POLICE OFFICER STRESS, BURNOUT, AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE: A
CROSSECTIONAL VIEW OF OFFICERS WORKING IN MID-SIZED ALABAMA
POLICE DEPARTMENTS
by
Jeffery D. Dutton
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
June, 2005
© Jeffery D. Dutton, 2005
POLICE OFFICER STRESS, BURNOUT, AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE: A
CROSSECTIONAL VIEW OF OFFICERS WORKING IN MID-SIZED ALABAMA
POLICE DEPARTMENTS
by
Jeffery, D. Dutton
has been approved
June, 2005
APPROVED:
JOANNA M. OESTMANN, Ed.D., Faculty Mentor and Chair
TIM EMERICK, Ph.D., Committee Member
JOHN LATHAM, Ph.D., Committee Member
SANDRA LOEW, Ph.D., Committee Member
KIM SOBAN, Committee Member
ACCEPTED AND SIGNED:
__________________________________________ JOANNA OESTMANN, Ph.D., LMHC, LPC, LPCS
__________________________________________Pamela K. S. Patrick, Ph.D.Executive Director, School ofHuman Services
Abstract
This research was designed to investigate potential correlations
between stress, burnout, and substance abuse in police officers
in mid-sized Alabama cities. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient,
Multiple Regression Analysis, and paired t-tests were used to
analyze data collected from officer surveys. The research showed
no statistically significant associations between stress,
burnout, and substance abuse in the study sample. However,
analyzed data did partially replicate findings from a published
correlational study of perceived stress and burnout.
Statistically significant differences were found between
perceived stress, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization,
substance abuse, and gender in the sample of police officers from
mid-sized Alabama cities although there were no statistically
significant differences between genders when analyzing reports on
stress, burnout, and substance abuse.
Dedication
This work is the culmination of over one-quarter century of
work as a police officer on the streets, advanced police
training, and academic challenge. It is dedicated to several
individuals and groups that have been absolutely essential parts
of my life.
First, this work is dedicated to police officers
everywhere.
"Ma", my single parent who took me with her through the
court house while she worked when I was still too small to go
alone. Donna, my wife who declares the next twenty years belong to
her.
My son Seth, who reminds me that "old", is a state of mind.
We are to challenge that thought and relentlessly pursue
fulfillment and happiness in life; it works for him.
iii
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the following people for all their
time, effort, and support on my behalf. My life has been
enriched and blessed far beyond what any of you will ever know
simply by being in your presence. All of you have been integral
to my academic success at Capella and your dedication to my
education and personal growth has been, and forever will be,
overwhelming. Thank you so very much for your confidence in me:
Dr. Sandee Loew, Associate Professor of Counselor education
at the University of North Alabama for being my visiting scholar
and the person who drove me to pursue a Ph.D. by saying the
words, "you can do it, go for it".
Dr. Douglas Bird, who by some means, perhaps by airborne
osmosis, lit the fire of excitement within me the very first
time we met face-to-face and has never let up since.
Dr. Carol Chenault, Professor of Sociology at Calhoun
Community College for having faith in me and patience with me
and for giving me her valuable time to help with statistical
analysis, data sets, and using SPSS. Further, thank you for
allowing me the freedom to teach others.
Ms. Kim Soban, High Point University, High Point, North
Carolina for being my peer scholar and for immediately becoming
one of my best friends, Cheers!
iv
The Decatur, Alabama Police Department, former Police
Chief Pack Self who gave me my first chance to serve, God rest
his soul. Current Police Chief Joel T. Gilliam, who always
left me feeling like he believed in me, and the many men and
women that I served, fought, bled, and cried with over all the years of my youth. May God bless you all, keep you, guide you,
and forever hold you in the palm of His mighty hand as you
persevere and continue to serve others and press the fight.
Dr. Tim Emerick for helping to facilitate my academic
success by being a member of my committee and being a brother
law enforcement officer who will always understand how it really
feels to serve others.
Dr. John Latham for being a member of my committee, a
mentor, teacher, and a person who with only his words left me
feeling as though I was important enough to him to participate
in the capstone effort of my education.
