8.6 SELECTED JAPANESE CASE STUDIES The Components …

Chapter 8 — Page 31

8.6 SELECTED JAPANESE CASE STUDIES

8.6.1 Gakunan Railway in the Kanto Region

Joint Use Pertinence

The Gakunan (pronounced "ga-koo-non [asin non stop]") Railway was established toprovide freight service to shippers andmanufacturers in an industrial zone, butuses its tracks to provide passenger servicefor factory workers and residents in theform of light-rail transit with light-weightelectric railway cars. Gakunan Railwayinterchanges freight with Japan Rail-East'sTokaido Main Line. Interline freight,freight switching, and frequent localpassenger service share the single track. Itis, however, under a single managementand dispatching office.

The General Area

An industrial zone immediately south ofMount Fuji where the volcanic slope meetsthe shore of Suruga Bay on the PacificOcean, and midway between the castlecities of Odawara and Shizuoka on thenation's principal highway – the coastalTokaido Road – and the Japan RailTokaido Main Line.

Participants in Joint Use

The participants in joint use/reciprocalrunning are:

! Gakunan Railway Company(Gakunan Tetsudo Kabushikigaisha)– 1067 mm (3'6" gauge, 1,500Vdccatenary – a freight railroad withlight-rail transit service.

! East Japan Passenger RailwayCompany (Higashi-Nihon RyokakuTetsudo Kaisha) (Japan Rail-East) –1067 mm (3'6") gauge, 1,500Vdccatenary.

The Components of the Joint UseFacilities

The components of joint use are all underone management, being the:

! Gakunan Railway, an electrified 9.2-km (5.72-mile) single-track railroadfrom Yoshiwara on the Japan Rail-East Tokaido Main Line to Gakunan-Eno, having twelve stations, some ofwhich are right in factory grounds.There are many marshaling yards andnumerous sidings.

Services Operated

There are 35 daily scheduled passengerround trips with a minimum headway often minutes. The passenger trains,comprised of two-car light-rail vehicle sets,thread their way among moving freighttrains and standing freight car consists.

Freight cars are interchanged with JapanRail-East at Yoshiwara, where aninterchange track links the GakunanRailway and Japan Rail yards.Electrification of the Gakunan Railway andof this district of Japan Rail is 1,500Vdccatenary, so the two systems' locomotivescan (but do not routinely) enter onto eachother's tracks. Gakunan LRVs do notcurrently venture onto Japan Rail track (seeFigure 8-2).

To avoid fouling passenger operations, anelectric box cab freight locomotive waits inone of the Yoshiwara station stub tracksfor its assignments. Freight is switchedduring the day under supervision of aGakunan dispatcher. There are usually twoor more freight trains in motion at anytime. Six of the stations have passingsidings and island platforms; hence, thereis ample opportunity for freight andopposing passenger trains to pass and to


run the passenger train on the wrong-direction track (i.e., right-hand trackinasmuch as Japan's rule of the road is tothe left) if the proper direction track isoccupied by a freight movement.

Brief History with Emphasis on Joint Use

The Japanese Government Railways'Tokaido Main Line was routed throughYoshiwara and Fuji in 1889. In 1925, ashorter route along the coast and tunneledthrough the steaming rock of the peninsulahad shortened the distance to 146.2 km(90.85 miles) of fast, low-gradient route.Initially, a forest-fed paper industrydominated the area east of the city of Fuji,but chemical companies came here, too.During 1949-1953, the 1067mm (3'6")Gakunan Railway was built and electrifiedto connect the Japanese National Railways'(JNR) Tokaido Main Line to the heavy-industry plants near Yoshiwara in the cityof Fuji and to switch their freight cars. Apassenger service was provided from thestart with interurban cars to carry workers.In gaps between factories, old villagesgrew and residential areas developed untilthe freight railway's passenger businessamounted to 40% of its revenue.

Notes on Implementation

Gakunan Railway was built after decadesof experience in railway operation inJapan. Unlike most Japanese railwaymileage, it was built foremost to carryfreight, and secondarily to carrypassengers. It was not difficult, therefore,to decide to construct the line to suitJapanese National Railway standards ofclearance and electrification, then purchasepassenger rolling stock that would fit therailroad clearances but not otherwise beregarded as railroad-compatible (by FRA-type standards). When positioning idlefreight cars, the dispatcher and train crewsare careful to keep a main track open.

Other Information

In addition to its original fleet, GakunanRailway acquired second-hand JNRmainline electric locomotives. There areabout seven active locomotives and tenpassenger cars. Gakunan Railway twicereplaced its own passenger rolling stockwith second-hand cars from the Tokyuinterurban operations in suburban Tokyo.High (car-floor level) platforms prevail.The original cars and the second-hand carsare of JNR clearance standards wideenough for car-floor level high platformsset back sufficiently to clear standardrailroad freight cars or larger locomotives.Passenger service ends at Yoshiwara atstub track platforms separate from theJapan Rail platforms connected by apedestrian overpass. Gakunan Ry. carriesdaily averages of 5,730 passengers and 80carloads of freight over its short 6-milesystem.

8.6.2 Hankyu Electric Railway in the Kansai Regionwith Multiple Examples


The Hankyu (pronounced "hanqueue")interurban network provides threeexamples of joint-use of track:

! A subsidiary Third-Sector railwayestablished to extend a municipalsubway line into Osaka suburbs.

! Municipal subway trains to operateon the interurban company's tracksfor a considerable distance into thehinterland, as well as to enableinterurban trains from another city toreach downtown Osaka on municipalrapid transit tracks.


Map of Gakunan Ry. - Figure 8-2

G. Thompson 5-98

GAKUNAN RAILWAY


! The City of Kobe and four interurbancompanies cooperate to bring theinterurbans through the heart of thecity and offer rapid transit service tothe people of Kobe by running overeach other's tracks.

The General Area

The Kansai region/Osaka-Kyoto-Kobecommutershed encompasses commercialOsaka, historic (but of significantmanufacturing importance) Kyoto, and theindustrial port of Kobe. It is Japan'ssecond-largest conurbation – one-and-a-half times larger than metropolitan LosAngeles!

The foothills of the inland mountains comemuch closer to the bay at Osaka than atTokyo. The electric railway's ability tonegotiate gradients more economicallythan steam railroads enabled residentialdevelopment on a grand scale away fromteeming city centers. One developer builttrolley lines and sold lots simultaneouslyon the slopes, as well as openingattractions which Osaka inhabitants had toride his trolleys in order to reach. Thisgrew and evolved into the Hankyuinterurban system, one of the most modern,progressive, and aggressively marketedrailways in the world. Hankyu's serviceterritory, northeast of Osaka, is almostentirely residential – a bedroomcommunity for Osaka's central commercialdistrict. But it contains shrines, resorts,sports facilities, and new towns with theirown retail centers. Hankyu ElectricRailway was the originator of three joint-use situations in the Kansai Region.

The Hankyu Interurban Network

The Hankyu Electric Railway Company isa 1435-mm (4'8½") gauge, 1,500vDCcatenary electric railway network linkingthe region's three major cities – Osaka,Kyoto, and Kobe. It has many other lines

and branches. Two of its three mainlinesemanating from Osaka are closelyparalleled by three other competing railservices, yet Hankyu attracts its share ofridership. Under its own name, it operates124.4 km (86.88 miles) of line with 87stations and a fleet of 1,136 cars. Thenetwork consists of three mainlinesradiating from Umeda terminal on thenorth edge of the Osaka business district.One of its mainlines runs through with theOsaka brown line subway no. 6, one cross-connecting line, and several branches. With5,700 employees, Hankyu's trains carrytwo million riders on an average day.

Expanding its surface transportationinfluence, the railway also operates a largesuburban network of local bus routes, afleet of sightseeing buses, funiculars, andaerial cableways. Although its railwayoperations are not necessarily profitable(see the earlier section on JapaneseInterurban Railways), the Hankyucorporation is very profitable and plowsmuch of its earnings back into the railway.In fact, without the railway, the corporationwould not be profitable. It is an inseparablefoundation for other revenue producers.Hankyu owns a department store chain(Hankyu Depato), hotel chains (Hankyuand Shin-Hankyu), a 40,000-seat baseballstadium (and its own Hankyu BravesPacific League baseball team), travelbureaus, hydrofoils on the Inland Sea, atruck line, a cargo airline, a motion-pictureproduction company, a land-planning andreal-estate development firm, the Kansaitelevision network, its own rolling stockmanufacturing company (under the tradename "Alna-Koki"), and an assemblage ofenterprises at suburban Takarazuka. It alsohas financial interest in the Third-Sectorrapid transit company – Kita-Osaka Kyuko– and two other interurban railways – KobeElectric Railway and Nose ElectricRailway.


Hankyu Electric Railway in Japan - Figure 8-3a

" Hankyu Electric Ry. intercity interurban trains mix with Osaka rapid transit rollingstock. Hankyu trains will be entering Osaka subway portal shortly.

H. MorokawaNihon no Shitetsu

" Hankyu Electric Ry. shares right-of-way and catenary poles with Shinkansentrains.

H. MorokawaNihon no Shitetsu


In turn, Kobe Electric Railway has aninterest in the Hokushin Express Railway,which participates in reciprocal runningwith the Kobe Municipal TransportSystem. The diverse nature and extensivescope of Hankyu's complex ownershiptypifies how Japanese enterprise combinescomplementary transport and non-transportentities.

While the focal point of the Umedaterminal complex in Osaka is Japan Rail'smain Osaka station, Hanshin ElectricRailway interurbans also terminate here intheir own subway, and three city subwaylines burrow under, the dominant facility isHankyu's. Travelers seeking a Hankyutrain must enter the Hankyu departmentstore and pass through their commercialjoint development complex.

More people use the terminal (and trains)because of the floor space added byHankyu's office tower and store annex.Retail sales have gone up, and HankyuElectric Railway Company is turning aprofit. In the U.S., we would call this"value capture".

From Umeda terminal, Hankyu's KyotoMain Line extends 47.7 km (29.64 miles)to Kawaramachi on the far side of Kyoto,the Takarazuka Main Line runs 23.3 km(14.48 miles) to Takarazuka, and the KobeMain Line reaches 32.3 km (20.07 miles)to Hankyu-Sannomiya in the heart ofKobe. Leaving Umeda station, the threemainlines each have their own double-trackline, amounting to an elevated six-trackrailroad and 0.4-mile of multi-span bridgesover the Shin-Yoda River. At Juso station,topped by a branch of the Hankyudepartment store, the six-track trunk splitsinto the three double-track mainlines whichquickly diverge.

This is not a complete description of thefar-flung Hankyu network, nor of theextensive diversified business corporation

that nurtures it. The three instances areprofiled of the Hankyu network beingengaged in joint use of track with other railoperators. They are:

! the Midosuji Line/Kita-Osakaarrangement;

! the Sakaisuji Line/Senri Linearrangement; and

! the Kobe (pronounced "ko-bay")Rapid Railway arrangement.

8.6.2.1 The Midosuji Line/Kita-OsakaArrangement

Participants in Joint-Use

The participants in joint-use/reciprocalrunning are:

Hankyu Electric Railway Company(Hankyu Dentetsu Kabushikigaisha) –1435mm (4'8½") (using 1,500vDCcatenary on its own lines) – a privateinterurban company.

North Osaka Express Electric RailwayCompany (Kita-Osaka Kyuko DentetsuKabushikigaisha) – 1435mm (4'8½"),750vDC third-rail – a Third-Sector railwaycompany partly owned by Hankyu RailwayCompany.

Osaka Municipal Transport BureauRapid Railway (Osaka-shi Kotsu KyokuKosoku Tetsudo) – 1435mm (4'8½"),750vDC third rail – a municipal rapidtransit system.

The Components of the Joint-UseFacilities

! Osaka Municipal Transport BureauRapid Railway's Midosuji Line runsfrom Nakamozu in the south suburbs,north through the center of Osaka for23.5 km (14.60 miles) to Esaka.


Map of Hankyu Electric Ry in Kansai Region - Figure 8-3b

G. Thompson 5-98

HANKYU ELECTRIC RAILWAY


This is a double-track standard-gaugeheavy rapid transit line entirely insubway. It shares a four-tracksubway with Osaka MunicipalTransport bureau's parallelYotsubashi Line for 18 blocks,forming its outer two tracks, and itsDaikoku-cho station; there are grade-separated track connections north ofthe station, but they are not used inregular service. The Midosuji Linecarries heavy rapid transit trains ofits own and those of the Kita-OsakaExpress Railway.

! Kita-Osaka Express Railway'sNamboku Line, from Esaka north for5.9 km (3.67 miles) to Senri-chuo.This is a fully grade-separateddouble-track rapid transit line mostlyin the median of a freeway, but withsome subway construction to reachthe heart of Senri new town. Itcarries trains of its own and those ofthe Osaka Municipal TransportBureau.

Services Operated

Osaka Municipal Transport Bureau RapidRailway and Kita-Osaka Express ElectricRailway pool similar rolling stock forterminal-to-terminal through service. Thejoint-use venture is more of institutionalcontrasts than vehicle or infrastructurecontrasts. The mix of financiers andparticipants is particularly dramatic. Trainsrun every two to four minutes during peakperiods and every four to eight minutesduring off peak. Kita-Osaka's trains aremaintained at the Momoyamadai shopsnear the north end of the line, and theOsaka Municipal Transport Bureau's trainsare maintained at the Abiko shops near thesouth end of the line.

Brief History with Emphasis on Joint-Use

The City of Osaka was building a rapidtransit line from the south end of the city,through the city, to the north toward thesite of the 1970 Japan World Exposition(Expo 70). The then-available funds onlyallowed construction of this Midosuji Lineto reach a point – Esaka – still somedistance from the Expo site. Reaction tothe inability to complete the line in time forExpo 70 prompted the private sector, in1967, to cooperatively form the Kita-OsakaKyuko Dentetsu (North Osaka ExpressElectric Railway). The private HankyuRailway company took the lead byinvesting 50%. The City of Osaka put in25%, and the remaining 25% came fromthe Kansai Electric Company, the OsakaGas Company, the Sanwa Bank, the DaiwaBank, and the Taiyo Kobe Bank. UnderHankyu leadership, the rapid transit linewas extended 9.1 km (5.66 miles) fromEsaka to the Expo grounds. The joint-venture company was formed on December11, 1967, and the service opened onFebruary 24, 1970 – 26½ months in all.During Expo, the intermediate Senri Chuo(a planned new town) was served by atemporary station. After Expo, 3.2 km(1.99 miles) of the line was abandonedback to the temporary station and re-extended in another direction to a moreconveniently-located Senri Chuo station inthe heart of the new town.


For the Kita-Osaka situation, the newThird-Sector Kita-Osaka Kyuko Dentetsucompany adopted the already-establishedstandards of the Osaka MunicipalTransport Bureau's Midosuji Line, whichwas already well along in constructionwhen the new company was formed.Although Kita-Osaka rolling stock isdifferent in appearance and paint scheme, itis technically identical to the OsakaMunicipal Transport Bureau's rolling stock


for the Midosuji Line. Osaka MunicipalTransport Bureau's operating practices,signal system, and common train controlsystem prevail. This jointly-operated corerapid transit line serves 100,573 passengersdaily.

8.6.2.2 The Sakaisuji Line/Senri LineArrangement



Hankyu Electric Railway Company (asdescribed previously)

Osaka Municipal Transport BureauRapid Railway (as described previously)

The Components of the Joint-UseFacilities (note map Figure 8.3b)

! Osaka Municipal Transport BureauRapid Railway's Sakaisuji Line fromTengachaya for 8.1 km (5.03 miles)to Tenjinbashisuji-rokuchome. Thisis a double-track heavy rapid transitline entirely in subway. It has notrack connection with any other ofOsaka's seven heavy rapid transitlines, because it is the only one usingcatenary instead of third rail. Thisaccommodates rapid transit trains ofthe Osaka Municipal TransportBureau and interurban trains (localand express) of the Hankyu ElectricRailway.

! Hankyu Electric Railway's SenriLine from Tenjinbashisuji-roku-chome north for 3.5 km (2.17 miles)to Awaji station on Hankyu ElectricRailway's Kyoto Main Line. It isgrade-separated by being onembankment as far as the wide YodaRiver, where a major bridge wasbuilt. It is at grade the rest of the waywith road crossings protected bygates, electronic "bells," and flashing

lights. These tracks carry rapidtransit trains of the Osaka MunicipalTransport Bureau and interurbantrains (local and express) of theHankyu Electric Railway.

! Hankyu Electric Railway's SenriLine from Awaji for 10.1 km (6.28miles) to Kita-Senri. It is a double-track at-grade electric railroadserving another part of the Senri newtown. This line carries localinterurban trains of the HankyuElectric Railway and rapid transittrains of the Osaka MunicipalTransport Bureau.

! Hankyu Electric Railway's KyotoMain Line from Umeda northeast for6.6 km (4.10 miles) to Awaji. It is adouble-track at-grade interurbanmainline carrying mainline interurbanlocal trains, express trains, andlimited express trains, as well aslocals of the Senri Line.

! Hankyu Electric Railway's KyotoMain Line from Awaji northeast for16.4 (10.19 miles) to Takatsukishi.This continues the double-track at-grade interurban mainline, carryingHankyu local, express, and limited-express trains from the mainlineUmeda terminal, as well as Hankyuand Osaka Municipal TransportBureau local trains from centralOsaka via the Senri Line.

! Hankyu Electric Railway's KyotoMain Line northeast fromTakatsukishi for 24.7 km (15.3 miles)to Kawaramachi on the far side ofKyoto. This continues the double-track at-grade interurban mainline,carrying local, express, and limited-express trains from the mainlineUmeda terminal, as well as expresstrains from central Osaka via theSenri Line, to downtown Kyoto. It


enters Kyoto in a Hankyu-built andHankyu-owned subway with threestations. For a 4.2-km (2.61-mile)section through the villages ofKanmaki and Minase to Oyamazaki,Hankyu and the Tokaido Shinkansenshare the at-grade right-of-way,appearing as a four-track mainlinewith joint use of catenary-supportgirders.

Services Operated

Focused on the Awaji station which isarranged as a pair of "Y"s coupled at theirstems (where the station is situated), avariety of passenger services are operated.All trains except the limited expresses stopor turn at Awaji. In the city-subway sectionof the combined services, any passengercan board any train. Interurban trains,therefore, supplement the rapid transitline's capacity.


Mr. Kobayashi, a real estate developer,completed his first trolley line from Umedaat the north edge of downtown Osaka, thento the main railroad station north toTakarazuka, in 1910. Another separate linewas opened in October, 1925 from thenorth edge of the Osaka business district atTenjinbashisuji-rokuchome north to Awaji.In August, 1963, it was extended to theSenri new town's south edge. In March,1967, it was completed through the newtown to Kita Senri. This became Hankyu'sSenri Line. By 1929, the original line hadspawned two major spurs, one west toKobe, the other northeast toward Kyoto.The tracks reached in subway to Omiyastation in the middle of Kyoto in 1931 andwere extended in subway to Kawaramachion the east side of downtown Kyoto inJune, 1963. This is Hankyu's present KyotoMain Line, linking Kyoto and Osakasubways.

