o l o g i ca l

en d s o f s u rv iv a l an d r ep ro d u c t i o n . W h e t h e r t hi s t a lk s o f g o o d i n an y

o t h e r s en s e , i n an y v a l u e - i m p reg n a t ed s en s e , i s an o t h e r an d m o re d i f f i cu l t

m a t t e r . H e re , a l t h o u g h I em p a t h i ze w i t h Tay l o r ' s b i o cen t r i c p o s i t io n , I f e a r

h is a rg u m en t s m ay f a l te r ag a i n st h a rd e n ed s cep ti c s .

Fo u r t h (d ) we h av e t h e v i ew t h a t h u m an s a re n o t i n h e ren t ly s u p e r i o r t o

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356 T M CARO

other l iv ing be ings . Th i s be l i e f in super io r i ty , Tay lo r po in t s ou t impor-

t an t ly , i s bas ica l ly a func t ion o f our Wes tern Chr i s t i an her i t age . Once the

co n cep t u a l b ag g ag e f ro m t h i s i s d ro p p ed , t o g e t h e r w i t h s u ch a s s o c i a t ed

ideas as Car tes i an dua l i sm, human super io r i ty van i shes . Usefu l here i s

T ay l o r ' s c r i ti q u e o f L o u i s L o m b ard i ' s ( 1 9 8 3 ) co n t em p o r a ry d e fen ce o f

h u man s u p e r i o r i t y . I n s h o r t , t h e r e i s n o a p r i o r i r ea s o n t o a s s u me t h a t

r a ti o n a li ty , a h u m an a t tr i b u te , is an y m o re i mp o r t an t t h a n ech o l o ca t i o n , a

ch i ro p t e r an a t t r i b u t e : h u man s a r e p r e s u med t o n eed r a t i o n a l t h o u g h t t o

s u rv iv e , w h i l e b a t s d o n o t n ee d r a t i o n a l it y b u t d o r eq u i r e e ch o l o ca t i o n fo r

the i r l i fes ty le . The same type o f a rgument i s app l i ed to d i f fe rences in the

r an g e o f s p ec i e s ' c ap ab i l i t i e s . W h en t h e v a r i ab l e b y w h i ch w e meas u re

success is s t ay ing a live and rep rod uc ing suc cess fu l ly then a l l ex tan t spec ies

score fu l l m arks by de f in i tion .

Su ch t h en a r e T ay l o r ' s a rg u men t s fo r an u n d e rp i n n i n g t o a b i o cen t r i c

perspec t ive . Al though when f in i shed , perhaps d i sappo in t ing ly , he a l lows

t h a t h e h as n o t

prov n

b i o cen t ri s m. H e h as m ad e a g o o d s ta r t, w h i ch is t o

p ro v i d e a co h e ren t w o rd -p i c t u r e w h i ch s e rv es a s t h e b as i s f o r an o rg an -

i sm-based resp ec t fo r na tu re , as a v a lue in i tsel f.

Ch ap t e r 4 , T h e E t h i ca l Sy st em , s p el ls o u t f o u r ru l e s o f co n d u c t f o r

r e s p ec ti n g n a t u re : n o n m a l e f i cen ce (n o t h a rm i n g ) , n o n i n t e r f e r e n ce , f id e l it y

(n o t d ece i v in g ) an d r e s ti tu t iv e j u st ice ( r e s to r i n g t h e b a l an ce b e t w een m o ra l

ag en ts an d s u b jec t s w h en t h e l a tt e r h a s b een w ro n g ed b y t h e fo rm er ) . T h e

b o n es o f each ru l e a r e g i v en f l e s h w i t h c l ea r ex amp l es , an d T ay l o r ' s

p e rcep t i v e t h i n k i n g s ee s t h ro u g h t h e s mo k es c reen o f h u n t e r s ' ( an t h ro p o -

cen t r ic ) 'r e s p ec t ' f o r t h e i r q u a r ry a s b e in g ad mi ra t i o n fo r t h o s e ch a rac t e r -

is tics tha t m ak e th em exc i ting to k i ll , no t (b iocen t r i c ) respec t fo r the i r

i n h e ren t w o r t h . H o w ev e r , h i s a t t emp t t o r an k h i s f o u r ru l e s i n o rd e r o f

p r i o r it y l a ck s co n v i c t i o n in p a r t b ecau s e t h e p ro b l ems o f w i ld li fe man ag e -

m en t a r e co mp l ex an d w h a t is ap p ro p r i a t e i n o n e s i tu a t io n m ay b e

i n ap p ro p r i a t e i n o t h e r s d e s p i t e o u r b e s t a t t emp t s a t r e s p ec t i n g n a t u re

(Ca ro 1 9 8 6 ), an d i n p a r t b ecau s e n o ex amp l es a r e g i v en o f s ay i n t e r -

f e r en c e o r n o n i n t e r f e r e n ce p ol ic i es a n d t h e i r co n s eq u e n ces i n r ea l l if e

s i tuat ions (e .g . Pa rk er 1983).

Chap ter 5 d i scusses the i s sue o f whether p lan t s and an imals have r igh t s

conclud ing tha t they have l ega l r igh t s ( in some coun t r i es on ly ) , bu t no t

mo ra l r ig h ts , p r im ar i ly b ecau s e t h e y a r e n o t m o ra l ag en t s. A co n v i n c i n g

a rg u men t i s mad e t h a t l a ck o f mo ra l r i g h t s n eed n o t a l t e r o u r r e s p ec t f o r

n o n h u m a n s .