Finally, there remains Dr. Joanna Oestmann, my mentor,
academic chair, and friend for life. Often I had difficulty
believing in myself but she was always somehow able to see a
vision of the big picture that included me as a successful
scholar. She always demanded my best, but demanded it in such a
way that I would have rather died than disappoint the vision she
held for me and ultimately internalized myself. Thank you Dr.
v
Joanna Oestmann, Ed.D., LMHC, LPC, LPCS, you have my deepest
gratitude and admiration.
vi
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements iv
Table of Contents vii
List of Tables xii
List of Figures xiii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the Problem 1
Background of the Study 2
Statement of the Problem 7
Purpose, Rationale, & Objectives of the Study 8
Research Questions 10
Hypotheses 10
Significance of the Study 14
Nature of the Study: Theoretical/Conceptual Framework 16
Theoretical Model, Figure 1 19
Variables in the Study 19
Definition of Terms 20
Stress 20
Burnout 20
Substance Abuse 21
Self-medication 21
Gender 22
Sworn Police Officer 22
vii
Mid-sized Alabama Law Enforcement Agency 22
SPSS 22
Assumptions and Limitations in the Study 23
Organization of the Remainder of the Study 26
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 27
Stress and Burnout in General 27
Sources of Stress and Burnout 29
Symptomology of Stress and Burnout 31
Stressors Specific to Police Work 33
Role Conflict as a Stressor for Police Officers 39
Personality as a Stressor for Police Officers 41
Organizational Factors as a Stressor 45
Burnout in Police Officers 50
Substance Abuse in Police Officers and its Prevalence 55
Alcohol Consumption as a Function of Camaraderie,
Socialization, and Stress Relief 60
Substance Abuse in the Workplace and its Costs 63
Defining Substance Abuse, Dependence, and its
Neurobiology 65
Help-Seeking Behaviors in Police and Others 70
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 77
Research Methodology & Study Design
viii
77 Sample Population & Setting
79 Sampling Procedure
82
Data Collection Procedures 84
Assessment Instrument Reliability & Validity 88
The Perceived Stress Scale 90
Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey 90
Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test 92
Data Analysis & Statistical Procedures 94
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH FINDINGS 99
Introduction 99
Sample Characteristics and Demographics 100
Descriptive Findings 103
Research Findings on Stress 104
Research Findings on Burnout 107
Research Findings with Multiple Regression Analysis 113
Research Findings on Substance Abuse 116
Variable Differences due to Gender 119
Summary of Research Findings 121
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 123
Introduction 123
Statement of Problem Review 124
Conceptual Framework Review 125
ix
Review of Hypothesis 125
Discussion 126
Sample of Alabama Police Officers 128
Relationship Between Stress and Substance Abuse,
Hypothesis One 129
Relationship Between Burnout and Substance Abuse,
Hypothesis Two 132
Variance Between Gender Groups for Major
Variables, Hypotheses Three and Four 135
Limitations of the Study 135
Recommendations for Future Research 138
Policy Implications of Study Results 141
Summary and Conclusions 143
REFERENCES: 146
APPENDIX A: RESEARCH INSTRUMENTATION AND CORRESPONDENCE 160
Introductory Letter to Study Participants 160
Informed Consent Form 162
Instructions to Study Participants 165
Alabama Police Chief Address List 166
Correspondence to Police Chiefs: Permission
for their department to participate in the study 167
Demographic Questionnaire 170
The Perceived Stress Scale 171
x
The Maslach Burnout Inventory–Human Services Survey 173
The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test 176
APPENDIX B: Normative Data for MBI-HSS 179
APPENDIX C: DATA CODE KEY SHEETS 180
Demographics Survey Code Sheet 180
Perceived Stress Scale Code Sheet 181
Maslach Burnout Inventory-HSS Code Sheet 182
Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test Code Sheet 183
APPENDIX D: HUMAN PARTICIPANTS IN RESEARCH APPLICATION 184
xi
List of Tables
Table 1: Proportion of Respondents, City, and Population 102
Table 2: Participant Selection 104
Table 3: Stress Scores Correlated with Substance Abuse Scores Examined for Gender Differences 107
Table 4: Percentage of Total Burnout Reported in mid-sized Alabama Police Departments 109
Table 5: Burnout Scores Correlated with Substance Abuse Scores Examined for Gender Differences 113
Table 6: Regression Analysis for Stress and Burnout Subscales 115
Table 7: Model Summary of regression Analysis for Burnout Subscales and Substance Abuse 116
Table 8: ANOVA for Regression Analysis of Burnout Subscales and Substance Abuse 116
Table 9: Alabama Officer Substance Abuse Reports 118
Table 10: Paired Samples Test for Study Variables And Gender 120
Table 11: Paired Samples t-Test for Male and Female Officers 132
xii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Theoretical model indicating hypothesizedrelationships between stress and substance abuse, burnout andsubstance abuse and potential differences existing because ofgender in Alabama police officers 19