Line 6 of the Osaka municipal rapid transitnetwork was opened southward from anend-on-end connection with Hankyu'sSenri Line at Tenjinbashisuji-rokuchome insubway in December, 1969. According toplan, this introduced reciprocal running tothe Osaka rapid transit system. It wasextended one more station to Tengachayain April, 1989.


For the Senri Line situation, the OsakaMunicipal Transport Bureau adopted thephysical, electrical, and rolling-stockdimensions of the Hankyu interurbansystem when designing and building itsbasic Sakaisuji Line and its southwardextensions.

The Sakaisuji Line/Senri Line services areoperated by a pool of rolling stock suppliedby both Osaka Municipal Transport Bureauand Hankyu Electric Railway. For threepeak-hour round-trips each weekday,Osaka subway cars find their way into theKyoto subway as a result of pooling amongthe two entities. The Senri Line does nothave its own maintenance facility.Hankyu's cars are serviced at Shojaku.

8.6.2.3 The Kobe Kosoku Arrangement



Hankyu Electric Railway Company(described previously)

Hanshin Electric Railway (HanshinDenki Tetsudo Kabushikigaisha) 1435mm(4'8½"), 1,500Vdc catenary – a privateinterurban company.

Kobe Rapid Railway Company (KobeKosoku Tetsudo Kabushikigaisha) –1435mm (4'8½") and 1067mm (3'6"),


1,500Vdc catenary– a Third-Sector rapidtransit system.

Sanyo Electric Railway Company (SanyoDenki Tetsudo Kabushikigaisha) –1435mm (4'8½"), 1,500Vdc catenary – aprivate interurban company.

There are other railways affiliated withHankyu that will be mentioned, but notdetailed.


! Hankyu Electric Railway's KobeMain Line west from Umedaterminal in Osaka for 27.4 km (17.03miles) to Rokko. This is a double-track at-grade interurban mainlinewith many long stretches of gradeseparation achieved by elevating thetracks. It carries Hankyu mainlineinterurban local trains, express trains,and limited express trains.

! Hankyu Electric Railway's KobeMain Line continuing west fromRokko for 4.9 km (3.04 miles) toHankyu-Sannomiya. This is amostly-elevated double-track electricrailroad. It carries the Hankyu local,express, and limited express trains,and the Sanyo interurban limitedexpress trains as locals. At Hankyu-Sannomiya, the tracks run end-on-end with the Kobe Kosoku Tetsudotracks.

! Kobe Rapid Railway Company'sHankyu Line (northeast leg) fromHankyu-Sannomiya west for 2.2 km(1.37 miles) to Kosoku-Kobe. It is adouble-track heavy rapid transit linealmost entirely in subway. It carriesHankyu interurban limited expresstrains and Sanyo limited expresstrains, both as locals.

! Kobe Rapid Railway Company'sTozai Line (west leg) from Kosoku-Kobe for 0.6 km (0.37 miles) toShin-Kaichi. It is a four-track heavyrapid transit line in subway. It carriesHankyu interurban limited expresstrains, Sanyo limited express trains,and Hanshin express and limitedexpress trains, all as locals.

! Kobe Rapid Railway Company'sTozai Line (west leg) from Shin-Kaichi for 2.9 km (1.80 miles) toNishidai. It is a double-track heavyrapid transit line almost entirely insubway. It carries Hankyu interurbanlimited express trains, Hanshinlimited express trains, and Sanyolocal and limited express trains, all aslocals.

! Sanyo Electric Railway Company'sSanyo Main Line from Nishidai for5.1 km (3.17 miles) to Sumaura-koen. This is a double-trackinterurban mainline. It carriesHankyu interurban limited expresstrains, Hanshin limited expresstrains, and Sanyo local and limitedexpress trains, all as locals.

In January, 1995 the Hanshin Earthquakecaused considerable damage to the SanyoShinkansen, Japan Rail-Tokai, the fourinterurban companies, and the two rapidtransit systems. All systems immediatelystarted bus service to ferry passengersaround the devastated area and promptlystarted debris-clearance and restorationwork. By April 8, the Shinkansen was backto normal. By June 26, 1995, Hankyu hadfully restored its facilities and services. Alljoint use operations were restored to pre-earthquake levels.

Services Operated

Hankyu runs through from its Kobe MainLine to Sumaura-koen on the Sanyo Electric


Railway. Hanshin Electric Railway alsoruns through from the east toSumaurakoen. And Sanyo Electric Railwayruns through from the west alternately toRokko on the Hankyu tracks and Oishi onthe Hanshin tracks.

The overlapping services provided by thethree interurban railway companiesaccumulate to a train every three minutes.All trains, whether local or express onother parts of their lines, stop at all stationson the shared trackage.


Kobe has two subway systems. The earlierone is for the four private interurbancompanies that focus on this industrial portcity. It accommodates two gauges (thoughnot on dual gauge tracks). The Hankyu,Hanshin, and Sanyo interurban companies(as well as Hankyu's subsidiary KobeRailway) joined with the City to form theThird-Sector Kobe Kosoku, which built asubway through the heart of downtown.The project was completed in 1968. Inexchange for using the subway, theinterurban companies agreed to run overeach other's trackage to the fartherextremity of the city. These overlappingservices provide very frequent train servicefrom city limit to city limit. The City ofKobe gained rapid transit service withoutbuying rolling stock or hiring operatingemployees.

This subway permitted a pattern of movinginterurbans off city street trackage,abandoning affected streetcar lines, andgrade-separating approaches to the citycore similar to events in Cincinnati,Cleveland, Los Angeles, Milwaukee,Newark (NJ), and Rochester. Only theCleveland and Newark examples survive inthe form of LRT. These U.S. counterpartsnever matured enough to make thetransition into joint use.

In addition to the joint subway project,each interurban company grade-separatedits tracks approaching Kobe. Thisreciprocal running arrangement providesKobe residents with a one-seat ride over119.1 km (74.00 miles) of interurbanrailway lines, not counting the KobeElectric Railway's 71.2-km (44.24-mile)network. This first subway line and itsinterurban extensions serve older, matureneighborhoods, carrying 262,860passengers each day. But to serve otherparts of the city, Kobe built a separaterapid transit network primarily to open newterritory for residential development.


For the Kobe Kosoku situation, negotiationand compromise were necessary among thefour cooperating interurban railwaycompanies. All four already had the sameelectrification system – 1,500Vdc catenary.Three of the four had the same track gauge– 1435mm (4'8½"). It would have beenuneconomical to convert the 1067mm-(3'6"-) Kobe Tetsudo's 71.2-km (44.24-mile) route network and re-gauge its 132interurban cars to standard gauge;therefore, no arrangement was made fortrack sharing with the Kobe interurbans.The other three companies had to agreeupon details of track construction, stationplatform configuration, clearance envelope,traction-power substations, etc. Althoughthese three had not developed trackconnections in the past with each other orwith other standard-gauge interurbans inthe Osaka area for that matter, theyfortunately had independently adoptedsimilar dimensional standards.

A uniform fare structure was devised andadopted by all participants. Ticket vendingmachines cover the entirety of the Hankyu,Hanshin, Sanyo, and Kobe railways. In1997, this uniform fare structure wasexpanded to encompass two otherinterurban railway companies serving


northeastern and eastern Osaka suburbs,together with the central Osaka MunicipalTransport Bureau's rapid transit lines.

Other Information

Reciprocal running extends Kobe's 22.7-km (14.11-mile) rapid transit line by only ashort distance, to 30.2 km (18.77 miles).However, together with the Third-Sectorrapid transit system, the networkaccumulates to 51.9 km (32.25 miles). Thecity is well covered by rail service, andfurther expansion is not anticipated.

Osaka's municipal rapid transit networkhas grown to 96.2 km (59.78 miles).Together with the reciprocal-runningadditions (on Hankyu, Kita-Osaka, andKinki Nippon railways), it extends by 46.1km (28.65 miles) to 142.3 km (88.43miles). Current detailed plans wouldexpand it to 165.5 km (102.84 miles). Thistotal is conservative.

8.6.3 Ise Railway in the Nagoya Region


Light-weight diesel railbuses and railroadDMUs, locomotive-hauled intercitypassenger, and freight trains comprise theoperating mix on the Third-sector Ise(pronounced "eee-say") Railway which isused by Japan Rail as a shortcut. The IseRailway railbuses run on Japan Rail tracksto reach major cities just beyond each endof its own tracks. This reciprocal running isunder two separate managements and jointdispatching.

The General Area

The airline distance from Nagoya to theKansai region (Osaka-Kyoto-Kobe) isrelatively short, but for the rail lines alongthe south coastline, it is very long. Thewest shore of Ise Bay is home to severalindustrial cities, and the Ise Peninsula

contains popular ancient shrines whichattract large numbers of visitors. The land,comprising a coastal plain, is fairly flat.Several competing railways reached theshrine area, as well as ferries across IseBay. There is direct, fast interurban serviceto Ise from both Nagoya and Osaka,provided by the private Kinki NipponRailway interurban network.



Ise Railway (Ise Tetsudo) – 1067 mm(3'6") gauge, diesel – a Third-Sectorregional interurban company.

Tokai Passenger Railway Company(Tokai Ryokaku Tetsudo Kaisha) (JapanRail-Tokai) – 1067 mm (3'6") gauge,1,500vDC catenary and diesel – one of thesix publicly-owned corporations comprisingthe lines of the former Japanese NationalRailways.


The components of the Ise situation are asfollows, north to south, the middle and lasttwo of which are not treated in furtherdetail:

! Japan Rail-Tokai's Kansai Main Linesouthwest from Nagoya for 33.0 km(20.51 miles) to Yokkaichi: This is asingle-track electrified railroadcarrying the Japan Rail-Tokai local,commuter/suburban, and expressintercity passenger trains, and JapanRail-Freight trains.

! Japan Rail-Tokai's Kansai Main Linesouth from Yokkaichi for 6.9 km (4.29miles) to Kawarada, junction with theIse Railway. This is a single-track


Ise Railway in Japan - Figure 8-4a

" Ise railbuses shares its tracks with Japan Rail freight and passengertrains. Catenary poles are installed in anticipation of electrifying theIse Railway. These railbuses are bus and coach derivatives.

H. IwaboriTetsudo Fuan


electrified railroad carrying the JapanRail-Tokai local, commuter/suburban, and express intercitypassenger trains, Japan Rail-Freighttrains, and Ise Railway railbuses.

! Japan Rail-Tokai's Kansai Main Linesouthwest from Kawarada for 15.8km (9.82 miles) to Kameyama,junction with the Kisei Line, anddivision point with Japan Rail-West.This is a single-track electrifiedrailroad carrying the Japan Rail-Tokai local, commuter/suburban, andexpress intercity passenger trains,and Japan Rail-Freight trains.

! Ise Railway's Ise Line fromKawarada on the Japan Rail-Tokai'sKansai Main Line for 22.3 km (13.86miles) to Tsu on the Japan Rail-Tokai Kisei Line. This is a single-track non-electrified interurban linecarrying Ise Railway local railbusesand Japan Rail-Tokai intercityexpress trains. Its trackbed andstructures are set up for eventualdouble track. There are grade-separation structures in place at boththe north and south junctions withJapan-Rail-Tokai. Ise Railway trackoccupies the flyover at the north. Butthe south flyover remains trackless,inasmuch as it is presently only asingle-track line switching into asingle-track line. Guy poles are inplace along the Ise Railway forfuture electrification.

! Japan Rail-Tokai's Kisei Main Linesoutheast from Kameyama for 15.5km (9.63 miles) to Tsu. This is asingle-track non-electrified railroadcarrying Japan Rail-Tokai's intercitypassenger trains, Japan Rail-Freighttrains and Ise railbuses at its southernextreme.

! Japan Rail trains that run via the IseRailway shortcut (rather than stay

with Japan Rail tracks throughKameyama) continue on Japan Rail-Tokai's Kisei Main Line southwestfrom Tsu for 169.0 km (105.02miles) to Shingu, and on Japan Rail-Tokai's Sangu branch line east fromTaki for 29.1 km (18.08 miles) toToba. These are single-track non-electrified railroads carrying JapanRail-Tokai intercity local and expresspassenger trains and Japan Rail-Freight trains. Electrification isplanned (see accompanying mapFigure 8-4b).

Joint-Use Services Operated

Japan Rail-Tokai operates EMUcommuter/suburban trains on the KansaiMain Line from Nagoya to Kameyamawith about half the trains turning back atYokkaichi. It also operates local servicewith DMUs from Kameyama (wherepassengers transfer from and to the electrictrains from Nagoya and the Japan Rail-West DMUs from Osaka) to the city of Iseand beyond.

Ise Railway runs diesel railbuses betweenYokkaichi and Tsu, using Japan Rail-Tokaitracks and stations at both ends of its trips.Ise Railway offers 19 round-trips dailywith three 46-seat railbuses. In addition, 13Japan Rail non-stop diesel express trainsuse Ise Railway track each way each day.

Japan Rail-Tokai runs its nonstop expresstrains from Nagoya through Tsu to pointssouth on the Kii Peninsula to Shingu viaIse Railway's more direct route, saving15.9 km (9.88 miles) and 23 minutes (plustransfer time).

The three sections of the joint usearrangement have different mixes of railtraffic.


Map of Ise Railway in Nagoya Region - Figure 8-4b

ISE - RAILWAYG. Thompson 5-98



Japanese Government Railways reachedKameyama and Yokkaichi from Osaka in1890, and by 1895 the gap from Yokkaidito Nagoya had been closed. In 1891, theKisei Line was built from Kameyama toTsu, and continued to Taki by 1893. TheJNR Sangu Branch was completed fromthe junction at Taki and onward to Toba by1911. Construction resumed on the KiseiLine in 1923, to meet construction comingthe other way from Osaka at Nigishima in1959. The Kisei Line was slated forelectrification, along with the Ise Lineshortcut.

In recent years, JNR electrified the KansaiMain Line from Nagoya to Kameyama,started through service (Nagoya to Kiipeninsula destinations) with diesel train-sets that reversed ends at Kameyama, andconstructed an all-new link to complete thetriangle and enable trains to run directlyfrom Nagoya to Tsu, Matsuzaka, and theKii peninsula. This Ise Line opened for useon September 1, 1973 with JNR DMUs.Seven local round trips were operated, andthree through express trains used thisshortcut. Called a baipasu (bypass), thissingle-track (but double-track-roadbed),fully-grade-separated railway wasdiscarded when JNR became the JapanRail Group.

Local government and private enterprisecreated the Ise Railway, took over thedormant project, finished it, and equippedit with railbuses. This is a typical Third-Sector enterprise among those that tookover pieces of the JNR network. The newline is 22.3 km (13.86 miles) long betweenKawarada and Tsu, with sevenintermediate stations. Japan Rail tookadvantage of this action and gainedtrackage rights over the Third-Sectorrailway; hence, it achieved its originalpurpose for through express trains. In turn,Ise railway has trackage rights for 6.9 km

(4.29 miles) over Japan Rail-Tokai tracknorth into the city of Yokkaichi. Japan Railhas yielded local traffic among its threestations on the shared track to the IseRailway and runs non-stop through thisterritory. On the south, Ise Railway runs onJapan Rail track into the Tsu station. Thetotal Ise railway operation is 29.2 km(18.15 miles) with 11 stations.


With a heritage as an intended JapaneseNational Railways line, the Ise Line wasbuilt to JNR clearance standards. IseRailway had only to purchase rolling stockthat would fit. In order for the new rollingstock to operate on the JNR trackage toreach its terminal cities, Ise Railway wasrequired to adopt and install the new JNRsignal and train-protection apparatus,including wireless ATS (automatic trainstop) that Japan Rail-Tokai hadimplemented when it electrified the KansaiMain Line. Ise railbuses are light weight,high-platform loading.

Other Information

Galvanized-steel poles are in place at thestorage yard/maintenance facility andalong most of the line for erection ofcatenary. Future electrification of JapanRail's Kii Main Line will likely continue.Although electrification would not bewarranted for the Ise Railway's trafficalone, it is likely that the Ise Railwaywould replace the railbuses with JapanRail-compatible interurban EMUs whenthe Japan Rail overhead wires becomeavailable.

8.6.4 Nagoya Railway at Gifu in the Nagoya Region


Streetcar lines that met interurban lines atthe edge of the city furnished their in-streettrackage routes for the interurbans to run tothe heart of the city. Previously, passengers


had to transfer at the edge of the city.Although all under one corporatemanagement, several compromises had tobe made in order to introduce the throughservice by joint-use of street trackage.Low-floor streetcars, light-rail vehicles,and high-floor interurbans of two voltagescoexist.

The General Area

Gifu (pronounced "Gi (as in gig) foo") is acity of 407,058 population in the north sideof the Nagoya Region. The seat of GifuPrefecture, it is located on the TokaidoMain Line, but was bypassed by theTokaido Shinkansen on a new alignment.The city occupies the north edge of thecoastal plains at the toe of the foothills ofthe interior mountains. In time, it becamethe hub of JNR lines in three direction, andinterurban lines in five directions – alleventually came under the management ofthe Nagoya Railway.

Nagoya is sometimes termed the "Detroitof Japan" because of its manufacturingfocus on automobiles. Like metropolitanDetroit, automobiles are more prominent inthe Nagoya Region than in other largeJapanese urbanized areas. The NagoyaRailway, one of Japan's largest interurbannetworks, has to work harder to competewith the automobile than its counterpartselsewhere in Japan. This is reflected inpolicies for, among other things,attempting to provide seats for as manypassengers as possible – hence transverseseating rather than the typical longitudinalseating of urban railway cars in the largercities, and in offering direct and throughservices rather than requiring passengers totransfer at junctions and connecting points.Nagoya Railway does not charge extra farefor riding express trains. Service isfrequent to minimize wait times.Antimacassars are provided on theseatbacks of even the Gifu streetcars.



Nagoya Railway (Nagoya Tetsudo) streetrailway division – 1067 mm (3'6") gauge,600vDC trolley wire and catenary – aprivate interurban railway company.

Nagoya Railway (Nagoya Tetsudo)interurban division – 1067 mm (3'6")gauge, 1,500vDC catenary – a privateinterurban railway company.

The Components of the Joint-Use Facilities

The components of the Gifu situation areas follows:

Northwest Lines:! Nagoya Railway's Gifu-shinai

streetcar line from Gifu Station northfor 3.7 km (2.30 miles) to Chusetsu.This is a conventional double-trackstreet railway line in busy pavedmain streets, electrified with single-strand trolley wire. The tracks carrystreetcars in the city and light-railvehicles from the suburbs and ruraldistricts.

! Nagoya Railway's Ibi interurban linefrom Chusetsu west for 12.7 km (7.89miles) to Kurono. It is an essentiallyrural single-track interurban linethrough predominantly agriculturalland, serving numerous smallcommunities along the way. It carriesinterurban trains and light-railvehicles.

! Nagoya Railway's Ibi and Tanigumiinterurban lines from Kurono for 5.6km (3.48 miles) to Hon Ibi, and for11.2 km (6.96 miles) to Tanigumi.These are single-track rural trolleylines to the mountains.


Nagoya Railway at Gifu - Figure 8-5a

" Nagoya Ry. LRV on lbi line with sill extenders positioned out for high platformloading.

J. Lozier

" Same class Nagoya Ry. (1997 vintage Nippon Sharyo car loading on thestreet in Gifu.