A b i o cen t r i c v iew o f t h e w o r l d o f co u r s e r a is e s q u es t io n s o f ap p l ica t io n

an d C h ap t e r 6 , Co m p e t i n g C l a ims an d P r i o r i t y P r i n ci p le s , a t t emp t s t o

p ro v i d e g u i d e l i n e s fo r t h e n u mero u s s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i ch h u man s an d

n o n h u m a n s a r e a t l o g g e r h e a d s . F i r s t T a y l o r b o r r o w s t h e a r g u m e n t f r o m

h u man e t h i c s , t h a t h u man s h av e a r i g h t t o h a rm n o n h u man s i n s e l f -

d e fen ce . T h en h e a t t emp t s t o w e i g h t h u m an i n t e r e st s acco rd i n g to w h e t h e r

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M A K I N G A D E N T IN S P E C 1E S IS M 3 5 7

t h e y a r e b a s i c , n e c e s s a r y t o s u r v i v a l, o r n o n - b a s i c , e s s e n t i a l l y l u x u r y it e m s

o r p u r s u i t s . I n t h i s w a y h e s u g g e s t s t h a t i n c a s e s w h e r e n o n - b a s i c h u m a n

i n te r e st s c o n f l ic t w i t h b a s ic n o n h u m a n i n te r e st s , w e s h o u l d n o t p e r f o r m

t h e m , t h u s b r a v e l y , a n d i n m y v i e w c o r r e c t l y , c o n d e m n i n g r e c r e a t i o n a l

f is h i n g , h u n t i n g a n d b u y i n g l u x u r y fu r s . H o w e v e r , h i s p r i n c i p l e o f

m i n i m u m w r o n g i s u n c h a r a c t e ri s ti c a l ly a n t h r o p o c e n t r i c : i f y o u w a n t t o

b u i l d a l i b r a r y a n d t h e r e b y d e s t r o y a n a t u r a l h a b i t a t , d o i t , h e s a y s , b u t

m i n i m i s e t h e d a m a g e t o f l o r a a n d f a u n a . Y e t c o s ts o f d e s t r o y i n g w i ld e r n e s s

a r e a s a l s o n e e d t o b e c o n s i d e r e d c a r e fu l l y , i f a p a r t i c u l a r s p e c i e s is f o u n d

o n l y in t h a t h a b i t a t , t h e n t h e l i b r a r y m u s t b e b u i l t el s e w h e r e .

D e s p i t e m y c r i t i c a l c o m m e n t s , t h e i d e a s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s b o o k a r e

i m p o r t a n t a n d r e f l e c t t h e w a y s t h a t m a n y f i e l d b i o l o g i s t s a r e b e g i n n i n g t o

t h i n k , a s t h e w i l d l i f e t h e y s t u d y f a c e s r a p i d l y m o u n t i n g p r e s s u r e f r o m

h u m a n i n fl u e n c e. T h e i d e a s p r o v i d e t h e u n d e r l y i n g p ri n c ip l e s t h a t m a n y

b i o l o g is t s f in d d i f fi c u l t t o f o r m u l a t e , l e t a l o n e a r t ic u l a t e . H o w e v e r , I f e a r

t h a t i n i t s p r e s e n t f o r m f e w b i o l o g i s t s o r t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c w i l l r e a d t h i s

b o o k . T o g e t t h i s i m p o r t a n t m e s s a g e a c r o s s t o a w i d e r a u d i e n c e , T a y l o r

n e e d s t o c o n d e n s e h is a r g u m e n t d r a s t ic a l ly a n d ( w it h th e h e l p o f a

b i o l o g i s t ) u s e r e a l e x a m p l e s w h e n d i s c u s s i n g h o w t h e t h e o r y c a n b e

a p p l i e d . S u c h a c o o p e r a t i v e v e n t u r e b e t w e e n p h i l o s o p h y a n d b i o l o g y

c o u l d m a k e a n i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o g e tt in g p e o p l e t o m a k e t h e m o r a l

s h if t f r o m a n t h r o p o c e n t r i c i t y t o b i o c e n t r i c it y as b o t h h e a n d I w o u l d w i sh .

I t h a n k M i c h a e l R u s e f o r e d i t o r i a l a s s i s t a n c e a n d M o n i q u e B o r g e r h o f f

M u l d e r f o r gi vi ng m e t i m e to r e a d t h is o n o u r h o n e y m o o n .

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Caro, T. M .: 19 86, The many p ath s to wildlife conservation in A frica, Oryx 20, 221--

229.

Daw kins, R.: 197 6, The Selfish Gene. Ox ford Un iversityPress, Oxford.

Lom bardi, L. G.: 1 98 3, Inherent wo rth, respect, and

rights, Environ men tal Ethics 5,

257--270.

McC loskey, H. J.: 1983, Ethological Ethics and Politics. Row man and Litflefield,Totowa,

N.J.

Passmore, J.: 1974, M an s responsibili ty for Nature: Ethological P roblems an d Western

Traditions. Charles Scribner s Sons, New Yo rk.

Parke r, I. S. C.: 198 3, Th e Tsav o Story: an ecological case history, in: R. N . Ow en-Smith

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