xiii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the Problem
According to the United States Department of Health and
Human Services' National Institute for Occupational Health and
Safety (1999) the nature and character of work is changing at an
exponential speed. It is even suggested that now more than ever,
work stress creates a tangible threat to the health of workers
and the organizations for which they work. This phenomenon exists
across all areas of industry and government. The law enforcement
organization is no exception, and in fact is one particular type
of government service industry that has higher than normal
potential for the development of stress in its workers. This
research is designed to investigate the development and effects
of stress on police officers in mid-sized Alabama police agencies
as they perform their functions and come in regular contact with
those they serve and protect. It also investigates how law
enforcement as a type of organization has historically failed to
learn from and act on evidence that stress exists in this
profession (Feemster & Harpold, 2002). It is hypothesized that
this failure of recognition influences the development of stress
and the syndrome of burnout. It is also hypothesized that the use
of mood altering substances such as alcohol or drugs occurs to
relieve the effects of stress and burnout. Further, there is the
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
hypothesis that the gender of sworn officers has the potential to
effect the development of stress, burnout, and substance abuse.
Background of the Study
According to Hennessey (1999) police officers in America
represent an anomaly that many people find captivating. At the
same time those people distrust the very thing that captivates so
much of their attention. Police are constitutionally empowered
with enormous amounts of authority, but exist within a government
that was founded under a system which dislikes and fears
centralized power. Yet society is highly dependent upon the
police to maintain order and provide protection. This paradox of
dislike and dependency from society makes the character of police
work vague and contradictory. Characteristically the demand for
this service is high but frequently support is not quite parallel
(Sewell, 2002). This set of circumstances, among others, sets the
stage for the development of stress in police officers.
It has been suggested that stress, as an initial response to
difficult circumstances in one's environment, is a syndrome of
general adaptation made up of three parts manifest by a general
calling to arms to protect oneself (Selye, 1976). According to
Selye this syndrome exists in three distinct stages; a) alarm
reaction, the perception of a threat to one's safety and
2
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
happiness that leads to resistance if the stressor does not
immediately kill, b) resistance, an individual's attempt to cope
with the situation and survive, and c) exhaustion, which is
described as an individual's feeling of helplessness,
hopelessness, and complete lack of emotional energy. This third
stage is very similar to the alarm reaction stage physiologically
and requires that the stressor be present over an extended period
of time as though the experience lasted hour after hour, day
after day, week after week (Pines & Aronson, 1981; Selye). This
description of stage three is also similar to the description of
burnout offered by Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, (1996).
Considering the characteristics of this syndrome and how
pervasive it appears to be it is likely that police officers and
their families face pressures from police work that are unlike
those confronting the general population (Finn, 1997).
Contemporary notions of stress divide the concept into
distress and eustress. Distress is what is perceived as bad
stress and eustress is perceived as good stress which helps to
keep one safe or facilitate success. Stress has also been defined
as a nonspecific response of the body to any demand placed on it
(Feemster & Harpold, 2002; Selye, 1976). Other descriptions of
stress indicate that it is the physical or mental strain
manifested by demands on the mind and body that exceed natural
3
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
human resources (Garland, 2002), or the psychological response to
a physical stimulus (Healthy Stress, 1995). Being exposed to
unrelenting stress can lead not only police officers, but also
society in general to an even more devastating syndrome called
burnout. According to Garland stress and burnout are frequently
thought of as being the same, but this is a mistaken assumption.
Stress and burnout are different. Inappropriately managed stress
can lead to the syndrome of burnout but if one looks closely at
the descriptions of stress offered by Selye and Maslach, Jackson,
& Leiter (1996) it can be easily seen that these concepts are
arrived at in different ways.