J. Lozier


Northeast Line:! Nagoya Railway's Kakamigahara

interurban line from Shin-Gifu for1.1 km (0.68 miles) east to Tagamijunction. This is a double-trackinterurban line electrified with1,500Vdc catenary.

! Nagoya Railway's Kakamigaharainterurban line from Tagami junction16.5 km (10.25 miles) east to Shin-Unuma. This is a double-trackinterurban line electrified with1,500Vdc catenary. It runs end-on-end with Nagoya Railway's InuyamaLine to and from Nagoya.

! Nagoya Railway's Tagami Line fromTagami Junction for 1.4 km toKeirinjomae, a specially-builtsingletrack connection to link theMinomachi Line to theKakamigahara Line to afford fastaccess for suburban riders to theShin-Gifu downtown terminal. Theline is half in paved street and half onprivate right-of-way.

! Nagoya Railway's Minomachi Linefrom Tetsumeicho for 1.9 km (1.18miles) to Keirinjomae. This is amostly double-track streetcar line inbusy main street. It is electrified withsingle-strand trolley wire.

Nagoya Railway's Minomachi Line fromKeirinjomae for 16.2 km (10.07 miles) toShin-Zeki. This is a suburban/rural single-track interurban line serving agriculturalplains below the mountains. Much of theway, the track is roadside, on the shoulderof the highway. Note map Figure 8-5b.

Services Operated

The basic Ibi Line service is provided byhigh-level loading interurban cars betweenChusetsu and Kurono. Connecting citystreetcars, which load from street surface,

run between Gifu Station and Chusetsu.Shuttles are run with older interurban carsfrom Kurono on the branches to Tanigumiand Hon-Ibi every 30 minutes. Overlayingthis pattern of service are articulated light-rail vehicles (LRVs) running from GifuStation through Chusetsu to Kurono. Thereis a streetcar zone, an interurban zone, andthe common denominator light-rail vehicleservice covering both zones. No freight iscarried, but a variety of vehicles of railroadand light rail derivations coexist.

The basic Kakamigahara Line service is acombination of local trains from Shin-Gifuon the Inuyama Line, and of express trainsfrom Shin-Gifu via the Inuyama Line tocentral Nagoya and beyond. Althoughthere are no freight trains, the passengerequipment is mixed.

The basic Minomachi Line service isprovided by dual-voltage light-rail vehiclesbetween Shin-Gifu and Shin-Zeki. Theserun every 15 minutes. Connectingstreetcars run from Tetsumeicho toHinobashi overlapping the LRVs. A shuttleservice is provided by interurban carsbetween Shin-Zeki and Mino, runningevery 30 minutes.

By the use of dual-capability light-railvehicles, Nagoya Railway provides a one-seat ride for most passengers and reducedtransferring for the shuttle passengers fromtwo to one in order to reach the center ofthe city.


The basic street railway and interurban lineto Mino were opened in February 1911,and the central city system extended northto Nagarabashi in 1912 and south to themain railroad station in 1913. The trunkinterurban lines had reached from Nagoyato Gifu by 1914.


Map of Nagoya Ry. At Gifu - Figure 8-5b

G. Thompson 5-98

NAGOYA RAILWAY at GIFU


Mostly as a measure to effect economy andefficiency of management during WorldWar II, these and other Nagoya Regionrailways were brought into the NagoyaRailway network.

The inner section of the Minomachi Linewas relocated in 1950 for a betterconnection with the street railway system.In 1954, the northwest streetcar line wasextended in a new street bridge over theNagara River to a terminal in Chusetsu towhich the interurban tracks were relocated.The streetcars and interurbans exchangedpassengers in a convenient across-theplatform transfer arrangement. The trackswere connected. Through service wasinstituted at Chusetsu in 1967 with themodification of some cars transferred fromthe Minomachi Line. And in 1970, a newlink was built between the Minomachi Lineand the Kakamigahara interurban line toafford more direct service to downtownGifu and the street section was reduced to ashuttle service. For this direct service, thespecial dual-voltage rolling stock wasordered.


When Nagoya Railway decided to run theinterurban service to downtown Gifu, itchose somewhat differing means for eachof its northwest and northeast lines out ofGifu.

Initially for the Minomachi Line, NagoyaRailway purchased articulated light-railvehicles with capability to load passengersfrom the British-type compromise-heightplatforms at the stations along theinterurban line and from the streetpavement height safety zones on citystreets. The run on city streets stillencountered traffic congestion, so a new1.4-km (0.87-mile) link was built southfrom the Minomachi Line and west along acanalized stream to one of the interurbanlines that reaches the heart of the city on

private right-of-way. For this service,Nagoya Railway purchased unique dual-voltage light-rail vehicles that couldoperate from the Minomachi Line'soverhead wire power of 600vDC and theKakamigahara interurban line's catenarypower of 1,500Vdc.

For the Ibi Line, the articulated carsdisplaced by the dual-voltage cars on theMinomachi Line were transferred. Theirability to load from both compromise leveland street level platforms enabled thethrough service to downtown Gifu. The IbiLine interurban cars do not reachdowntown and LRVs do not reach theouter terminal of the branches. Dual-voltage cars are not necessary on this linebecause the rural interurbans and streetcarshad the common 600vDC system.

The streetcars and the rural-shuttleinterurbans use conventional fareboxes andare one-man operated, but the LRVs carryconductors.

Other Information

Nagoya Railway is Japan's second-largestprivate railway, with 544 km (338 miles)of interurban, light-rail transit, andstreetcar lines. It also operates amonorailway line and a freight-only line,and has an interest in several additionalinterurban companies and Third-Sectorrailway companies. Nagoya Railway hasseveral track connections with Japan Rail-Tokai for interchange of freight.

Moreso than other Japanese cities, Nagoyais sprawled, urbanization is not contiguous,and much of the major employment is inthe suburbs.


8.6.5 Sanriku Railway in Northeastern Honshu


A Third-Sector railway organization, usingrai lbuses and reciprocal runningarrangements, enabled a prefecture tocomplete two dormant JNR projects,restore branch lines discarded during thecreation of the Japan Rail group, andprovide no-transfer through service. JapanRail-East track links the two separatedivisions of the Sanriku (pronounced "son-(as in sonic) ree-koo") Railway. Theprincipal objective was to bring theisolated villages of a large coastal regioninto the mainstream economy. Connectingat four points with Japan Rail lines, thenew railway affords Japan Rail-East theopportunity to run selected trains betweenits own lines, and offer a one-seat ride tothe coastal communities. Regular service isprovided by Sanriku Railway light-weightrailbuses and Japan Rail railroad-classDMUs. In addition, Tokyo-orientedstreamlined train sets connect the Sanrikustations via Japan Rail to an interchangestation with the high-speed Shinkansennetwork. Freight trains add to the mix.

Sanriku Railway was the first of the Third-Sector railways to be formed toward theend of JNR. As such, it was a pioneer insolving problems associated withorganizing, planning, and operating thejoint-use of track/reciprocal-runningarrangements.

The General Area

The northeastern prefecture on the mainIsland of Honshu is Iwate, one of Japan'sleast-populated in terms of density – 93persons per square kilometer as comparedwith a national average of 331 per km2

(239 persons per square mile comparedwith 857 per square mile).

The northeast coast of Honshu is amountainous region with a rocky shorelineindented with numerous coves and inlets. Ithas been bypassed by intensivedevelopment northward from Tokyo alongthe inland plains – the course of early roadsand railroads. Industry sprouted at themouths of several larger rivers. The cities ofKamaishi and Miyako became centers ofiron and steel production. Lateral railwayswere built from the Tohoku Main Line tothe coast, but a rail line along the coast wasdeferred. Several of the spine-to-coast raillines were projected to extend along thecoast. Construction was slow because of thesuccession of tunnels and bridges necessaryto overcome the terrain. A through line stillhad not been achieved by the time JapaneseNational Railways broke into the Japan Railgroup of companies, and economicconcerns had earlier halted construction ofmissing links along the coast.



Sanriku Railway (Sanriku Tetsudo) –1067mm (3'6") gauge, diesel – apublic/private joint-venture Third-Sectorrailway.

East Japan Passenger Railway Company(Higashi-Nihon Ryokaku Tetsudo Kaisha)(Japan Rail-East) – 1067mm (3'6") gauge,diesel.

The Components of the Joint-Use Facilities

The components of the Sanriku joint-use/reciprocal running situation are as follows,south to north (refer to Figure 8-6b map):


Sanriku Railway in Japan - Figure 8-6a

" Sanriku Railway railbus at modern station amidst industrial freight trackage. Thisenvironment contrasts with its more typical scenic, sea coast, rural area where itmixes with intercity passenger and freight trains and DMUs JR East.

M. MinamiSeishun Tetsudo


Map of Sanriku Ry. in Kamaishi and Miyako Areas - Figure 8-6b

SANRIKU RAILWAYG. Thompson 5-98


! Japan Rail-East's Ofunato Line fromIchinoseki for 105.7 km (65.68miles) to Sakari. This is a single-track branch line connecting the maintrunk railroad routes to the Pacificcoast. It carries Japan Rail-Eastintercity passenger trains andsuperexpress trains, as well as JapanRail-Freight trains. In season, it alsocarries school-trippers in the form ofDMUs.

! Sanriku Railway's southern division(Minami-Riasu Line) from Sakari for56.6 km (35.17 miles) to Kamaishi.This is a single-track railroad built tohigh standards and appearing as arapid transit line even though this is arural district. There are numeroustunnels and bridges. The track isoften on the rocky ledgesoverlooking the Pacific Oceanbreakers. It carries Sanriku railbuses,Japan Rail-East DMUs, and JapanRail-East super express trains. Thefirst 21.5 km (13.36 miles) were builtas a continuation of the JapaneseNational Railways (JNR) OfunatoLine. The remainder was completedby Sanriku Railway and containsthree significant tunnels.

! Japan Rail-East's Yamada Line fromKamaishi for 55.4 km (34.43 miles)to Miyako. This is a single-trackmainline, the trains of which operatethrough with the Japan Rail-EastMiyako branch line. The Kamaishi-Miyako section links the twoseparate Sanriku Railway divisionsand carries Japan Rail-East intercitypassenger trains, express trains,Japan Rail-Freight trains, andSanriku Railway railbuses.

! Sanriku Railway's northern division(Kita-Riasu Line) from Miyako for71.0 km (44.12 miles) to Kuji. Thissingle-track railroad is similar to thepreviously-described Sanriku

Railway southern division. The first12.8 km (7.95 miles) from Miyako toTaro were built as the JNR MiyakoLine and the last 26.0 km (16.16miles) were built from Fudai to Kujias the JNR Kuji Line. SanrikuRailway completed the missing link,containing five significant tunnels.

Services Operated

Sanriku Railway railbuses cover thenorthernmost Kuji-Fudai section in 33minutes, making five intermediate stops,compared with the old JNR run withDMUs of 40 minutes with four stops. Thisincreased performance at reduced cost andnear recovery of operating expenses hascaused Japan Rail companies to considerrailbus economies on their own operations.There are 16 daily round-trips over thesouth division and 17 round-trips over thenorth division. Ten trips continue overJapan Rail rails between the two divisions,providing a through service. The railbusesare often coupled into two-car trains. Astreamlined "Marine-liner" three-car dieseltrain-set provides an express service; it isbuilt upon railbus technology, and providestheater-type seating at the ends with hugewindshields. The company acquiredrailbuses used to shuttle people to a worldexposition at Yokohama harbor; these arebuilt to look like vintage trolleys; Sanrikuruns them as its Retoro ("Retro") expressbetween Sakari and Kuji. With theexception of one round trip on the northdivision, all trains make all stops.

Japan Rail-East provides regular service withDMUs in this territory. The timetable isaugmented by trips just between Kamaishiand Miyako, a run of 160.7 km (99.86miles). Japan Rail DMUs also run over theSanriku Railway on school trippers.


The inland Tohoku Main Line wascompleted north from Tokyo to Iwahiri in


1887. Work progressed north to Hachinohein 1894. Branches began sprouting towardthe coast. JNR set out to build a throughline, piecemeal, along the difficultnortheast coast to link the cities servedindirectly by the lateral branch lines.During 1935-1940, the Yamada Line wasextended south from Miyako to Kamaishi.In 1934, the Ofunato Line was extendednorth from Kesennuma to Ofunato andreached Sakari in 1935. Railroad buildingdiscontinued during World War II, but thecoast was fortified by huge naval artilleryguns mounted into the Pacific cliffs. Afterthe postwar priority for restoring theexisting railroads diminished, attentionreturned again to building the north-southalignment.

Two significant gaps remained when theJapan Rail Groups were formed. JapanRail-East selectively kept lines thatreached the coast and short sections alongthe coast to principal seaside cities. IwatePrefecture joined with servedmunicipalities, the private IwateDevelopment Railway, Nippon Steel, andother served industries, to form the SanrikuRailway. This new Third-Sector railwaypicked up the pieces, completed themissing links (including seven significanttunnels on the south stretch and nine on thenorth leg), and ordered fast railbuses whileJNR continued to operate its trains.Sanriku Railway commenced operation on1 April 1984 – the first of the post-JNRThird Sector railways to begin service.Sanriku was also the first to shift towanman (one-man) operation. The result isa modern railway with two sectionsseparated by Japan Rail-East. It was alsoan early practitioner of joint use employinglight-weight railbuses, necessitated by itsseparate divisions with intervening JapanRail track.


Centralized Train Control (CTC) controlsthe single-track line and its passing sidings,and prevents Sanriku railbuses and JNRDMUs from overtaking each other. Tocreate a new image, Sanriku modernizedthe Japan Rail-East station at Kuji andestablished its headquarters there, andchose to put extra money into stationdesigns along the way. Sanriku Railway'sone-man operation prevails on the JapanRail-East tracks, too, and Japan Rail hasadopted this labor practice on its DMUs onthis and selected others of its branch lines.The DMUs were modified for one-manoperation.

Other Information

With this railway, the prefecturegovernment connected remote fishingvillages to industrial cities; one of thegreatest values is that the village childrencan now enroll in the big-city schools. Theprogressive marketing effort resulted in a99.5% farebox recovery rate for trainservices that did not previously exist in amostly rural, low-density surrounding.

8.6.6 Tokyo's Tozai Line in the Kanto Region


The Teito Rapid Transit Authority, JapanRail-East, and the Third-Sector ToyoRapid Railway at Tokyo provide anexample of extending the reach of a cityrapid transit service quickly andinexpensively relative to building an all-new line by employing the joint-use oftrack arrangement. The Tozai (pronounced"toe-zai," rhyming with sigh) project alsoafforded capacity relief to a crowdedcommuter rail service by divertingpassengers from the inner section to rapidtransit trains using the tracks of the less-congested outer section.


Rapid transit trains run over suburbancommuter-rail tracks to distant suburbs andcommuter/suburban trains run through thecity on rapid transit tracks. Since theoriginal two-operator arrangement wasmade, a newly-built interurban railwayjoined the array of service, operating overboth the rapid transit and commuter-railtrackage. Freight and intercity passengertrains are in the mix as well.

The General Area

The Kanto region, embracing the cities ofTokyo, Yokohama, Kawasaki, and Chibaand their extensive urbanizedcommutershed, contains many rapid transitoperators with lines radiating from all thementioned cities except Kawasaki (whichlies between Tokyo and Yokohama). Justas New York City is served by MTA NewYork City Transit, MTA Staten IslandRailway, and the Port Authority Trans-Hudson Corporation, Tokyo itself is servedby three rapid transit entities. The physicalprograms (but not the operations) of twohave been guided by a succession ofcommissions and boards which haveadopted and revised master plans since theend of World War II. Initially, subwaylines were to reach every corner of the city– essentially replacing the streetcar lines.Then, with the outward spread ofresidential population, the planned linesgrew longer – but only on paper. Therealization that the passenger transportationneeded by metropolitan Tokyo wasunaffordable if accomplished by subwayconstruction compelled the concept ofreciprocal running. It provided means toexpand the rapid transit service withouthaving to make enormous investments ininfrastructure.

During modern times, the publictransportation system of Tokyo andvicinity evolved as:

! one of the world's largest streetrailway networks blanketing thedense core city;

! a far-reaching network of electrifiedcommuter-rail lines operated by thenational railroad system (JapaneseNational Railway – JNR) forming aloop around the city (the YamanoteLine), an east-west course throughthe middle (the combined Chuo Lineand Sobu Line) and lines radiating onmainlines toward other cities;

! a web of interurban trolley linesrunning outward through suburbs andto satellite cities from the Yamanoteloop line; and

! a gradually growing rapid transitnetwork within the Loop.

This looked plausible on a map and inplanners' minds. The interurbans and manyof the JNR lines deposited their passengersat terminals located on the Yamanote Line.They were effectively distributed by loopline trains and the comprehensive streetrailway network, and – where available –by the few subways. Replacement of thestreetcars with buses resulted in a plungeof inner city surface transit usage andovercrowding on the subways. Growth ofthe suburbs placed tremendous loads on theinterurbans. What had once been regardedas a unique convenience – the exchange ofpassengers at loop line stations amonginterurbans, commuter trains, andstreetcars, became intolerable instances ofpedestrian congestion. Tokyo hadoutgrown its loop and the operatingconcept that had served well in the past.The notion was born of linking subwayswithin the loop to the interurbans outsidethe loop. To do so still necessitated amassive subway construction program bothto link with selected interurban terminalsand to penetrate city and suburban areasnot yet served by rail.


The Participants in Joint-Use

The participants in this joint-use situationare:

Teito Rapid Transit Authority (TeitoKosokudo Kotsu Eidan) (known locally asjust "Eidan"; Teito=Imperial Capital–1067mm (3'6") gauge, 1,500vDC catenary – aquasi-public entity.

East Japan Passenger Railway Company(Higashi-Nihon Ryokaku Tetsudo Kaisha)(Japan Rail-East) – 1067 mm (3'6") gauge,1,500vDC catenary – one of six publicly-owned corporations comprising the lines ofthe former Japanese National Railways.

Toyo Rapid Railway (Toyo KosokuTetsudo) – 1067 mm (3'6") gauge,1,500vDC catenary – a public/privatejointventure Third-Sector railway.


The segments of the Tozai joint-usesituation are as follows, west to east:(Please refer to the accompanying mapFigure 8-7).

! Japan Rail-East's Chuo Main Lineand Shinnoi Line, west from Takaofor 245.0 km (152.24 miles) toMatsumoto and Nagano: This is adouble-track electrified mainlinecarrying Japan Rail-East intercitypassenger trains, Japan Rail-Freighttrains, and Fujikyu interurban trains.

! Japan Rail-East's Chuo Line, eastfrom Takao for 29.0 km (18.02miles) to Mitaka: This is a double-track electrified commuter/suburbanline carrying the Japan Rail-Eastlocal and express intercity passengertrains, Japan Rail-Freight's trains, theFujikyu interurbans, and Japan Rail-East's intensive commuter/suburbanservices of both the Chuo Line(Japan's and perhaps the world's

busiest railway service) and SobuLine (Japan's third busiest line).

! Japan Rail-East's Chuo Line/SobuLine, 9.4 km (5.84 miles) fromMitaka to Nakano: This is a four-track electrified commuter/suburbanline, arranged as two abreast double-track railroads. One pair of trackscarries the Japan Rail-intercitypassenger trains, the Japan Rail-Freight trains, the Fujikyuinterurbans, and Japan Rail-East'sChuo Line commuter/suburbantrains. The other pair of tracks carriesthe Sobu Line suburban/commutertrains, and Eidan rapid transit trains.The Chuo Line continues another14.7 km (9.13 miles) via Shinjuku toTokyo [Central] – see next item.

! Japan Rail-East's Chuo Line andSobu Line continue from Nakano12.1 km (7.52 miles) as side-by-sidedouble track railways east throughShinjuku to Ochanomizu, where theyseparate.

! Japan Rail's Sobu Hon Line curvesnorth, then east from Tokyo [Central]station mostly in subway for 4.8 km(2.98 miles) to meet the Sobu-sen atKinshicho. Then, together they forma four-track railway (again, arrangedas two juxtaposed double-track lines)east for another 15.8 km (9.82 miles)to Nishi-Funabashi.

! Eidan's Tozai Line, 30.8 km (19.14miles) – this is the critical centrallink that makes the system work –from Nakano to Nishi-Funabashi:This double-track rapid transit line ismostly in subway west of andthrough the center of the city, but ison aerial structure for its eastern 14km (8.7 miles).


Map of Tozai Line in Kanto Region - Figure 8-7

G. Thompson 5-98

TOZAI LINE at TOKYO


The Tozai Line was purpose-built toJapanese National Railway (JNR)standards of alignment geometry,clearances, electrification, andsignaling. Tokyo's earliest subwayswere of standard-gauge and thirdrailelectrification at low voltage. But thenewer rapid transit lines use standard1435 mm (4'8½") gauge, JNR 1067mm (3'6") gauge, and Tokyo street-railway 1372 mm (4'6") gauge, and1,500vAC catenary.

! Toyo Rapid Railway's Main Line,16.2 km (10.07 miles) from Nishi-Funabashi to Katsudai.

! Japan Rail-East's Sobu Line, 6.1 km(3.79 miles) from Nishi-Funabashieast to Tsudanuma: This is afourtrack facility (arranged as twojuxtaposed double-track lines). Onepair of tracks carries the Japan Rail-East local and express intercitypassenger trains, the N'EX specialexpress trains to Narita Airport, andthe Japan Rail-Freight trains. Theother pair of tracks carries the SobuLine suburban/commuter trains,including those which are divertedthrough Tokyo's subway network onEidan's Tozai Line, and Eidan rapidtransit trains.

Services Operated

Omitting the intercity, interurban, airport,and freight services, this flattened-wyeshaped track network, Takao to Chiba withthe stem at central Tokyo, enables theoperation of the following urban passengerrail services on the shared trackage, atheadways ranging from 1½ to 5½ minutes:

! Chuo Line commuter/suburban trainsevery two to three minutes betweenTokyo [Central] and Takao.

! Sobu Line commuter/suburban trainsevery three to 13 minutes betweenChiba and Takao.

! Tozai Line rapid transit trains andToyo Rapid Railway interurbantrains between Mitaka and Nishi-Funabashi every two to ten minuteswith the Eidan trains continuing toTsudanuma and the interurban trainscontinuing to Katsudai.


The Chuo Line was opened in thecommuter/suburban territory west fromShinjuku on the Yamanote Line belt lineduring 1885-1889 (although the lastsegment of the belt was not completeduntil November, 1925). The Chuo Linesubsequently reached distant Nagoya asone of the early elements of a nationalrailroad system.

Tokyo transportation entities adopted thereciprocal running policy in 1959 withprincipal emphasis upon linking the city'sgrowing rapid transit network with thecrowded suburban commuter railroads andinterurban lines. The impetus for pursuingthe reciprocal-running arrangement inmetropolitan Tokyo came from thefollowing stated intentions:

! to eliminate the inconvenience ofchanging trains

! to reduce travel time! to balance the huge investment in

subways with large-volume usage! to reduce terminal congestion

By the time the reciprocal running policywas adopted, the two operating subwaylines were too crowded, even by Japanesestandards, to accommodate more trains.The first subway – the standard-gauge,third-rail Ginza Line, running since 1927,and the second subway – the MarunouchiLine, running since 1954, are operated bythe private Teito Rapid Transit Authority("Eidan"). Eidan was created by thegovernment in 1941 to take over the threeseparate end-to-end companies that builtand were jointly running the first subway


line. One-third control was granted to theCity; the remaining ownership was amongthe national railway and private investors.The Hibiya Line, built by Eidan during1959-1964, was especially designed tolaunch the reciprocal-running practice.Running through central Tokyo, it tappedTobu interurban tracks in the north andreached Tokyu interurban tracks in thesoutheast. For this project, Eidan adoptedthe interurban's track-gauge of 1067mm(3'6") and current collection of 1,500vDCfrom overhead catenary.

For its investment in 20.3 km (12.61miles) of rapid transit infrastructure,Eidan gained an additional 70.9 km (44.06miles) of rapid transit service over theconnecting interurban lines at both ends.Eidan and the city pursued this joint-operation concept vigorously, opening asuccession of cross-city subwaysphysically linked to Japanese NationalRailways commuter/suburban lines andprivate interurban lines.

The Teito Rapid Transit Authoritycommenced construction in 1962 of itsTozai Line (tozai = east-west). This newrapid transit line entailed considerableheavy construction, including the new andcoordinated construction of anunderground terminal for Japan Rail-East'sSobu Line and Yokusuka Line, which wereto be linked here end-on-end. Eidan openedthe basic Tozai Line in stages betweenDecember, 1964 and March, 1966.

After additional tracks were laid on theJapan Rail-East right-of-way, Eidan rapidtransit trains began from downtown Tokyoto Ogikubo on the Chuo Line commuter-rail tracks in April, 1966, the first formaljoint-use of track in this corridor. Withtrack connections in place, on October 1,1966, Japan Rail-East commuter-rail trainsbegan using the rapid transit route viadowntown Tokyo between Nakano andOtemachi – the first of reciprocal running

in this corridor (for 14.7 km (9.13 miles).Completion of Eidan construction of theeast leg of the Tozai Line resulted inopening of service east of Otemachi toToyocho on September 14, 1967. TheTozai Line reached Nishi-Funabashi onJapan Rail-East's Sobu Line on March 29,1969, heralding reciprocal running ofJapan Rail-East commuter-rail trains theentire length of the Eidan rapid transit line.

Completing the last link of the March,1972 master plan for this Tozai corridor,the Third-Sector Toyo Kosoku Tetsudo'sline from Nishi-Funabashi to Katsudai wasopened for service on April 8, 1996.


By the time Eidan started construction of itsTozai Line in 1962, the complexjointuse/reciprocal running arrangement ofTokyo's other transit authority – Toei – onits Asakusa Line with two interurbancompanies and two Third-Sector railways,had been in operation for two years. Eidanwas able to observe the problems ofcompatibility and how they had beenresolved on Toei. The new Tozai rapidtransit line was designed from the outset toJapanese National Railways physicalstandards in anticipation of joint use. Cardesign and performance was negotiatedamong Eidan and JNR and significantcompromises were made. For operatingcompatibility, Eidan introduced with thisproject the region's first subway carscapable of running more than the previousrapid transit standard of 70 km/h (43.5mph). Their cars were subsequently gearedfor up to 100 km/h (62.1 mph) so as to keeppace with the commuter trains, which havestations spaced farther apart than the urbansubway. These were also the first rapidtransit cars of 20,000mm (65'8") length,setting a new standard for future rapidtransit lines. In this way, joint use tends todrive upward standards and specifications.The assigned Japan Rail-East fleet and the


Eidan's Tozai fleet are mechanically nearidentical except for car-appearancearchitecture. Train consist is identical – 8motor cars and 2 trailers, comprised of twoseparable units of seven cars and three cars– to assure exactly the same performancecharacteristics in both the rapid transitsections of close average station spacing(lower speed, more rapid acceleration), andthe commuter-rail sections (faster speed,longer runs between stations). Toparticipate in the reciprocal runningagreement, another joint use carrier, theToyo Rapid Railway, contributed 24 tencartrains to the fleet mix.

A uniform ATC (automatic train control)system was adopted, but used only as anoverride in the event of human failure.

Other Information

The increase in rapid transit service routemiles due to shared track is dramatic.While these are not, in all cases, newfacilities or infrastructure, there areincreases in services by complexoverlapping of institutional and operatingturfs.

The Tokyo region is very close tocompleting its 1985 rapid transit masterplan. The latest score January 1, 1998)shows that Eidan- and Toei-owned rapidtransit lines total 254.2 km (157.96 miles),but that Eidan and Toei trains run over691.6 km (429.76 miles) of line – nearlythree times as much trackage as Eidan'sand Toei's own.

Prior to the completion of the Tozai Line,Eidan's three subway lines had a total ofonly 5.4 km (3.36 miles) of non-underground operation. The Eidan Line'seastern extremity added 14 km (8.7 miles)of elevated structure. To take advantage ofthe space beneath, Eidan established theMetro Elevated Rail Company in 1978(now Metro Development Co., Ltd.) todevelop revenue-producing activity. Eidan

began as a private company, but becamepublicly-owned (hence "authority"), but ithad a limited charter. So, somewhat likeJapanese National Railways, it was unableto diversify as other corporations do inJapan. The government, however, re-established Eidan during the early 1990s.In exchange for agreeing to give priority toexpanding the rapid transit network, Eidanwas given the privileges of gaininginterest-free loans and of diversifying itsbusiness enterprise (but with a limitationthat it be transit related). Subsequently,Eidan created subsidiaries – a mutual aidfoundation, a cleaning service, aconstruction company, a travel bureau, aland development company, a buildingmaintenance and management service,food service (catering), and a railway carmaintenance service. All serve the rapidtransit system primarily and privatecustomers secondarily.

8.6.7 Selected Other Japanese Examples

The following is a brief summary ofselected Japanese shared trackarrangements organized around eight keyfunctions that rationalize joint use.

The 56 instances of reciprocal runningfound in Japan encompass as participantsall six geographic Japan Rail Groupcorporations, four Japan Rail groupinterurban lines,3 private interurbancompanies, private railway companies,Third-Sector railways, rapid transitcompanies and authorities, municipaltransit systems, light-rail transit lines, andstreet railways. Represented are three trackgauges, four voltages of electrification, andfour systems of traction-power distribution,plus diesel propulsion. Twenty-one railwayentities participate reciprocal-runningarrangements with more than one othersuch entity.

Several of the private electric interurbanrailways and Japan Rail interurban linesmaintain intensive freight services. Several


other private electric railways, such asChoshi Electric Railway's LRT line,maintain electric locomotives to haulfreight cars over the company's tracks.These operations adhere to Japan Railstandards of dimensional clearances. Butsuch freight operation is incidental to thepassenger operation, which is the mainpurpose and reason for the railway. Theirfreight and passenger operations are undersingle management and therefore do not"compete" for track space.

In Japan, joint use of track can becategorized into several functions:

(1) to extend city rapid transit into thesuburbs and/or to extend suburbantrain service to the city's core;

(2) to merge suburban rail services withcity streetcar lines;

(3) to open new territory fordevelopment;

(4) to afford mainline access to off-linetraffic generators;

(5) to offer access to major airports;(6) to expand the influence of the high-

speed rail network;(7) combinations of these; and(8) special advantageous circumstances.

A common factor is the preservation ofpassenger services which may otherwisehave been discontinued or have withered –by putting rail infrastructure to additionaluses and by linking it more directly withthe transportation web – all in the contextof major changes in rail institutions withinJapan. Following is not a completeinventory of examples, but is a selection ofthose which might have applicability inNorth America.

To Expand City Rapid Transit to theSuburbs and/or to Extend SuburbanTrain Service to the City's Core

The counterpart of this category is thebringing of suburban rail services, such ascommuter-rail, interurban, and light-rail

transit to the hearts of cities via rapidtransit lines if capacity permits andclearance problems can be overcome.Since rapid transit usually involves a moredemanding signal system but morerestrictive clearances, overlaying rapidtransit on railroads is more facile than thereverse.

! In the Kanto Region of Japan, jointuse/reciprocal running has beendeveloped to the state of the art. OfTokyo's thirteen rapid transit lines,only three do not participate inreciprocal running with Japan Rail-East or the private interurbanrailways. Yokohama's rapid transitlines do not yet participate, but futureextensions will couple the heavyrapid transit lines to privateinterurban railways and purposebuiltThird-Sector railways. Chiba's rapidtransit service is offered through thereciprocal running of the KeiseiElectric Railway interurban and thegradually extending Chiba ExpressElectric Railway, which will soonreach and encompass a private non-electric railway currently served byrailbuses.

! In the Kansai Region, half the Osaka,Kyoto, and Kobe heavy rapid transitlines participate in reciprocal runningwith area private interurbancompanies. Elsewhere in this report,the Hankyu interurban network'sthree examples of reciprocal runningwith city subway lines at Osaka andKobe are described.

Each of Kyoto's reciprocal running rapidtransit lines evolved separately. Kyoto's firstsubway was built in 1931, extended in1963, and continues to be operated by theprivate Hankyu interurban system,providing that city with rapid transit servicedecades before the municipal subway lineswere built.4 The second subway, the


north-south Karasumaru Line, is amunicipal venture, but was built tothe dimensional standards of theprivate Kinki Nippon Railwayinterurban system with which itparticipates in reciprocal running. Itopened in 1981 and was extended tomeet the interurban line at Takeda in1988. The third subway resultedfrom the grade-separation of theKeihan Electric Railway interurbanline on its entry into Kyoto about1985. Kyoto's fourth subway is aThird-Sector railway continuation ofthe Keihan interurban undergroundnorth to meet the private EizanElectric Railway's LRT lines atDemachi-yanagi. The Third-SectorKamogawa Railway was formed byKyoto prefecture, Kyoto city, theprivate Keihan Electric Railwayinterurban company, and the privateKeifuku Electric Railway (operatorof LRT lines in Kyoto and Fukui),the project was implemented insteadas a way to bring the Keihaninterurban trains north to the LRTterminal at Demachi-yanagi. The 2.5-km (1.55-mile) railway is in asubway built in the bed of the formerBiwa Canal – quite similar to theNewark City subway in the bed ofthe Morris Canal.5

Kyoto's fifth (second municipal)subway was recently completed withreciprocal running in mind, and willbe extended at both ends to form acontinuous loop through the suburbs.At the loop's northeast corner, ajunction enables Keihan's light-railvehicles to run in the rapid transitsubway to Sanjo (where theyheretofore terminated on the surface)and continue through the city toconnect with other LRT andinterurban lines.

Kyoto's municipal rapid transit line is11.1 km (6.90 miles) long, but

reciprocal running extends theinfluence of its trains to 27.1 km(16.84 miles). Together with theprivate Hankyu and Keihan subwaysand the Third-sector Kamogawasubway, the city's system increases to36.1 km (22.43 miles). Constructionand plans under way and thereciprocal running associated withthe new line will increase this extentto 77.2 km (47.97 miles).

! In the Nagoya region, Japan's thirdlargest conurbation, there are manyexamples of reciprocal running; moreare planned for the future. The regioncontains three other city hubs, eachof which has an electric railwaynetwork: Gifu, Toyohashi, andYokkaichi. The two former placeshave their own examples ofreciprocal running. In Nagoya, anambitious rail-transit developmentprogram is being carried out by thePrefecture of Aichi, the City ofNagoya, and the principal privateinterurban railway – Nagoya Railway– to provide attractive rail transitalternatives.

Somewhat like Boston, each ofNagoya's rapid transit lines hasdiffering dimensional standards,preventing the lines from pooling orinterchanging rolling stock. Whileother lines are of 1435mm (4'8½")gauge and employ third railelectrification (but suffer differentclearances), Line 3-Tsurumai wasspecifically built during 1977-78 forreciprocal running, so it adheres tothe 1067mm (3'6") and 1,500vDCcatenary system of the privateNagoya Railway system. It thereforeaccommodates the private railway'sinterurban trains. Nagoya Railwaybuilt its new 15.2-km (9.45-mile)Toyota Line to the subway terminalfrom the automobile-manufacturingcity of Toyota. Reciprocal running


began in 1979. Subsequently, theLine 3 subway was extended toKami-Otai on August 11, 1993 toenable reciprocal running withNagoya Railway's Inuyama Line,and through running via centralNagoya from the other end of thesame subway. Interurban and rapidtransit trains now run through fromToyota to Inuyama, 58.4 km (36.29miles) combining three lines end toend.

Line 6-Sakuradori was built to1067mm (3'6") and 1,500vDCcatenary in order to be able to runreciprocally in the future with theprefecture's Aichi-Kanjo line toToyota, and by way of a waterfrontbranch to run reciprocally with aCity/Japan Rail Third-Sector railwayto the port.

Nagoya already has 67.9 km (42.19miles) of municipal rapid transit.Reciprocal running with NagoyaRailway expands this network to105.9 km (65.81 miles). The city'sambitious construction and plans willincrease the municipal network to143.8 km (89.36 miles) andencompass another 139.2 km (86.50miles) of reciprocal running. Thefuture transit system will, therefore,contain 247.8 km (153.98 miles) ofrapid transit operation – not countinghundreds more miles ofcommuter/suburban, interurban, andfeeder lines. The lesson learned isthat joint ventures spawned bycommon business interests may notinclude joint use of track initially, butbecause of common stakes, theseagreements spawn joint-usearrangements naturally.

! At Fukuoka on the island of Kyushu,the city's rapid transit lines were builtto Japan Rail-Kyushu track gauge,catenary voltage, and clearance

envelope so that the track andsubway could be shared by cityheavy rapid transit trains and JapanRail electric commuter/suburbantrains to the downtown main railroadstation. When the subway wasextended in the other direction fromthe station to the airport, the JapanRail trains, too, began servingFukuoka Airport using the rapidtransit tracks.

! At Nagano, site of the 1998 WinterOlympics, the city rapid transit lineand the interurban network are underthe single management of theNagano Railway. Operation of rapidtransit cars to the outskirts andinterurban trains to downtown is nowaccomplished.

! At Sendai, the Sendai TransportBureau in Northern Honshu decidedto design its new rapid transit line toJNR physical standards, includingtrack gauge, electrification voltage,and use of catenary and pantographsinstead of third rail. Although thefirst subway line makes noconnection with the Japan Rail, thestandards prevailed so that the firstline would be able to interchangerolling stock with a future secondline.

Merge Suburban Rail Services with CityStreetcar Lines

Interurban trains reach central cities onlocal streetcar tracks at Gifu (a detaileddescription appears elsewhere) and thefollowing other cities where joint use hasbeen the means of accomplishment:

! At Fukui on Honshu's northwestcoast, in addition to lines of JapanRail-East, two interurban companiesserve the region. The FukuiRailway's line runs south from thecity. For most of its history, thecompany also operated a streetcar


line from the north end of town alongthe main thoroughfare. FukuiRailway's interurban trains continuedfrom the south end; the interurbancars loaded from high platforms andran on the streetcar tracks withoutmaking local stops. In 1972, thestreetcar service was discontinued,but the interurban cars were outfittedwith outward folding steps so theycould load at curb-level platforms incity streets and began making all thestreet stops.