According to the reports of Lacoursiere (2001) burnout was
first identified in the 1970s and was discovered in the substance
user treatment field. Its meaning then indicated that a person's
energy and motivation to continue this type work was essentially
exhausted. Burnout was found to be primarily manifested by
emotional exhaustion and sometimes by various physical and
psychiatric symptomology. In substance user treatment staff
burnout was closely connected to increased work pressure,
arbitrary work policies, and a decreased ability to cope with the
demands of the work. These descriptions can be easily applied to
police officers. Burnout in situations like these is the result
of stress that is being inappropriately managed, and according to
4
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter (1996) burnout consists of three
components. These components affect police officers and human
service employees that work closely with others and tend to
create increased feelings of emotional exhaustion,
depersonalization of those they help or come in contact with, and
negative assessment of themselves and their work performance.
According to Hess & Wrobleski (1999) failure to alleviate or
lessen stress has the potential for causing high blood pressure,
cardiovascular disease, chronic headaches, and gastric ulcers. It
can also lead to severe depression, alcohol and drug use,
aggression, and perhaps even suicide.
Police officers routinely face exposure to human tragedy
when dealing with traumatic injuries and man's inhumanity toward
man (Kosinski & Vettor, 2002). Add to these stressors the demands
of the public, differences in personnel demographics, conflicting
personality characteristics, and complex social systems created
by organizational and administrative bureaucracy, and one becomes
able to relate to how occupational stress in police officers
leads to burnout. This stress or burnout can eventually lead to
individual substance abuse or other dangerous behaviors leading
to health problems, marital problems, career difficulties, abuse
of family, and abuse of the public, or even suicide (Feemster &
Harpold, 2002). Also, according to reports from Euwema, Kop, &
5
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Schaufeli, (1999) burnout in police officers is characterized by
negative, callous, and cynical attitudes towards the citizens
they are supposed to protect and serve. Police officers that are
emotionally exhausted are often left feeling incompetent, lack
energy, and have fewer alternatives to choose from when problem
solving. Conflict resolution skills, which police officers are
regularly in need of, are less often used in a positive way. One
negative way of solving problems is substance abuse with alcohol
or drugs.
A problem that often results from stress and burnout is
substance abuse with alcohol, drugs, or other behaviors that can
become self-destructive. Stress or burnout in police officers is
often difficult to recognize because officers are trained to
portray a basic sterility in their personality and behavior, yet
they are certainly human and are providing human services that
usually involve close contact with the public they serve. The
work of Brehm & Khantzian, (1997) indicates that an emphasis has
recently been placed on understanding the concept of self-
medication used to alleviate suffering; suffering that is often
caused by stress and burnout and the problems that result. One
way people choose to compensate is through the use of substances
such as alcohol or drugs or even risky behaviors like gambling,
flamboyant sexual encounters, or excessive spending. These
6
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
behaviors can be described as coping mechanisms to relieve the
emotional pain of stress and burnout that ultimately can pose
major problems for anyone involved.
Statement of the Problem
Stress or burnout in law enforcement personnel potentially
leads to substance abuse with alcohol or drugs. It is
hypothesized that Alabama law enforcement professionals often
experience stress, which left unmanaged eventually leads to
burnout and ultimately substance abuse to reduce the suffering
experienced from stress and burnout. Determining how often and to
what magnitude stress and burnout leads to substance abuse has
the potential for providing helpful information to the law
enforcement profession. Use of this information will enable
administrators and police trainers to educate experienced, newly
employed, and prospective officers alike. Without this knowledge
police officers and others in the human services profession may
continue to suffer the effects of stress, burnout, and substance
abuse. The topic of this research study is concerned with
determining if a positive correlation exists between these
variables and if so how significant that association is.
Additionally, it seeks to understand whether or not officer
7
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
gender plays a role in the development of substance abuse
behaviors based on the experience of stress or burnout.
Purpose, Rationale, and Objectives of the Study
Variables other than stress and burnout also influence
individuals to abuse substances like alcohol or drugs to self-
medicate emotional pain or participate in behaviors risky to
one's health. To complicate this process some individuals may be
genetically or biochemically predisposed to the use or abuse of
alcohol or drugs (Erickson, 2003). The abuse of alcohol or drugs
may also be part of the workplace domain and its use is sometimes
expected to facilitate fitting in with other colleagues
(Hailstone, Kehoe, Richmond, Uebel-Yan, & Wodak, 1999).
Regardless of the motivation, substance abuse in the workplace or
altered performance because of substance abuse can be considered
unacceptable professional behavior based on police officers being
society's protectors. Continuous substance abuse may also lead to
dependence upon alcohol, drugs, or other substances or behaviors
as a means of relieving the negative emotions being experienced.
For the purposes of this study two variables, stress and
burnout, were examined for their association with substance
abuse. Additionally this study examined the possibility that the
gender of officers in mid-sized Alabama police agencies has
8
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
effects on the development of stress or burnout and the
subsequent development of substance abuse.
The specific objectives of this research study were the
following,
1. To determine a global measure of job stress and its
correlation with substance abuse in the selected population.
2. To determine a global measure of burnout and its
correlation with substance abuse in the selected population.
3. To determine if there is a stronger or weaker
relationship between stress and substance abuse or burnout and
substance abuse in the selected population.
4. To determine if the gender of officers created any
significant differences in the association of stress, burnout,
and substance abuse with alcohol or drugs in the selected
population.
Research Questions
The following research questions facilitate this proposed
study:
1. Does a statistically significant correlation exist between
9
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
stress and substance abuse in Alabama police officers and is the
direction of this hypothesized correlation positive or negative
and reach a significance level of p<.05?
2. Does a statistically significant correlation exist between
burnout and substance abuse in Alabama police officers and is the
direction of this hypothesized correlation positive or negative
and reach a significance level of p<.05?
3. Does a statistically significant difference in the means
exist between these hypothesized correlations when they are
analyzed relative to officer gender and does any difference in
the means reach a significance level of p<.05?
Hypotheses
The purpose of this study was to examine hypothesized
associations between two different variables influencing the
development of substance abuse in male and female sworn police
officers in mid-sized Alabama police departments. Literature
suggests that public safety professions like police work are
characterized by high levels of stress, burnout, and the
development of substance abuse (Brehm & Khantzian, 1997; Euwema,
Kop, & Schaufeli, 1999; Feemster & Harpold, 2002; Finn, 1997;
Garland, 2002; Harris & Maloney, 1999; Hess & Wrobleski, 1993;
Hailstone, Kehoe, Richmond, Uebel-Yan, & Wodak 1999; Kosinski &
10
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Vettor, 2002; Kushnir & Milbauer, 1994; Lacoursiere, 2001;
Sewell, 2002). There are several variables that affect the
development of substance abuse in police officers. However, for
the purposes of this study, the variables hypothesized to play a
role in the development of substance abuse in Alabama police
officers working in mid-sized police departments are stress and
burnout. Collected participant demographic information related to
officer gender was also used to explore suspected effects on the
associations hypothesized between officer stress, burnout, and
substance abuse. These variables were measured with currently
published assessments designed to accurately measure stress,
burnout, and substance abuse. This data exploration was also used
to identify future topics for research that may be supportive of
quantitative or qualitative inquiry in this same area.
Hypothesis No. 1, Ha: There is a statistically significant
positive correlation between measured stress and the occurrence
of substance abuse with alcohol or drugs in Alabama police
officers that reaches a level of significance at p<.05. This
correlation and its direction were determined by calculating a
Pearson r Correlation Coefficient (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001;
Sprinthall, 2003).
Hypothesis No.1a, Ho: There is no statistically significant
positive or negative correlation between measured stress and
11
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
substance abuse with alcohol or drugs in Alabama police officers.
This was determined by calculating a Pearson r Correlation
Coefficient (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001; Sprinthall, 2003).
Hypothesis No. 2, Ha: There is a statistically significant
positive correlation between measured burnout and the occurrence
of substance abuse with alcohol or drugs in Alabama police
officers that reaches a level of significance at p<.05. This
correlation and its direction were determined by calculating a
Pearson r Correlation Coefficient (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001;
Sprinthall, 2003).
Hypothesis No. 2a, Ho: There is no statistically significant
positive or negative correlation between measured burnout and
substance abuse with alcohol or drugs in Alabama police officers.
This was determined by calculating a Pearson r Correlation
Coefficient (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001; Sprinthall, 2003).