! At Hiroshima, the street railwaynetwork and the interurban line fromthe extreme west side of the citywere operated separately, but with aconvenient across-the-platformtransfer at Koi near the EastHiroshima JNR station. Both were of1435mm (4'8½") gauge and 600vDCoverhead trolley wire and catenary.In 1958 a track connection allowed afew interurban trips to reach throughthe principal business district to themain Hiroshima stat ion.Subsequently the interurban stationswere rebuilt with both high car-floor-level platforms and low platforms,linked by steps, and through servicebegan with articulated light-railvehicles. High-floor interurban carscontinued to run on the open-tracksection along with the light-railvehicles. Customers would hovernear the steps until they saw the trainapproaching, then move to theappropriate-level platform. The light-rail vehicle fleet, however, haswholly replaced the interurban cars,and the high platforms are nowunnecessary.

! At Kitakyushu, the suburbanChikuho Electric Railway LRT linereaches a main railroad station overNishi Nippon Railway street railwaytracks. These are separate companies,

but the newer LRT company chose tobuy rolling stock identical to thestreet railway company's. The LRTline was purpose-built, and is not aformer interurban line. This is anexample of one carrier, for financialand operational reasons, specifyingidentical or compatible rolling stock,resulting from a joint-use situation.

! At Kyoto, a transition just beingcompleted involves the light-railtransit line that has connected thesatellite city of Otsu to the old city ofKyoto over an intervening mountain,and the new municipal east-westsubway line. The city selected thetrolley line's gauge, electrificationsystem, and clearance envelopeduring construction of the rapidtransit line – 1435mm (4'8½"),600vDC catenary, and 2350mm(7'9.7") width at the door sills. (Thisbreadth includes fixed extenderswhich are wider than the car bodies.)The city's rapid transit trains will turnfrom the main route and not run onthe LRT line tracks, which continueto have street trackage in places. Butthe Keihan Electric Railway's light-rail vehicles will run through thesubway to the far west side of Kyoto,rather than enter Kyoto on tracks inpaved streets. A third-sector railwaycompany was formed for the purposeof creating the LRT-rapid transitconnection.

Concerns in early 20th Century U.S.over intrusion of interurban railwaysinto railroad markets causedintentional variance from commonstandards to thwart interchange,much less through running.

The Japanese experience in these fiveregions has been to selectivelyintegrate rail transit and railroads intocoordinated networks within


metropolitan areas. The legacy leftby these contrasting approaches hashelped establish the destiny of railtransit in their respective areas.

Open Territory for Development

Like the early 20th Century U.S. streetcarsuburbs, many of the newer Japanese rapidtransit lines, interurban extensions, andThird-Sector railways have been built toopen land for development. This includeswhole new towns built simultaneously withthe railways that serve them in the outskirtsof Tokyo, Yokohama, Chiba, Osaka, Kobe,Kitakyushu, and elsewhere. This trend isfed by the growing demand for residentialhousing. Joint use of track, particularly thelinking of urban rapid transit and extra-urban/interurban lines, has been used tomanage land development and achieveeconomic objectives quickly by nationaland prefecture governments:

! The Abukuma Railway put to use anunfinished railway project of theformer Japanese National Railways(JNR). Compatible with the railwayswith which it connects, AbukumaRailway is a 1067mm (3'6") gaugeline electrified with 20,000vAC(50Hz) catenary (which is used byJapan Rail-East in this district).However, the Fukushima Transportlight-rail transit (LRT) line whichAbukuma interurbans use to enterFukushima was electrified with1,500vDC catenary. To resolve dualvoltage conditions in the Fukushimaterminal area, the catenary over oneof the two LRT tracks was isolatedand energized with 20,000vAC.

Through electric service commencedon July 1, 1988. The new MarumoriLine is 54.9km (34.11 miles) longwith 23 stations. The interurbansenter Fukushima in a novel joint-usemanner. About 5 km (3.1 miles)

north of the city, they switch ontoJapan Rail-East's electrified northeastmainline for about 4 km (2.5 miles)until a Fukushima Transport BureauLRT line crosses on an overpass andswings alongside the mainline. ThenAbukuma interurbans switch fromJapan Rail tracks to one of the LRTtracks for the last stretch intoFukushima, where they share theLRT terminal. The light-weightinterurban cars traversing thissegment blend in with heavymainline freight, intercity passenger,commuter/suburban, and freightequipment, and then with lighter-weight light-rail vehicles.

The addition of 70.2 km (43.63miles) of reciprocal running withJapan Rail-East extends AbukumaRailway service to a total length of125.1 km (77.74 miles).

! The 5-mile Hokuso DevelopmentRailway grew into 50½ miles ofelectric railway operation. In order toopen a new town in Chiba prefecturefor development and in anticipationof a planned extension of the Tokyosubway network, the 7.9-km (4.91-mile) Third-Sector Hokuso Kodanline was built in 1979 to rapid transitstandards. It was then 19.6 km (12.18miles) from the nearest Tokyosubway terminal! Fully grade-separated and occupying the broadright-of-way originally reserved for aTokyo-Narita Airport Shinkansenline, the new railway operatedtemporarily as a branch of the Shin-Keisei Electric Railway interurbanline.

Service began on March 31, 1991 ona new Hokuso extension west towardTokyo, and Takasago. Takasago is ajunction where Keisei ElectricRailway interurbans and TokyoMunicipal Transport Bureau ("Toei")


Asakusa Line subway trains sharetrack. This enabled Hokuso trains torun into the heart of (and through)Tokyo.

Train operation has become quitecomplex. If one stands in theShimbashi subway station, they willsee trains of five railways: one city-owned rapid transit system, twoprivate interurbans, and two Third-Sector railways. Hokuso's railcarsrun over 81.2 km (50.46 miles) ofline.

! To open the planned new town ofSemboku in the suburban area southof Osaka, the Osaka Prefecture CityDevelopment Company Third-Sectorrailway built an all-new line to rapidtransit standards through a new town,but at 1067mm (3'6") gauge, from ajunction with one of the privateNankai Railway's interurban lines.Osaka Prefecture and NankaiRailways run trains over each others'tracks, offering a one-seat ride toOsaka mixing interurban and rapidtransit rolling stock. This is thereverse of the usual scheme ofinterurbans entering central cities oncity rapid transit lines. Here the rapidtransit trains enter the city on aninterurban line. The Third-Sectorrailway's cars, with four doublestreamdoors on each side, appear, as theyare, to be city-subway cars.

! Tosa Kuroshio Railway: JNR openeda branch line along the south coast ofthe island of Shikoku on October 1,1970 from a junction on what is nowJapan Rail-Shikoku for 35.1 km(21.81 miles) to Nakamura on theremote southwesternmost point ofthe island of Shikoku. The lineincludes a spiral tunnel and a routeatop the cliffs overlooking the Pacificocean. Service was provided byDMUs, providing six local and five

express round trips daily by 1980. Atthe time of the JNR breakup, JapanRail-Shikoku decided to relinquishthis branch.

The peninsula communities joinedwith other investors to acquire theline and purchase a fleet of uniquerailbuses. The windows on the sideof the railbuses that always faces thesea are panorama windows for viewsof the breakers. The company alsoacquired the unfinished infrastructureacross the peninsula to Sukumo Bay.The structures, appearing like a BayArea Rapid Transit District line withextensive modern aerial structure andtunnels, stood idle for more thantwenty years. On October 1, 1997,the 23.6-km (14.67-mile) extensionwas opened. There are now 16 localand eight express round trips daily.The local railbus trips continue fromthe junction for 7.9 km (4.91 miles)on Japan Rail-Shikoku tracks.

Provide Mainline Access to ExistingOffline Traffic Generators

A counterpart of this practice is affordingrural railway passengers direct access tomajor cities by through running over theJapan Rail mainlines. The main thrust,however, is for Japan Rail limited expresstrains to turn onto the lesser railway andfor limited express trains of interurbanrailways to turn onto the mainlines to reachmain city stations. In this manner, thepassengers of trains operated by fouroutlying interurban railways have directaccess to central Tokyo and Tokyoresidents have direct access to themountains, hot springs, and the seashore.Similar arrangements exist in the Osaka,Kyoto, and Nagano areas.


! The Oigawa Railway is a specialcircumstance. It is an electricinterurban line through a rural valleyfrom the Pacific Coast on the JapanRail Tokaido mainline into theinterior. It hauled freight, primarilygravel from the valley's riverbed, andinterchanged with Japan Rail-Tokai,hence, it was "narrow" 1067mm(3'6") gauge.

The interurban company came intoownership by an individual whogathered a collection of cast-offlocomotives, coaches, andinterurbans which he ran inregularly-scheduled service,including a daily steam round trip.Because the railroad museum hadbecome a popular sightseeingdestination and the tourist trainbecame a major attraction, JapanRail-Tokai commenced direct serviceover the Oigawa tracks withcommuter/suburban EMUs fromShizuoka 32.7 km (20.3 mile) northand Hamamatsu 44.2 km (27.5 mile)south.

Offer Airport Access

There are six instances of reciprocalrunning being the means by which fast,convenient train service has been providedto major airports. One has already beenmentioned – at Fukuoka, where city rapidtransit trains and commuter/suburban trainsshare tracks. At Tokyo, city subway trainsreach Haneda Airport by traveling over theinterurban mainline of the Keihin ExpressElectric Railway and one of that railway'sbranch lines. Among the trains followingthis route are those of the Tokyo TransportBureau, the Keisei Electric Railwayinterurban company, and the HokusoThird-Sector railway.

! Tokyo Narita Airport: This joint-use/reciprocal running example isfairly complex. The private Keisei

Electric Railway interurbancompany, Japan Rail-East, and othersformed a Third Sector railway tomake use of extant trackage(including heretofore freight-onlytrack and interurban railwaytrackage, and available incompleterailroad infrastructure to create aroute that could be used jointly. Thepartners planned for Japan Rail-Eastdedicated 1067mm-(3'6"-) gaugeairport trains and Keisei ElectricRailway 1435mm- (4'8½"-) gaugededicated airport and local-serviceinterurban trains. All employ1,500Vdc catenary. This merging ofotherwise incompatible train serviceswas accomplished by making use ofthe vacant double-track grading for aTokyo-to-Airport Shinkansen line,removed from the high-speed railmaster plan. Grading and culverts, atunnel, and two underground stationsbeneath the airlines terminals hadbeen completed.

At its own investment, Keisei hadbuilt a line to the Airport, but forsecurity reasons, its trains terminatedat an underground station short of theairlines terminal. Rail passengers hadto transfer to a Keisei shuttle busthrough the tight-security no-man'sland. JNR had a branch line throughthe city of Narita, to and from whichit operated a connecting bus to theairport. One track on the vacantShinkansen trackbeds was laid to1067mm- (3'6"-) gauge and the otherto 1435mm- (4'8½"-) gauge. Half ofthe four-track stations and one of thetwo island platforms was assigned toeach railway system. In the airport,the tracks connect to the older KeiseiMain Line and outside the airport, toJapan Rail-East's Narita Line.

The dedicated Japan Rail "N'EX"airport trains run from Narita Airportto Tokyo partly on the Tozai corridor.


At Shingawa, the trains break intotwo parts – one continuing south toand beyond Yokohama, the otherturning onto freight tracks clockwisearound the Yamanote loop line's westleg. The dedicated Keisei "Skyliner"trains run non-stop on the interurbantracks to Ueno station in Tokyo. TheKeisei local trains switch onto TokyoMunicipal Transport Bureau'sAsakusa rapid transit line throughTokyo to alternate far-side terminals,a run of 75.0 km (46.61 miles). Theycontinue from the subway overKeihin Electric Railway interurbantracks to Haneda Airport (a run of80.4 km or 50 miles).

Because the services are pooled,these runs are duplicated by Toeirapid transit trains. Along the way,all of the dedicated "Skyliner," thelocal interurbans, and the rapidtransit trains share track in joint-use/reciprocal running situations withthree other Third-Sector railways(Hokuso Development Railway, theResidential Housing CityDevelopment Authority railway, andChiba Prefecture-Operated Railway).

! New Kansai Airport: Osaka placedits third airport on a man-made islandjust offshore in Osaka Bay. JapanRail-West and the private NankaiElectric Railway interurban companyjoined to bring convenient railservice to the new airport through ajointly owned new Third-Sectorrailway.

Each railway has a mainline parallelto the coast from Osaka toWakayama. It was judged that asingle airport branch could be usedby both. Both are 1067mm- (3'6"-)gauge and electrified with 1,500vDCcatenary. The joint project entails a4.3-km (2.67-mile) branch fromJapan Rail's inland Hanwa Line, a

1.9-km (1.18-mile) spur fromNankai's Main Line, and a combined6.9-km (4.29-mile) continuation fromthe junction to the airlines terminal –total line construction is 13.1 km(8.14 miles), mostly on aerialstructure. The last leg to the airport ison a causeway bridge for 3.75 km(2.33 miles) over the water to theoffshore airport. Each railwayoperates its own dedicated airporttrains as well as frequent local trains,accumulating to frequent service by amix of intercity, commuter/suburban,and interurban trains.

Provide Feeder Branch Lines One-Seat-Ride Access to Urban Hubs

There are many instances in whichotherwise isolated private or Third-Sectorrailways run on Japan Rail tracks fromtheir junctions with mainlines to thedowntown stations of the closest principalcity. In several of these instances, mostlyoperated with diesel railbuses, Japan Railtrains also turn onto the smaller railways –usually in the form of school trippers –served by DMUs. The institutionalseparation of the branch lines into separatemanagements was not a deterrent toimplementation of joint use of track andreciprocal running.

Expand High-Speed Rail Influence

The Japan Rail Group operates twoShinkansen high-speed rail lines with joint-use arrangements. The employment of joint-use/reciprocal running arrangementsenabled these lines to be implemented lessexpensively and more quickly; but they alsonecessitated accommodation of other kindsof rail service and reduced high-speedperformance over portions of their route. Itwas possible to extend the extremelypositive influence of high-speed rail tosmaller cities to which it would otherwisehave been regarded as unaffordable to addto the Shinkansen network. There will be


other such joint uses as the Shinkansennetwork continues to expand. This issimilar to France's TGV trains running onconventional railroad infrastructure beyondthe ends of the dedicated TGV lines toreach more remote cities, with thesignificant difference that France did nothave to contend with a change of gauge.

! Yamagata Shinkansen: The new linefrom Fukushima to Yamagata wascreated by converting 87.1 km of theexisting conventional mainline from1067mm- (3'6"-) gauge track and20,000vAC traction power to1435mm (4'8½") track and25,000vAC catenary. Because therailway already existed and had localstations for smaller communitiesalong the way which the high-speedtrains would not serve, Japan Rail-East installed a fleet of Shinkansen-compatible EMUs to run betweenhigh-speed train trips. Part of theYamagata Shinkansen has three-railtrack, with the additional rail to carrythe 1067mm- (3'6"-) gauge trains.While this is an example of "railroadto railroad" joint running, theinfrastructure and rolling stock aresufficiently different to warrant itsconsideration in shared track consist.

! Akita Shinkansen: The other high-speed instance is on the newerextension of Shinkansen serviceacross the northern end of Honshuisland. For much of the way, the olderelectrified 75.6-km (47-mile) cross-island line's track was converted from1067mm (3'6") to 1435mm (4'8½")gauge, but electrification was kept at20,000vAC instead of the Shinkansenstandard 25,000vAC catenary (both at50Hz). The line is single track withten passing sidings at intermediatestations. For the rest of the way, for

51.7 km (32.13 mile) a west-coastmainline was used – a vital link in the1067mm- (3'6"-) gauge network. Thisdouble-track main-line was rearrangedas two single-track lines – one of1067mm (3'6") gauge for continuationof the west-coast mainline traffic; theother of 1435mm (4'6½") gauge forthe Shinkansen trains; both with thewest-coast mainline's 20,000vACcatenary. Local commuter/suburbanservice is run on the former trans-island mainline with 1435mm- (4'8½")gauge EMUs (but outfitted for the20,000vAC instead of the Yamagata-line's 25,000vAC). For 12.4 km (7.71miles), the track is three-railed as apassing siding for the Shinkansentrains. For the slower and more-frequent west-coast mainline trains,there are passing sidings at fiveintermediate stations, at which placesthe high-speed track is detoured (notgauntleted) around the station on awidened right-of-way.

Combinations of the Above

There are a number of instances where oneor more railways cooperating in joint-use/reciprocal running arrangements in onelocation have similar arrangements withother railways in other places. Some ofthese have been described already.Following are a few examples thatillustrate the versatility of the joint-use/reciprocal running practice.

! The Keisei Electric Railwayinterurban company participates inreciprocal running with the rapidtransit lines of both Tokyo (where itis "tenant") and Chiba (where it is"host"), and in a dual-gaugecircumstance with Japan Rail-East atNarita International Airport. TheChiba rapid transit line7, which usesKeisei interurban track to reachcentral Chiba, is being extended


southward and will soon join theprivate diesel-operated KominatoRailway. Keisei further participatesas conduit for Hokuso DevelopmentRailway, into Narita Airport withJapan Rail-East.

! The Odakyu Electric Railway,serving a large area south of Tokyo,runs through central Tokyo on TeitoRapid Transit Authority subwaytracks in reciprocal running with boththat Authority and Japan Rail-East innorthern suburbs. At the far southend of its principal line, Odakyu runsreciprocally with the Hakone"Mountain-Climbing" Railwaybeyond its own terminal to a stationat the toe of the mountains. TheHakone Mountain-Climbing Railwayis a 1435mm- (4'8½"-) gaugeinterurban line on a constant 8%adhesion gradient up a volcanic spurof Mount Fuji with spirals, tunnels,and switchbacks. Because Odakyu isa 1067mm- (3'6"-) gauge system, itwas necessary to lay a third rail forits trains to share Hakone's track. Thenovel dual gauge arrangement createsan offset which, when combined withnarrow standard gauge cars, avoidsgauntlets at high platforms (seeFigure 8-8 and Appendix Figure E2).

Special Circumstances

There are a number of special-circumstance applications of joint use thatdo not necessarily provide lessons for usbecause they are tailored to local situations.They do demonstrate that local decisionmakers conceive unique solutions, withinmodest Japanese regulatory constraints.The Nagoya Railway's "North AlpsExpress" contradicts some imagined jointuse of track taboos.

! North (Japanese) Alps Express:Perhaps Japan's most unusual

example of reciprocal running isNagoya Railway on the south coastof Honshu island cooperating withJapan Rail-Tokai, Japan Rail-West,and the Toyama District Railwayinterurban network on the northcoast. The Japan Rail section of the278.4-kilometer (173.00-mile) trip isnot electrified, so Nagoya Railwayuses DMUs typically running in six-car trains. Starting at a junction in theharbor area south of Nagoya, thetrains run north under catenary andin subway through Nagoya onNagoya Railway's mainline, then onsurface interurban branch linetrackage to Unuma where theyswitch to Japan Rail rails for a longrun up and over the island's divideand down to the north coast city ofToyama where they switch to localstreet railway/interurban tracks toreach Tateyama, a resort city. Theindividual links in this rail journeyusing one set of equipment are asfollows (Table 8-3).