Hypothesis No. 3, Ha: There is statistically significant
difference in the means of measured stress in male and female
Alabama police officers and the occurrence of substance abuse
with alcohol or drugs that reaches a level of significance at
p<.05. The hypothesized differences were calculated using a t-
test to measure differences between these two groups (Leedy &
Ormrod, 2001; Sprinthall, 2003).
12
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Hypothesis No. 3a, Ho: There is no statistically significant
difference in the means of measured stress in male and female
Alabama police officers and the occurrence of substance abuse
with alcohol or drugs. The difference between these two groups
was calculated using a t-test (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001; Sprinthall,
2003).
Hypothesis No. 4, Ha: There is statistically significant
difference in the means of measured burnout in male and female
Alabama police officers and the occurrence of substance abuse
with alcohol or drugs that reaches a level of significance at
p<.05. The difference was calculated using a t-test to measure
differences between these two groups (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001;
Sprinthall, 2003).
Hypothesis No. 4a, Ho: There is no statistically significant
difference in the means of measured burnout in male and female
Alabama police officers and the occurrence of substance abuse
with alcohol or drugs. The difference between these two groups
was calculated using a t-test (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001; Sprinthall,
2003).
Significance of the Study
This study is significant to police officers, the public
they serve and protect, the government agencies they work for,
13
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
and the taxpayers that support those agencies. Police officers
that are experiencing stress or burnout and ultimately turn to
substance abuse to medicate the symptoms of those disorders and
abuse substances such as alcohol or drugs cannot conduct
themselves professionally, safely, ethically, or efficiently
while in their official capacity. They are also less able, if at
all, to be creative in their capacity as society's protectors
when involved in searching for solutions to criminal behavior,
public safety, and developing community support and good will.
Burnout leaves officers feeling callous and cynical towards
those they protect and serve. Additionally, according to
Hennessey (1999) police officers already face stressors related
to the concerns of a public that distrusts those with as much
power as is vested in them. Hennessey also notes that police
officers more times than not possess a personality type that is
almost the polar opposite of society at large, which sets them up
for confrontational encounters simply by making face-to-face
contacts. With these concerns in mind it seems evident that the
personal health and well-being of police officers must be of
paramount concern to officers, their agency administrators, and
the public they serve and protect.
Perhaps most important of all is the individual knowledge
officers themselves have regarding the relief of stress or
14
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
burnout that results from their work. Ultimately, it is up to the
individual to make efforts to control the effects of stress and
burnout and not allow these conditions to result in pathological
use of substances like alcohol or drugs. This study is
significant in that it goes directly to practicing Alabama police
officers working in mid-sized agencies and measures the stress
and burnout they experience on the job. This study also
determined if officers used or abused alcohol or drugs to
medicate the effects of those negative influences. If the
negative effects of stress, burnout, and substance abuse are not
well understood then the health, safety, and well-being of police
officers, as well as the protection and services they provide to
citizens, will ultimately suffer. This information is also
helpful with identifying necessary changes in this behavior and
attempts to convince others to change before they experience
negative consequences. Additionally, evidence discovered from
research conducted by the United States Department of Justice
found that one type of human service agency, the law enforcement
profession, had not learned from the history of negative
influences of job stress and what that stress does to officers
exposed to it (Feemster & Harpold, 2002). Shedding more light on
this subject helps to improve that set of circumstances.
15
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Nature of Study: Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
In this study stress and burnout in Alabama police officers
was examined to determine a direction of correlation and
statistical significance of association with the variable of
substance abuse. Additionally these variables were explored based
on potential differences in significance of association and
differences in the means relative to officer gender (Hawkins,
2001). Figure 1, page 19, depicts this study's theoretical model
and indicates that there is a) an association between the
development of stress and substance abuse as a coping mechanism
in Alabama police officers, b) there is an association between
burnout and the development of substance abuse as a coping
mechanism in Alabama police officers, and c) the research
explored differences in association between these variables when
examined considering officer gender.
The decision to study stress, burnout, and substance abuse
in sworn Alabama police officers was stimulated by several facts.