8.7 OTHER PACIFIC RIM EXAMPLES

The search for examples of joint use oftrack/reciprocal running in the Pacific Rimoutside of Japan was thorough, but therewere few examples found. Most proved tobe of marginal interest after more detailedexamination. Two examples – Hong Kongand Seoul – were found to be useful inunderscoring the value of joint use of track.

Hong Kong's Kowloon-Canton Railway isan especially inclusive example of joint useof track. Seoul's joint use among themetropolitan transit system and thenational railway is of extraordinarygeographic scope and especially rapidimplementation.


southward and will soon join theprivate diesel-operated KominatoRailway. Keisei further participatesas conduit for Hokuso DevelopmentRailway, into Narita Airport withJapan Rail-East.

! The Odakyu Electric Railway,serving a large area south of Tokyo,runs through central Tokyo on TeitoRapid Transit Authority subwaytracks in reciprocal running with boththat Authority and Japan Rail-East innorthern suburbs. At the far southend of its principal line, Odakyu runsreciprocally with the Hakone"Mountain-Climbing" Railwaybeyond its own terminal to a stationat the toe of the mountains. TheHakone Mountain-Climbing Railwayis a 1435mm- (4'8½"-) gaugeinterurban line on a constant 8%adhesion gradient up a volcanic spurof Mount Fuji with spirals, tunnels,and switchbacks. Because Odakyu isa 1067mm- (3'6"-) gauge system, itwas necessary to lay a third rail forits trains to share Hakone's track. Thenovel dual gauge arrangement createsan offset which, when combined withnarrow standard gauge cars, avoidsgauntlets at high platforms (seeFigure 8-8 and Appendix Figure E2).

Special Circumstances

There are a number of special-circumstance applications of joint use thatdo not necessarily provide lessons for usbecause they are tailored to local situations.They do demonstrate that local decisionmakers conceive unique solutions, withinmodest Japanese regulatory constraints.The Nagoya Railway's "North AlpsExpress" contradicts some imagined jointuse of track taboos.

! North (Japanese) Alps Express:Perhaps Japan's most unusual

example of reciprocal running isNagoya Railway on the south coastof Honshu island cooperating withJapan Rail-Tokai, Japan Rail-West,and the Toyama District Railwayinterurban network on the northcoast. The Japan Rail section of the278.4-kilometer (173.00-mile) trip isnot electrified, so Nagoya Railwayuses DMUs typically running in six-car trains. Starting at a junction in theharbor area south of Nagoya, thetrains run north under catenary andin subway through Nagoya onNagoya Railway's mainline, then onsurface interurban branch linetrackage to Unuma where theyswitch to Japan Rail rails for a longrun up and over the island's divideand down to the north coast city ofToyama where they switch to localstreet railway/interurban tracks toreach Tateyama, a resort city. Theindividual links in this rail journeyusing one set of equipment are asfollows (Table 8-3).

8.7 OTHER PACIFIC RIM EXAMPLES

The search for examples of joint use oftrack/reciprocal running in the Pacific Rimoutside of Japan was thorough, but therewere few examples found. Most proved tobe of marginal interest after more detailedexamination. Two examples – Hong Kongand Seoul – were found to be useful inunderscoring the value of joint use of track.

Hong Kong's Kowloon-Canton Railway isan especially inclusive example of joint useof track. Seoul's joint use among themetropolitan transit system and thenational railway is of extraordinarygeographic scope and especially rapidimplementation.


Hakone Ry. Dual Gauge Offset to Avoid Gauntlet Rails at High Platforms-Figure 8-8

Hakone-Tozan Ry. Dual Gauge. Smaller standard gauge cars (8'8.5") fit in envelope ofwider narrow gauge cars (3'6") thus avoiding gauntlets at platforms. Also note photo (seeAppendix J).


Table 8-3Nagoya Railway Joint Use Links


8.7.1 Hong Kong and New Territories, People'sRepublic of China


Rapid transit trains are operated on thesame tracks used by freight and intercitypassenger trains. Although the rapid transitservice is operated by the same Kowloon-Canton Railway (KCR) management thatowns the railroad, intercity trains of thenational Chinese Railways and provincialGuangdong Railway use the same tracks as'tenants'. The KCR is an extreme exampleof wringing the greatest possible capacityfrom an investment in railroad rights-of-way and infrastructure. Hong Kongprovides parallels in other intensivemultiple uses of scarce land and resources.

The General Area

Hong Kong and New Territories,containing the major cities of Kowloon andVictoria, became a province of the People'sRepublic of China in 1997. Aggressive raildevelopment was under way at the time,and the Chinese government has continuedthe progress, placing additional trainvolume on existing rail capacity.

From the start of British governance, arailway has run from the harbor to theborder and to the next large urban center,Canton, in mainland China. This is theBritish financed Kowloon-Canton Railway.Although it was important for trade, theportion of the railroad in China was closedbut not dismantled by the Chinesegovernment. Hong Kong flourished, butCanton languished. Canton, in China, isnow known by its Chinese name,Guangzhou; its population has grown to2,914,281 (1990).


Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation(KCR) – 1435mm (4'8½"), 25,000vAC(50Hz) catenary and diesel (freight) – aprivate railway company.

Guangdong Railway (GR) – 1435mm(4'8½"), 25,000vAC (50Hz) catenary anddiesel – a provincially-owned railwaycompany.

Chinese Railways (CR) – 1435mm(4'8½"), 25,000vAC (50Hz) catenary anddiesel – a national railway system.

The Physical Components of the Joint-Use Facilities

! KCR's East Rail mainline fromKowloon for 33.9 km (21.07 miles)to Lo Wu on the Chinese border(Guangdong Province) – a double-track electrified intercity railroad.The topography is rugged, so the linecontains long tunnels. But about one-fifth of the way is level along thecoast of Tolo Harbour (a large arm ofthe Pacific Ocean). There are 13stations. The line carries KCR rapidtransit trains, KCR freight trains, andGuangdong Railway and ChineseRailways intercity freight andintercity passenger trains.

! Guangdong Railway's mainline fromLo Wu at the border to Shenzhen andGuangzhou, 147 km (91.3 miles),carrying Guangdong Railway'sintercity and local passenger trains,Guangdong and KCR joint passengertrains, Guangdong freight trains, andChinese Railway intercity passengertrains, express trains, and freighttrains.


Map of Hong Kong & New Territories - Figure 8-9

HONG KONG AND NEW TERRITORIESG. Thompson 5-98


! Chinese Railways' Beijing-Kowloonmainline for about 2,189 km (1,360.2miles) from Guangzhou to Beijing,carrying Chinese Railways' intercitypassenger trains, fast express trains,and freight trains.


Rapid transit service between Kowloonand Lo Wu is provided by 12-car KCRtrains of EMUs running every 3 to 15minutes. Intercity passenger and freighttrains are fitted between them. Aspassenger traffic increased, freight becamerestricted to nighttime for capacity, notinstitutional or regulatory reasons.

Chinese Railways operates Guangdongfreight and intercity passenger servicesfrom Kowloon to Guangzhou and Foshan(west of Guangzhou), and its own intercityand freight trains from Kowloon to pointsnorth of Guangzhou all the way to Beijing.

KCR and Guangdong Railway jointlyoperate high-speed trains betweenKowloon and Guangzhou, and ChineseRailways operates high-speed passengertrains from Kowloon north to Beijing onboth its older mainline and its new Jing-Jiuheavy-duty and high-speed railroad.


The British Hong Kong government builtthe Hong Kong section of the Kowloon-Canton Railway because the private Britishcompany to which China had granted aconcession hesitated to begin work. TheHong Kong section opened in October1910 as a single-track steam railroad. TheBritish and Chinese [Railway] Corporationretained the rights from the border toCanton. Hence, it became, until 1983 theonly government-owned and operatedtransportation facility in the NewTerritories.

Dieselization occurred during 1955-1961,but the new locomotives still hauled the

original 1910 passenger coaches. Freightcontinued with some growth,predominantly in food from China. Therailroad attracted planners, and itsalignment figured into numerous plans.The emphasis was placed instead onintroduction and expansion of the privateMass Transit Railway Corporation's(MTR's) rapid transit network. But by the1970s, the government had designatedseveral of the villages along the KCR assites for massive new town development.A gradually-growing commuter-rail serviceproved to be inadequate. KCR embarkedon a program of double-tracking,completed in 1977. A new, capaciousterminal was opened in November, 1975 inKowloon at Hing Hom, backed away fromthe former terminal at the water's edge. Thesingle-track Beacon Hill Tunnel wasreplaced by a two-track bore in 1981.Stations were added, and catenaryelectrification progressed northward fromKowloon. Through passenger-train service,crossing the border into China with diesellocomotion, was restored beginning April1979. First electric service began on 6 May1982, and electric trains reached the borderat Lo Wu on 16 July 1983.

The last diesel train ran seven days later,retiring the original passenger rollingstock. But diesel locomotives continue topull the freight trains and the throughpassenger trains to Chinese destinations.Through trains are provided by ChineseRailways.

In 1975, the Mass Transit RailwayCorporation began construction of anindependent three-line 1432mm- (4'8-1/3")gauge fully-grade-separated heavy rapidtransit network that is almost entirelyunderground. Although power was to bedrawn from third rail, a last-minutejudgment following examination of rapidtransit lines elsewhere in the world resultedin 1,500vDC catenary. The first train ranon October 1, 1979. The network


opened in successive incremental sections,achieving its present 43.2-km (26.84-mile)length in August, 1989.

The present KCR Corporation was formedin 1982 and took over the railway and itsoperation from the government onFebruary 1, 1983. The line carries almost500,000 daily riders, but passenger loadshave been as high as 668,466 in one day,putting it in league with Japaneseinterurban railways. The company alsooperates the isolated Tuen Mun light-railtransit network, which it opened in 1988,and many bus routes. KCR cargoamounted to 60 million metric-ton-kilometers (41 million metric short-ton-miles) annually in 1992, averaging 164,383and 112,329 daily, respectively.

Both the political pressure and the potentialgrowth of cargo moving toward Kowloonfrom a rapidly expanding rail network innearby China persuaded Hong Kong toadopt and give priority to KCR's proposalfor a "West Corridor". A construction startis expected in September 1998. KCRcalled for tenders for manufacture of 250EMUs for both the old East and new Westlines.

In November 1995, track laying wascompleted on the last link of the new Jing-Jiu trunk line (Beijing to Kowloon). Chinaplanned to start a new express passenger-train service from Shanghai to Kowloonbefore Hong Kong reverted to Chinese ruleon 1 July 1997.

Guangzhou Railway leased a seven-cartilting X2000train from Adtranz for testing.The train was converted to 25,000Vac at50 Hz for the purpose. Scheduled to arrivein March, 1998, the train will provideregular service at a premium fare betweenKowloon and Guangzhou at speeds up to200 km/h (124.3 mph), beginning by theend of 1998.


KCR adopted MTR wide-bodied rollingstock dimensions both to provide wideclearances at high (car-floor level)platforms and to cope with anticipated highvolumes of passengers. Each MTR car cancarry 375 passengers, with all but 48standing! They are 3200mm (10'6") wide,22212.5mm (72'11.2") long and have fivedoors per car side. (KCR cars have threedoors per side.) The KCR fleet of 354 carsis comprised of six-car trains that coupleinto 12-car trains in peak periods.

KCR uses the same zoned fare structure asMTR and uses identical ticket-vendingmachines, in an inter-system uniform farestructure. One of the world's largest multi-modal smart-card ticketing systems wentinto use in Hong Kong in September 1997.It encompasses riding on KCR East Rail,MTR, KCR Light Rail, City's bus, KB bus,and Hongkong & Yaumati Ferry.

Other Information

As this continuing history unfolds, asignificant example of joint use of trackand reciprocal running will have a pair oftracks carrying frequent KCR heavy rapidtransit trains, jointly-operated KCR andGuangdong Railway local electric trains,Guangdong Railway intercity trains,Guangdong Railway high-speed trains,Chinese Railways intercity trains, ChineseRailways Jing-Jiu fast trains (andsubsequently high-speed trains), andfreight trains of all three railroads, on theroute of the original Kowloon-Cantonrailway. This will be a dispatcher'snightmare until the new West Line iscompleted, but the new line, too, will carryessentially the same diverse assortment oftrains, but with a heavier volume of freight.


8.7.2 Seoul and Inch'ön, South Korea

Joint-Use Pertinence

Between 1968, when streetcar linesstopped and 1974, when rapid transit wasintroduced, the large and fast-growingcapital of South Korea depended uponbuses for its mass transportation. When theCity of Seoul opened its first rapid transitline, it was a mere 9.5 km (5.90 miles) inlength, consisting mostly of subwayalignment. But from day one, it offeredservice over 101.7 km (63.20 miles) ofmodern electric railroad lines. This wasaccomplished through the joint use oftrack. Since then, the network has grownand includes two more trunk lines overwhich the service territory is expandedthrough similar joint-use arrangements. Atleast two more such facilities are inconstruction, and the implementation of arapid transit network for nearby Inch'önwill lead to more such arrangements. Fromthe initial 8 km (5.0 miles) of undergroundrapid transit as anchor for the 101.7-km(63.20-mile) city-and suburban network in1974, the joint-use network grew by 1998to 435.4 km (270.55 miles), and is stillgrowing.

The three operating examples of joint useof track combine urban rapid transit withsuburban commuter rail in the forms ofextant lines and purpose-built lines. Thefirst of these includes freight trains andintercity passenger trains, in addition to thepooled rapid transit/commuter-rail trains.Korean National Railroad (KNR)commuter/suburban trains run through thecentral city subway, and SeoulMetropolitan Subway Corporation trainsrun to distant suburbs and satellite cities onKNR tracks.

The General Area

Seoul, capital of South Korea, is a modern,rapidly growing urban complex having a1990 city population of 10,612,577. Seoulsimply means "capital"; the real city name

is Kyöngsong. The nearby port city ofInch'ön has grown to a metropolitan centerin its own right, with 1,817,919inhabitants.

Seoul made world news when it hurriedlycompleted three heavy rapid transit lines intime for the 1988 Olympic Games — itbeing the first city in the world to everopen as much as 105 km (65¼ miles) ofnew rapid transit at once.



Seoul Metropolitan Subway Corporation(SMSC) – 1435mm (4'8½"), 1,500vDCcatenary – the regional rapid transitauthority.

Korean National Railroad (KNR) –1435mm (4'8½"); 25,000vAC 60Hzcatenary – the national railway system.

The Physical Components of the Joint-Use Facilities

Line 1 (south to north):

! KNR Kyöng-bu (Kyöngsong-Pusan)Line, 30.9 km (19.20 miles) fromSuwön north to Kuro, a double-trackelectrified railroad carrying KNRfreight, intercity passenger, andcommuter/suburban trains, andSMSC rapid transit trains.

! KNR Kyöng-in (Kyöngsong-Inch'ön)Line, 29.7 km (18.46 miles) fromInch'ön on the coast southwest ofSeoul to Kuro on the Kyöng-bu MainLine, carrying KNR freight,commuter/suburban, and rapid transittrains.


Map of Seoul and Inch'ön, South Korea - Figure 8-10

G. Thompson 5-98

SEOUL and INCH'ÖN


! KNR Kyöng-bu (Kyöngsong-Pusan)Line, 10.7 km (6.65 miles) fromKuro north to Seoul [Main] Station, afour-track electrified railroadcarrying KNR freight, intercitypassenger, and commuter/suburbantrains, and SMSC rapid transit trains.

! SMSC Line 1, 9.5 km (5.90 miles)from Seoul [Main] Station east toCh'öngnyangni, a double-trackelectrified rapid transit line mostly insubway, carrying SMSC rapid transittrains and KNR commuter/suburbantrains.

! KNR Kyöng-wön (Kyöngsong-Wönsan) Line, 20.9 km (13 miles)from Ch'öngnyangni north to Puk-Üijöngbu, a double-track electrifiedrailroad carrying KNR freight,intercity passenger, andcommuter/suburban trains, andSMSC rapid transit trains.

Line 3 (southeast to northwest):

! KNR Pundang Line, 28 km (17.4miles) from Pundang north to Susö, adouble-track electrified railroadcarrying KNR commuter/suburbantrains and SMSC rapid transit trains.

! SMSC Line 3,39 km (24.2 miles)from Susö north, west, and north toChich'uk, a double-track electrifiedrapid transit line mostlyunderground, carrying SMSC rapidtransit trains and KNRcommuter/suburban trains.

! KNR Ilsan Line, 11 km (6.8 miles)from Chich'uk west to Taehwa, adouble-track electric railroadcarrying KNR commuter/suburbantrains, SMSC rapid transit trainsthroughout, and KNR freight andintercity passenger trains part of theway.

Line 4 (southwest to northeast):

! KNR Ansan Line, 19.4 km (12.1miles) from Ansan on KNR's narrow-gauge coastal Su-in Line northeast toKumjöng on KNR's Kyöng-bu MainLine, a double-track electrifiedrailroad carrying KNR commuter/suburban trains. This line waspurpose-built as a suburban railroad,intended to temporarily run in joint-use through SMSC Subway Line #1(as a branch of Line 1) until thefollowing link was finished. It wouldthen run in joint use with SMSC Line4.

! KNR Kwach'on Line, 11.5 km (7.1miles) from Kumjöng northeast toNamt'aeryong near Sadang, meetingend-on-end with SMSC Line 4, apurpose-built electrified suburbanrailroad carrying KNRcommuter/suburban trains and SMSCrapid transit trains.

! SMSC Line 4, 35 km (21.8 miles)from Namt'aeryong north andnortheast to Tangkogae, a double-track electrified rapid transit linemostly underground, carrying SMSCrapid transit trains and KNRcommuter/suburban trains.


Line 1 uses a pool of SMSC and KNRrolling stock to provide through services.This instance of reciprocal runningincreases the rapid transit distance fromSMSC's 9.5 km (5.90 miles) to 101.7 km(63.20 miles) – eleven times over! TheKNR tracks south of the city are sharedwith KNR intercity passenger trains, somegoing all the way to Pusan.

Line 3 uses a similar pool of SMSC andKNR rolling stock for through service.KNR provides overlapping service fromOri to Susö, then on its own tracks north


through the east side of the city to Söllüngon SMSC's Line 2.

Line 1 service operates every 1½ to sixminutes. On lines 3 and 4, trains run everythree to ten minutes.


Subway Line 1, opened in 1974 from themain railroad station through the center ofthe city to Ch'öngnyangi, 9.5 km (5.90miles), is underground for 8.0 km (4.97miles). From the start it accommodatedKorean National Railroad (KNR)commuter trains. Continued rapid transitdevelopment was not only spurred bysuccess of the first line, but by theexpectation that the first line was going toquickly run short of capacity.

KNR had electrified its 10.4-km (6.46-mile) freight bypass around the south sideof central Seoul between Yongsan on theKyöng-bu Line to Ch'öngnyangi on theKyöng-won Line for efficiency in 1974.But pressure for passenger transportationcaused KNR to add stations and begin aregular passenger service with EMUs.

SMSC Line 2, started in March, 1978 andopened in stages. By May, 1984, it formeda continuous 54.3-km (33.74-mile) loopthrough the city, making no trackconnection with KNR. Lines 3 and 4,however, were specifically designed forreciprocal running with KNR. Also in1978, a joint KNR/SMSC project wasannounced for a 42-km (26.10-mile) outerbypass route from the vicinity of Kumjöngon KNR's. It is intended to carry freight,KNR commuter/suburban, and SMSCrapid transit trains.

A bold 45-km (28.0-mile) project, Line 5was started in June, 1990. Underconstruction in stages, it will connectPanghwa and Kimp'o International Airportat the west through the city to Kodok at the

east with a 7-km (4.3-mile) eastern branchto Koyo.

Construction started in 1993 on Inch'ön'sLine 1, north-and-south for 24.6 km (15.29miles), all in tunnel, using 1,500Vdc andoverhead conductor rail. It will open in1998, initially feeding KNR's Kyöng-inLine at Pupyong station.

Seoul rapid transit lines 6 and 8 are underconstruction without joint-use/reciprocal-running implications. Planning for Lines 9through 12 began in 1993. New lines areplanned to satellite cities of Paju, Kuri, andSangman.


SMSC adopted KNR standards forclearances inasmuch as its rapid transittrains would have to run on KNR tracksused by freight and intercity passengertrains. As in Japan, the norm is high, car-floor-level station platforms which arecritical for lateral clearances. But otherfeatures were compromised among SMSCand KNR, each having reasons for stickingwith their own features.

For joint-use of track/reciprocal running,both the SMSC rapid transit trains and theKNR commuter trains are outfitted tooperate under 1,500Vdc catenary in thesubway and 25,000Vac/60Hz catenary onthe KNR suburban tracks. Transitionbetween the two voltages is accomplishedautomatically.

Both railways use ATC (automatic traincontrol), but they are of different types.The KNR uses ATS (automatic train stop).The SMSC uses a continuous loop ATC.

Each railway has a differentcommunication system. KNR had installeda space wave leaky coaxial cable circuitsystem. SMSC chose a two-way radio –inductive radio system. The same attitudesprevailed as for electrification. So, all


trains are equipped with both systems sothat the operators can communicatedirectly to both the SMSC and KNRcontrollers.

The redundancy negotiated in the"compromise" has been costly – eachoperator keeping its own systems. Thelarge fleets of railroad and rapid transitEMUs have had to be outfitted with twokinds each of electrification, train control,and communications systems. But,literature reveals no serious subsequentdispute nor dissatisfaction. Such redundantsystems are still considerably less costlythan building duplicative railroad andsubway lines.

Other Information

Initially, it was intended that additionallines and branches be routed through theLine 1 central city subway. However, thevolume of passengers grew quickly to sucha volume that it became necessary to buildclosely parallel downtown subways toaccommodate new rapid transit lines. Thisis one of the few contemporary examples ofa joint-use system outgrowing joint-usepractices.

The city, Seoul Metropolitan SubwayCorporation, and KNR are engaged in anaggressive expansion program. Most of thenew lines will be set up to participate inreciprocal running with KNR. By the endof this century, Seoul will enjoy a 585-km(363.5-mile) rapid transit network,reciprocal running, with KNR havingadded 242.0 km (150.38 miles) to theblend. In 1992, SMSC and KNR linescarried 21.5% of metropolitan travel.Seoul's goal is to have more than 400 km(248.6 miles) of these rail services carrying75% by the Year 2000.

Neighboring Inch'ön is emulating thecapital city. It is already a beneficiary ofthe joint KNR/SMSC service from centralSeoul. Its first rapid transit line will open

in 1998 and the second-line will go intoconstruction. The third line is intended, anddesigned for, eventual reciprocal runningwith Lines 7 and 11 of the Seoul network.Lines 2 and 3 will bring the total to 80 km(49.7 miles) by 2007. A 125-km (77.7-mile) network is planned.

8.8 PACIFIC RIM LESSONS

The Pacific Rim case studies demonstrateat least ten varieties of shared trackexperience. LRT and freight mixes areuncommon in Japan but a large array ofwhat would be classified in North Americaas non-FRA compliant rail transit rollingstock is operated jointly with railroadtrains. The relatively minor role of freightrailroading in Japan does not diminish theinnovations of joint use between rail transitand railroad passenger entities. Sharing oftrack used by railroad freight and intercitypassenger trains with lighter-weight rapidtransit cars, light-rail vehicles, DMUs andrailbuses is quite common throughoutJapan and the Pacific Rim. The lessons thatcan be learned from Japanese and PacificRim experience with planning, designing,and implementing joint-use of track andreciprocal running are varied insofar astheir applicability to the U.S. The centrallesson is that common interests breedcooperation and an environment in whichtrack sharing becomes a viable option. Acorollary is that joint ventures andpublicprivate partnerships generateinnovative practices and must be supportedby local decision making. A mixture ofPacific Rim and North American examplesare offered as specific lessons in thefollowing paragraphs:

Observations

• Achieving successful joint use is notthe result of a single circumstance,but a combination of featuresnegotiated by like-minded entitieswho feel they have a stake.


• Joint use of track/reciprocal runningis useful as a means to inexpensivelyextend city rapid transit into thesuburbs and useful for bringingcommuter-rail to the heart of a city.This has been a prime motive indeveloping shared track proposals inJapan.

• The use of railbuses or other DMUsin joint use of track arrangements isan interim way for extending urbanrail transit to the suburbs on existingrailroad tracks. The railbus is aprecursor for greater capacityvehicles while, for example,electrification is being contemplated(as on the Ise Railway), or ridershipgrowth is being encouraged (as atKuala Lumpur).

• Public-private joint Third Sectorventures are spawned when localjurisdictions are confronted with lossof service or a common economicinterest emerges. The closest NorthAmerican equivalent is the jointventure DBOM, or a short lineoperator taking over a branch linethreatened with abandonment. Risk istolerated in joint use where operatingdiscipline and management cultureembraces extraordinary safetypractices.

Joint use of track/reciprocal running isprimarily a means for reducing capitalinvestment requirements by enablingproposed rail lines or extensions to makethe utmost use of existing facilities.Attracting more patronage may result inshared track fulfilling an interim need untildemand outruns capacity and separateparallel capacity becomes unavoidable.

Joint use of track/reciprocal runningapplied to very high density services inJapan may induce standardization ofinfrastructure and rolling stock as anunintentional result. Japan and Seoul,

South Korea abound in purpose-builtfacilities designed and specified inanticipation of (not in response to) jointuse, which also motivates commonphysical and technical standards.

Hong Kong has demonstrated that a varietyof rail modes and initiatives can coexist onthe same pair of tracks in a changingpolitical environment. The electrifiedKowloon-Canton Railway (KCR) trackscarry diesel freight trains, electric high-speed trains, diesel-locomotive-hauledintercity passenger trains, and electricheavy rapid transit trains – the latter beingits basic use. This could be the northeastU.S. equivalent of Amtrak, Metro North,Conrail and MTA-NYCT rapid transitsharing track with NYCT as host. ThroughHong Kong's densely-developed region, itwas not necessary, nor was there space, tobuild a separate freight railroad, a separateintercity railroad, and a rapid transit line.As volume overwhelms capacity, KCR isbuilding an all-new double-track railroad ina parallel corridor – not to separate modes,but to carry the same joint-use mix plusunit container trains. Adding parallel newcapacity when existing capacity is reachedneed not require reverting to separatemodes on separate facilities.

Basic Decisions by Joint Use Partners

There is no single model for pursuingjoint-use of track or reciprocal running.Never the less ce r ta in p rac t i ca lcons ide ra t ions appear to pe r ta in .Observation of the fundamental aspectsamong two (or more) prospectiveparticipants in joint-use of track/reciprocalrunning reveals the following:

• If both rail lines exist, but joint use isunder consideration, compromisesare negotiated no matter how similarthe infrastructure or rolling stockmight be (or be perceived to be).


• If one line exists and the other ismerely planned and must be built, thenew facility routinely complies withthe older system's standards ofdesign, dimensional clearances, etc.,and compatible rolling stock. Insome cases this can result in buildingnew obsolescence.

• If one of the prospective participantsin joint use is a railroad operator, thetransit physical plant design willequal or exceed the railroad physicalstandards of weight, dimensions, andperformance for that portion of theline used by joint service. Thesubject rail line will have twophysical standards. For example, inNorth America, the Baltimore LRTlines can accommodate interlinefreight. However, the trackconnections used by Conrail andCanton Railroad – the freightoperators – are at logical locationswhere the freight movements do nothave to follow LRV standard steepgradients or go over aerial structure.The shared track sections are definedand built to a more generousgeometry. Shared track can beisolated to specific segments of asystem.

• If one of the prospective participantsin joint use is electrified, itselectrification standard willordinarily prevail. However, this maynecessitate modifications to thecurrent-collection apparatus. Suchmodification might be as simple as ahigh-reach pantograph such as at SanDiego and Baltimore, where freighttrains run on tracks under LRTcatenary. Or, it might be as complexas at Cleveland, where West SideRed Line heavy rapid transit andWaterfront Line light-rail transittracks are crossed by Conrail freightsidings and the low catenary must be

raised when freight movementsoccur.

• Though unlikely in North America ofthe 21st Century, if both participantsare electrified, but with differingvoltage and delivery systems, thereare common means for resolving theincompatibility problem. Offsetpantographs, dual wire, third rail/catenary and overhead railconsiderations are among theremedies.

• Railroads engaged in joint use willadopt, to the extent they are able, theequipment and labor practices oftheir rail transit partner, if the latter'seconomics are demonstrablysuperior. National railroads adoptingrail buses is a prominent example.

There are some aspects of reciprocalrunning that had to be resolved by theJapanese, but ought not be problems inNorth America. Differences of track gaugeare less of a problem, although it isinhibiting at New Orleans (broad gauge),Philadelphia (two gauges), Pittsburgh(broad gauge), San Francisco (BART'sbroad gauge), and Toronto (broad gauge).

Exceptions abound. Diversity is enhancedby local decision making. Standardizationarises from the bottom up, not by nationaldecree. Joint use of track over time andequipment replacement cycles drive aselective and evolutionary form ofstandardization.

Institutional Matters

It may prove necessary to tolerate the costof some redundancy such as at Seoul,where both the Korean National Railroadand the Seoul Metropolitan SubwayCorporation insisted on their ownelectrification scheme, train control system,and communications system. The rollingstock of both operators had to be outfitted


with redundant sets of systems. Thetradeoff between capital cost of aredundant train control outweighed thecapital cost of a duplicative parallel railline in this case.

Cost sharing is negotiated. There are noestablished norms concerning what aprospective joint-use/reciprocal runningparticipant might demand, tolerate, oryield. The case studies provide no optimalarrangement, just different ones based onlocal circumstances.

Whatever doubts the six Japan Rail groupcompanies might have had with allowingprivate and Third Sector railway railbusesto share their tracks with their mainlinetrains were overcome by favorableexperience. Japan Rail companies veryquickly became the largest owners andoperators of railbuses. Of the 782 railbusesrunning in Japan, 451 are owned andoperated by regional Japan Rail companies.This is parallel to, but on a broader scale,Karlsruhe's successful use of dual-voltagelight-weight LRVs to expand urban light-rail transit by running on Deutsche Bahn(DBAG) branch line tracks, resulting inDBAG acquiring its own fleet of LRVs toreplace some locomotive-hauled and DMUassignments.

In addition to permanent joint-use of trackarrangements, the practice has beenemployed as a temporary expedient. Forexample, during the gauge conversion andelectrification modification for the AkitaShinkansen, special DMU trains filled inwith through service inasmuch as theDMUs did not rely upon a continuouspower supply from catenary. It was notnecessary to halt rail service during thiscomplex construction project.

Implementation of reciprocal running isoften incremental in Japan, either tointroduce new elements of service insequence to acquaint operating employeeswith changes or to allow service to beintroduced on completed segments while

other segments were still underconstruction.

Aspects of corporate and railroadorganization unique to Japan influencedecisions to pursue joint use of track.When the railway corporation goal is tomake a profit on investment and therailway goal is to expand ridership, thesegoals coalesce in the employment of jointuse/reciprocal running as a means to costeffectively expand the market territory.Diversification of business and extensionof rail service go hand in hand in the fieldsof land use development and economicdevelopment.

Research did not disclose a major incidentor loss of life traced solely to joint use. Nojoint use sharing of tracks has ever beenrevoked because of incidents, misgivings,assumption of risk, or lapse of trust amongpartners. No litigation, insurance measure,or court action has been directed at jointuse partners based on their shared track orother cooperative venture.

Way Facilities, Structure, and StationConcerns

Construction of new rapid transit facilitiesin the larger metropolitan areas wasdesigned to the higher JNR clearancestandards or to area interurban railwaycompany standards in anticipation ofthrough running. The lesson: Don'tundersize new rail facilities because of theattitude, "Joint use in the U.S. can neverhappen." There may, however, be other,valid reasons to build small, but specifyingsmall dimensions to preclude joint use orother system integration is no longerpracticed.

A variety of means of protecting the gradecrossings of rail lines with public roads isavailable and, in Japan, there is nohesitation to run "subway" trains (whichtypically have grade-separated trackbeds)on suburban trackage that intersects roadsat grade. Rapid transit cars in this service


are being retrofitted with steel pilots inrecognition of vulnerability to collisionsand deflecting objects at grade crossings.

In signaling, the most sophisticated systemprevails and must be adopted by the otherparticipant – not necessarily for en entiresystem, but at least for the joint-usetrackage. Equipment is dedicated tospecific trackage where expense prohibitsinstalling ATO on the entire fleet.

Lack of subway or tunnel clearances fornormal pantograph operation, orconstruction costs of increasing overheadclearances, are deterrents to pursuit of jointuse of track/reciprocal running. Low costalternatives exist. Use of low voltage,trolley bar instead of catenary, and double-sprung pantograph, direct-fixation track, orsome combination of these, alleviate thisproblem. For possible extension of third-rail rapid transit trains from Philadelphia toLindenwold, New Jersey, and beyond onrailroad track, PATCO staff designed a carwith a recessed pantograph pit so a locked-down pantograph would fit withinclearances through the central city subway.

Although once common in some parts ofthe U.S., Japan does not contain a singleexample of the combination of powercollection from catenary and third rail onthe same line! Ample North Americanprecedents overcame dual voltage/collection complexities including Boston'sBlue Line heavy rapid transit line (wherethe changeover takes place at a station) andMetro North's New Haven Line andChicago's Skokie Swift line (where thechangeover occurs while the trains are inmotion).

Rolling Stock Compatibility

The locomotives, coaches, and otherrailcars employed in reciprocal runninghave compatible couplers for an activetrain to push or pull a stalled train to a safehaven.

The car body width at sills should be of thewidth of the wider of the participant'srolling stock. Existing rolling stock can beretrofitted with extended sills to reach thewider-body cars' station platforms. Or, ifcar width is limited by the physical plant ofone participant, its cars must be fitted withretractable extenders.

Rolling stock compatibility requiressufficient uniform performance to functionin a blended schedule. It extends toperformance in another way. Becausestation dwell time is a very critical item inschedule making, the cars of each systemmust be able to load and unload passengersat stations in the same short (seconds)period of time. At Tokyo, where largevolumes of passengers are handled, dwelltime is especially critical and has broughtabout subway, commuter-rail, andinterurban cars with four and five doors perside – typical of heavy rapid transit, butquite a change from commuter trains withdoors at end vestibules or interurbans withquarter-point doors.

If doors have to be added to interurban andcommuter stock, then speed has to beincreased for rapid transit stock. Newrolling stock for rapid transit service isdesigned to higher performance standardsenabling blending of services and joint usewith commuter-rail lines and interurbanlines that generally had higher top speeds.

Where among participating railways thereare segments with high (car-floor level)station platforms and segments with low(curb-level) station platforms, theadjustments to conform can be on the carsinstead of wholesale rebuilding of stations.Folding steps interlocked with doors is themeans for high-floor cars to load andunload passengers at low platforms as atFukui and Gifu. Some North Americanexamples are instructive in three ways:Pittsburgh uses different doors at the twokinds of platform; the low platforms areaccommodated by separate doors with


step-wells. Buffalo uses outward-foldingsteps on its downtown transit pedestrianmall and high platform loading at all otherstations; but the steps must be activated ateach mall station. San Francisco usesinternal elevator-type steps which in theirup position provide the flat floor for use athigh-platform stations; these need beactivated only once on each trip while thetrain is in motion between the last of onetype station and the first of the other typestation. The choice of type of retractablestep is critical, as it impacts dwell time atstations.

Merging different fare collection systemscan result in changes that affect car design.Most of the diesel railbuses used inreciprocal running in Japan are equippedwith fare collection apparatus that permitsoperation by one person and obviates theneed for ticket agents or ticket-vendingmachines at stations or conductors ontrains.

What Not to Emulate

North American transportation plannersshould not take example from some ofJapan's rail system characteristics: lack ofanti-climbers, incompatible couplers,general absence of "cowcatchers" (pilots),or different floor heights among railvehicles, and conclude that these areunimportant.

Japan has a different response towheelchair accommodation than does theU.S. There, employees are expected toassist disabled persons while boarding andalighting. Here, the physical requirementsare legislated. It is the ultimate objectivethat the whole national rail system of Japanwill be accessible. Among street railwayoperators, Kumamoto is trying low-floorLRVs. Unlike Europe and the trend inNorth America, low-floor car designs arecurrently not in general favor in Japan.

T'ai-pei, particularly by contrast to Seoul,is a useful example of the consequences ofignoring an opportunity for joint use oftrack. Commuter-rail service on the T'ai-wan Railroad Administration's (TRA's)T'am-shui Line was slated to be electrified.Instead, a political decision was made toreplace it with a rapid transit line. Toaccommodate growing ridership, TRAreplaced DMUs with trains of locomotive-hauled coaches. DORTS, the rapid transitconstruction agency, took over the line,TRA discontinued service, and DORTSdismantled it. At great cost, DORTS built asubway part way in a parallel street andpart way on the T'am-shui right-of-way.DORTS continued with a continuouslyelevated aerial structure for most of thelength of the line; it was not until the lastfew miles that the rapid transit tracks wereactually laid on the former commuter-railtrackbeds. This time-consuming processwas exacerbated by construction delaysand quality problems, delays in delivery ofrolling stock, and derailments duringtesting. By the time rapid transit trainsbegan serving the public, it was ten yearssince commuter trains stopped running.

By contrast, the former MetropolitanTransit Authority in Boston converted theBoston & Albany Railroad's HighlandBranch commuter-rail line to light-railtransit in 1959 and linked it to theBoyleston Street Subway for throughrunning in ten months.

Other questions were pursued duringresearch; who trains crews, who developsthe joint schedule, how are maintenanceand operating costs divided, whodispatches trains, and how is revenuedivided. No single pattern or commonprocedure emerged from any of theseissues, except that each was negotiatedamong participating interests on a local,metropolitan, or regional basis.


8.9 REGULATIONS AND AGREEMENTS

The railroad regulatory climate in Japan isquite different than in the U.S. or Canada.The reasons are obvious. The NorthAmerican railroad network developed byprivate enterprise in an extremelycompetitive atmosphere, wherein anyrailroad company could build between anypair of cities. Granted, they needed to bechartered by state legislatures which oftenimposed limitations,9 and in more moderntimes needed Interstate CommerceCommission (I.C.C.) consent as well. InJapan, initially only one railroad companywas allowed to link any pair of cities, andsubsequently the nationalized railroad builtthe newer lines on a justification basis –hence few parallel competing railroads.Japanese National Railways (JNR) becamea powerful bureaucratic organization – amonopoly – that steered its own course.

When JNR was separated into sixgeographical-territory companies (and anoverall freight operator), the TransportMinistry imposed JNR regulations andoperating rules upon them as a means forassuring continuation of uniformity. TheMinistry retains for itself a veto over faredecisions, but this appears to be doneresponsibly and cautiously inasmuch as itis national policy that the Japan Rail groupof companies become sufficientlyprofitable to have their stock placed on theopen market.

U.S. railroads that occur entirely within thebounds of a single state are within thejurisdiction of state regulatorycommissions. Of course, to participate ininterchange with interstate railroads, thestate-bound railroads had to comply withI.C.C. regulations and accounting systems.In Japan, individual prefectures establishedrules to guide the smaller railways withintheir bounds. Historically, regulation hasprimarily focused on fare structures andfare rates, not market entry or equipmentstandards.

In Switzerland, railroads are nationallylegislated to be of standard gauge – 1435mm(4'8½") – while interurbans are legislated tobe of meter gauge.10 Although JapaneseNational Railways and its successor JapanRail Companies are of 1067mm (3'6")gauge, the Japanese interurbans are ofseveral gauges. The institutional separationof the national railway system from theinterurbans is, however, similar in Japan.Hence, the JNR regulations and rules do notapply to the interurbans or smaller privaterailways, nor do these companies necessarilyshare the same regulations and rules withone-another.

When two Japanese rail entities decide tointroduce a joint use track arrangement,more than just a trackage rights agreementis on the table. They negotiate other termsin the agreement. In the case of the SanrikuRailway and its joint use of track withJapan Rail-East, it was necessary tocompare the former JNR rules (imposed bythe national Transport Ministry) with therules established by Iwate Prefecture. Whatmight seem the 'easy' course prevailed – toadopt for joint operation the more stringentof each pair of rules. In effect, thisexpanded the former JNR rules toencompass the operation of the SanrikuRailway.

Although forms of joint use of track andreciprocal running have a tradition inJapan, it was not until the breakup of JNRinto the Japan Rail group of companies thatattention focused on the combination offactors now at work throughout the nation.Somewhat similarly to Conrail not pickingup all the Northeast and Midwest insolventrailroads' lines that were evaluated byUSRA, the new Japan Rail companies didnot take all of the JNR branch lines.Though these lines had no nationalpurpose, they were regarded locally asvaluable. This is similar to thecircumstance in the U.S. where newshortline railroads were formed – oftenwith municipality or county assistance – to


take over the lines omitted from theConrail network. In the similar situation inJapan, the Third-Sector movement –private/public joint venture waslaunched.11

Joint use of track is not so much a nationalregulatory matter in Japan as it is abusiness matter of agreement among theparticipating rail entities. There are noregulations at either national or prefecturelevel that prohibit joint use of track orreciprocal running. There are,nevertheless, an assortment of conflictingoperating rules and entity-to-entitydifferences with which negotiators mustcomply. The following model is offered asan example of a joint operating contractwhich (in Japan) tends to compensate formodest regulatory influence. A functionaltranslation of Sanriku's joint useagreement(s) with Japan rail includes theseelements:

• Reciprocal Running Contract• Operating Agreement• Agreement on Train Crew Exchange• Amendment to Operating Agreement

Reciprocal Running Contract

This basic document is essentially anagreement, negotiated and signed bycorporate executives of both railways. Itsets forth the structure and spirit of thetotal agreement and subordinateagreements under its purview. It containsseventeen sections:

1. Rules that Apply – that trains willfollow Japan Rail rules while onJapan Rail-East tracks and SanrikuRailway rules when on Sanrikutracks.

2. Reciprocal Running Train Name,Train Consist, Operating Days – Anattached timetable gives trainidentifications, make-up (whetherJapan Rail's or Sanriku Railway'sequipment, single car, multiple-unit,

or otherwise), and days of operationof each.

3. Operating Rules for ReciprocalRunning – refers to separate agreement.

4. Responsibilities for Handling Trains– details the means of exchanging,making-up, and breaking-down trainsat exchange points.

5. Points Where Train Operators AreExchanged.

6. Communication About Operation –the need for each party to inform theother.

7. Taking Care of Disabled Trains –expresses the responsibilities forrepairing and moving disabled trains.

8. Immediate Communication UponAccident – stipulates accident-reporting.

9. Change or Repair of Facilities.10. Electricity, Diesel Oil, Oil, and Other

Articles of Consumption.11. Train Use Fee – unequal rates are

specified, based upon relative lengthsof run on each other's tracks andother considerations.

12. Payment – dates for payments, lateinterest rate of 14.5%.

13. Division of "Damage" (Liability) –the railway that caused the damagewill bear responsibility, but if damageoccurs while both parties areinvolved, they must consult toascertain division of responsibility.When rolling stock damage results incanceling a reciprocal running run,neither party will seek compensation.(This shared risk shared responsibilityarrangement contrasts with "no fault,""hold harmless" provisions beingnegotiated in North America.)

14. Change of Train Use Fee.15. Time Span of Agreement – the

agreement was effective from March16, 1991 until March 31, 1992, and iskept in force on a year-by-yearrenewable basis and as amended(currently still in effect six years laterfrom the first operation).


16. Change or Dissolving – either partycan dissolve or amend the agreement.

17. Settlement of Disagreement – formatters not covered or otherdisagreement, both parties mustconfer, otherwise referred to asettlement court.

Operating Agreement

This document contains eleven sections:

1. Reciprocal running will abide byspecific Japan Rail rules of April1987 concerning Safety OperatingModel, Train Operator's Handbook,Operating Accident Reporting,Operator's Work Rules, LocomotiveMaintenance Handbook, and DieselRailcar Personnel Guide (coveringDMU and railbuses).

2. Schedule for Reciprocal RunningTrains (in separate agreement).

3. Meeting on Operation –responsibility for specified personnelof each railway to meet daily atspecific location to confer on thenext day's operation.

4. Handling of Signals – detailedinstruction for abiding by signals.

5., 6., & 7Handling Reciprocal Running Trainsat interchanges and in the process ofhanding over a train.

8. Communication of OperatingConditions – each railway keepingthe other informed of changes inoperating conditions.

9. Taking Care of Unusual Conditions –both parties will confer on theunusual.

10. Change to This Agreement – bothparties agree to confer upon changes.

11. Time Period for This Agreement –same as Reciprocal RunningContract.

Agreement on Train Crew Exchange

This agreement contains five sections:

1. Preserve Presence at Workplace–theconductor must be present prior todeparture time from the exchangestation.

2. Taking Over — the procedure forexchanging written or oral reports.

3. Division of Responsibility – when aconductor's responsibility isexchanged.

4. Delivery of Lost and Found.

Amendment to Operating Agreement

Matters that arose as a result of experiencein operating the Sanriku Railway/JapanRail-East reciprocal running service havebeen gathered into an amendment to theinitial contract and agreements. Rather thannew matters, this arrangement providesgreater detail for existing rules andpractices.

Conclusions Applying to this Research

There is nothing unusual or profound in theSanriku Railway's reciprocal-runningcontract with Japan Rail-East or itssupplemental memoranda of agreements.Perhaps the most significant point is asimple one: Item 3 of the OperatingAgreement states: "Every day at 8:10 p.m.in the Miyako station, the Japan Railstation master and the Sanriku Railwayoperating manager must meet to formallyagree upon the next day's operatingschedule." This underscores person-to-person contact and designated individualstaking responsibility for actions anddecisions as the hallmark of successful andsafe Japanese railway operations. It is alsoevident that the key document is theemployee rulebook – which every NorthAmerican railroad and rail-transit agencyhas and uses as an instrument of operating-employee training, rules, examination, anddiscipline.


Risk and Liability are shared in the samemeasure as tracks are shared. No specialacknowledgement was found in theagreements, which treats especially, thedifferent sizes, weights and operatingcharacteristics of rail buses and largeconsist locomotive hauled freight orpassenger trains. No mention is made ofpersonal injury or related litigation, whichis subject to general laws and legalprecedents in Japan.

8.10 PACIFIC RIM CONCLUSIONS

Employing joint use of track and reciprocalrunning has enabled Japanesetransportation entities to carry out a varietyof social and economic objectives, mostlyexpansion or preservation of rail services,for the purposes:

! In the major urbanized areas, ofexpanding services of urban rapidtransit lines deep into surroundingsuburbs by using existing tracks ofthe national railroad network orregional interurban railways insteadof constructing costly duplicativeinfrastructure.

! In extra-urban and urban areas, toopen new or renewed territory forresidential or economic development.

The first set of cases accumulates to thegreatest volume of riders while the secondset accumulates to the greatest number ofnew rail miles. One of the greatest uses ofjoint use/ reciprocal running has been thecost effective, therefore, quick expansionof Japan's rapid transit systems andespecially the system at Seoul and Inch'ön,South Korea, as portrayed in the followingTable 8-4.

The point of Table 8-4 is to quantify thegrowth in rapid transit (non FRA complianttype) service over railroads attributed tojoint use. The rapid transit line columncontains the current (1 January 1998)

extent of city rapid transit ("subway") lines.Not included are the subway or tunnelsections of commuterrail and interurbanlines in Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyoto. Therapid transit service column contains thesum of the rapid transit lines and theadditional tracks of other railways overwhich the rapid transit system's trainsoperate in joint use of track arrangements.This column quantifies the growth of one-seat service largely due to shared track. Thereciprocal running column contains thesum of the rapid transit service total and theadditional mileage over which the track-sharing trains operate. The last column addsthe planned rapid transit joint use. It shouldbe understood that the figures in thiscolumn do not represent the total of urbanpassenger rail mileage in any of theidentified cities. There are many kilometersof existing and planned railways that are notor will not be involved in joint-usearrangements. But they are outside thescope of the following table and this report.

The following U.S. equivalent example isprovided to help the reader on the use of thedata in Table 8-4. In New York City, a rapidtransit line extended from the formerHudson Terminal in lower Manhattan toJournal Square in Jersey City, the 3.22-miledistance would be entered into the rapidtransit line column. If the rapid transit trainscontinued over the Pennsylvania Railroad's(PRR's) tracks for another 5.50 miles toHarrison, that distance would be added tothe 3.22 miles and the 8.72 sum would beentered into the rapid transit servicecolumn. Suppose the rapid transit trainswould have shared track with PRR electriccommuter trains running from ExchangePlace, Jersey City to and beyond Elizabeth.These trains continued beyond Harrison(and Newark) to New Brunswick another23.25 miles and on a branch for 9.20 milesfrom Rahway to South Amboy; thesemileages would be added to the 8.72 milesand the sum be entered into the reciprocalrunning column.


Table 8-4Japanese Rapid Transit Expansion Attributable to Shared Track

* = Sapporo rapid transit cannot participate in joint use of track because it is a rubber-tire system# = no joint use in planning stage• = The west rapid transit terminal is arranged so tracks can be extended as new townsare developed.

Note: Korean/Seoul shown for contrast.


The foregoing, of course, happens to be areal example from the past. The Hudson &Manhattan Railroad and PennsylvaniaRailroad shared track between JournalSquare and Harrison, with H&M trainstaking power from low voltage DC thirdrail and PRR freight and passenger trainstaking power from high voltage ACcatenary, between 1911 and 1961. Thisbusy double-track railroad handled thespecially-designed H&M and PRR rapidtransit trains, PRR EMUs, and trainshauled by PRR electric and steamlocomotives. Today, it is exclusively theWTC-NWK mainline of the Port Authorityof New York & New Jersey's PATH rapidtransit system.

To avoid the appearance of exaggerationand distortion of the foregoing comparativedata, the mileage added by long-distancetrains that share the same tracks is omitted.

For comparison, New York City's threerapid transit operating entities have a sumof 443 km (275.3 route miles) of line, a bitmore than Tokyo's. This represents theextent of the NYC system which is only2/5 of the joint use/reciprocal runningdistance in Tokyo. Tokyo expanded itsservice network over 2½ times throughjoint use.

Rolling stock of varying types as seen onsections of track shared by two or morerailways appears to have evolved into thesame vehicle. This would suggest thatthere really is little or no mixing ofincompatible types of rolling stock inJapan. To some extent, this homogeneityhas evolved. For example, on the TozaiLine at Tokyo, the newest joint-useparticipant simply purchased cars identicalto those already in operation by Japan RailEast and the Teito Rapid Transit Authority.Uniformity is also being achieved overtime. As rolling stock comes up forrenewal, refurbishment or replacement,rapid transit, interurban and commuter railcars lose their individual corporate

appearance and performancecharacteristics. In places where rapidtransit is part of the joint-use mix, a newform of electric railway car has emergedblending the characteristics of eachparticipant's rolling stock. In spite of atrend toward compatible or identicalrolling stock induced by years of jointoperation on rapid transit tracks, Japaneserailroads continue to operate incompatiblerolling stock on non-subway trackageshared with rapid transit trains.

While the following did not come to pass,an example of this incrementalevolutionary process is noteworthy andillustrative of a U.S. equivalent situation.

Several Japanese railway practices deserveattention in North America as examples fortransit agencies and the private sectorconsidering expanding or introducing newpassenger rail services:

! The Third-Sector process andinstitution; i.e., the use of public/private joint ventures.

! The practice of private railways todiversify services, endeavors, andinvestments as a means to cross-subsidize passenger rail services.

! The operation of light-weight,economical diesel railbuses forlower-volume passenger railservices. Use of these vehicles onservice that could not otherwise befeasible if higher capital investmentor higher operating costs prevail.

These practices are useful individually orin combination. But, the definitivetechnique is that of joint use of track. It isprominent in a phase of transit projectdevelopment that engages the tasks ofplanners and engineers in ascertainingproject feasibility–achieving an affordableproject cost. In Japan, this has obviouslybeen a driving force in transportationdecision making.


In North American experience, there is apopular notion among practitioners toseparate and classify public transportationmodes. Railroads are railroads, rapidtransit is rapid transit, street railways arestreet railways, and buses are buses, withsubdivisions between them. Therapidlyrising cost of undergroundconstruction long ago changed a similarattitude in Tokyo. A simple valueengineering exercise challenge turned intopolicy–joint use of track is far less costly,even when numerous adjustments aremade. Scarce financial resources for railtransportation can achieve far greater valueif duplicative facilities are avoided,particularly if underground constructioncan be avoided. Tokyo concentrated onwhat were believed to be worth-the-costsubways in the densely-developed centralcity, and continued the service deep intothe suburbs by leveraging the joint-use oftrack arrangement. Osaka, Nagoya, andother Japanese cities followed thatexample. Most of these cities had in placeat least initial parts of subway systems andother elements to fashion a system.

Seoul, South Korea, however, started itsall-new rapid transit planning from theoutset with joint use of track and reciprocalrunning in mind. The rapid deployment ofrail lines cooperatively by that city's transitauthority and the national railroad systemare perhaps the most dramaticdemonstration of the value of joint use/reciprocal running.

Japanese combinations of joint use/reciprocal running with public/private jointventures (the Third-Sector process) anddiversity of endeavor and investment lendsupport to the incremental approach totransit system development. As capitalfunding flows, facilities are built insegments that can – one by one – be putinto service at the earliest possible

instance. These mixes have not tarnishedthe nation's reputation for railway safety,including 31 years of high-speed railoperation with no fatality or serious injury(yet encompassing the operation of slowercommuter/suburban trains on the high-speed tracks of the Yamagata and AkitaShinkansen lines). The Japanese railwaysall boast very high rates of on-timeperformance.

A pair of questions from a North Americanperspective would be, "Why arelightweight railbuses allowed to mix withconventional heavyweight railroad trains?"and "Why are commuter-rail trains, rapidtransit trains, and interurban trains ofvarious lengths, weights, floor heights, andperformance characteristics allowed toshare tracks?" The answer lies in Japan'sholistic view of transport. The cost andservice benefits generated outweigh thepotential risk to safety. The shared-trackconcept appears to be self perpetratingsince, based on favorable experience, thepractice is expanding.

In summary, the Japanese experience withjoint use of track and reciprocal runninghas been favorable. The Japaneseexperience, widely spread geographicallywithin the island nation, has found its wayto other Pacific Rim countries.

Finally, some readers may assert thatcultural differences drive attitudes topursue joint-use, reciprocal runningprojects and unconventional operatingpractices in Japan. These outlineddifferences, while providing a climate inwhich joint use can flourish, translate toinstitutional and regulatory concerns forcost, physical, and operational feasibilityand safety. Japan has no less regard forhuman life than North America.


ENDNOTES - CHAPTER 8

1. Sometimes termed as "Japan Rail-Central".

2. The bus design derived Mack FCDcars were used in joint service withfreight trains on NYNH&H branchlines in Massachusetts and RhodeIsland south of Boston, and regularlyran on the NYNH&H Main Line toreach the maintenance facility atReading, Massachusetts.

3. Nine other Japan Rail groupinterurbans have their own trackageto downtown cores.

4. A unique temporary "reciprocalrunning arrangement occurredbetween Oyamazaki and Kammakinear Kyoto during 1961 while theTokaido Shinkansen was being builtand Hankyu's parallel Kyoto MainLine was being grade-separated. Aspart of construction staging theinterurban trains ran on the high-speed tracks.

5. Or the former Rochester Subway &Industrial Railway in the bed of theErie Canal, or the unfinishedCincinnati Subway in the bed of theMiami Canal.

6. Although on private right-of-way, theLRT tracks are not grade-separated.

7. The Chiba rapid transit line shouldnot be confused with the shorterChiba monorailway. Thisconventional railway line startedwith second-hand (built) interurbancars; these, in turn, were replaced bysecond-hand Tokyo subway third-railcars outfitted with pantographs –until Chiba Kyuko's own transit carswere delivered.

8. Japan Rail-West employs 1,500Vdc

catenary in the Osaka region and20,000Vac on the north coast. So, thedual-voltage EMUs are able to rununder the Toyama District Railway's1,500Vdc catenary to reach themountains.

9. In an early North Americanprecedent, the New York StateLegislature specified that the NewYork & Lake Erie Railroad (laterErie Lackawanna) had to find analignment entirely within the boundsof New York State – a limitation thatlater was found to be impractical andwas altered. This is the reason thatthe pioneer U.S. railway, because oftopographic constraints, had to routethrough points in Pennsylvania.

10. As might be expected, there areexceptions to the rule. The SwissFederal Railway's Brünig Line is ofmeter gauge and several Swissinterurbans are of standard gauge.

11. More than a decade after JNR wassucceeded by the JR companies andthe initial surge of Third-Sectorrailways occurred, the processcontinues. As recently as Spring1998, as this report was beingfinalized, the Third-Sector IbaraRailway took over and completed theunfinished 41.7-km (25.91-mile)JNR line between Kannabe and Sojaand opened it with a fleet of 110-km/h (68.4-mph) railbuses, bringingpassenger trains to Ibara, a city of38,346 – the last city of OkayamaPrefecture to be without passenger-rail service. The new Ibara Railwayhas trackage rights over Japan Rail-West branch lines at both ends.

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