Initially, this study suggests an increased vulnerability to
alcohol or drug abuse in public safety professionals such as
police officers due to an increased risk of the development of
stress or burnout (Feemster & Harpold, 2002). Stress and burnout
can lead to severe depression, alcohol and drug use, aggression
and suicide, as well as affect alertness, physical stamina, and
16
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
the ability to work effectively and safely. Considering these
effects from an administrative standpoint, Kushnir & Milbauer
(1994) report that stress related absence from work accounts for
as much as 60% of time lost due to illness or injury. Lastly,
according to the Federal Bureau of Investigation's annual report
to the nation on Crime in the United States (2003, p. 364) "there
are 948,942 law enforcement personnel practicing in cities,
counties, states, and federal agencies. Of that number 663,796
are sworn law enforcement personnel with arrest powers. That
sworn population consists of 88.6% male and 11.4% female
officers". In Alabama there are reported to be 10,414 sworn
officers, 975 of which work for agencies that serve populations
ranging from 30,000 to 100,000. Nine-thousand six hundred sixty-
seven (92.8%) of the state total are male officers and 747 (7.2%)
are female officers (Alabama Criminal Justice Information Center,
2003). This was a significant population of police personnel to
draw a sampling population from in the state of Alabama.
It was hypothesized that stress or burnout is a specific
gateway to substance abuse with alcohol or drugs used to calm
symptoms of emotional exhaustion suffered by police officers.
According to Harris & Maloney (1999) mental health hospitals and
community mental health centers are regularly confronted with
substance abusers. There is no group of persons this problem does
17
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
not touch in some way. Stress relentlessly pursues persons of all
ages, classes, religious affiliations, professions, and
geographic areas. Nothing can prevent the spread of the problem
and often its effects are relieved with the use of alcohol or
drugs. This substance abuse which is often chronic in nature
leads to at-risk behaviors for police officers that use
substances to self-medicate emotional and physical pain. This
chronic use causes disinhibition of the user and magnifies the
problem. This motivates police department administrators and
substance abuse counselors to find it difficult to address the
problem on a contemporary scene because of the problems substance
abuse causes. The chronic use of substances often results in
converse effects. Depressant drugs rebound into anxiety;
stimulants often cause depression, and hallucinogens can lead to
the loss of one's self. The effects sought by the user become
evasive. These factors motivated this proposed study.
18
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Figure 1: Theoretical model indicating hypothesized relationships between stress and substance abuse, burnout and substance abuse, and potential differences existing because of gender in Alabama police officers.
Variables in the Study
This study includes independent and dependent variables for
each of the hypotheses. Hypothesis One includes the independent
variable of stress and the dependent variable substance abuse.
Hypothesis Two includes the independent variable of burnout and
the dependent variable substance abuse. Hypothesis Three includes
the independent variable of gender related stress and the
dependent variable substance abuse. Hypothesis Four includes the
independent variable gender related burnout and the dependent
variable of substance abuse.
Stress
Burnout
SubstanceAbuse
Gender
19
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Definition of Terms
1. Stress: Stress may be defined as a non-specific physical
or psychological response or state of being, such as tension,
resulting from demands placed on the body that exceed available
resources and tend to alter one's state of well being (Feemster &
Harpold, 2002; Garland, 2002; Pines & Aronson, 1981). For the
purposes of this study sources of stress are related to the
police officer's experiences on the job while interacting
directly with individuals in the public and providing service and
protection.
2. Burnout: The extent to which a police officer or other
human services professional feels or experiences the three
component subscales of burnout (e.g., emotional exhaustion,
depersonalization, and lack of personal accomplishment) of the
Maslach Burnout Inventory which is widely used to quantify
burnout in the helping professions (Acevdeo, Hebert, & Hendrix,
2000; Maslach & Jackson, 1986; Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996;
Kosinski & Vettor, 2002).
3. Substance abuse: Substance abuse is a maladaptive pattern
of substance use manifested by distress that is recurrent and
often results in significant adverse consequences caused by
persistent use of substances during the last 12 months. Examples
20
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
of distressing consequences are significant failure to fulfill
social, occupational, or interpersonal obligations or legal
difficulties such as charges of public intoxication or driving
under the influence (American Psychiatric Association, 2000;
Junke, 2002).
4. Self-medication: As reported by Khantzian, Halliday, &
McAuliffe, (1990) self-medication is a consequence of widespread
drug use and abuse in society. Further reported is the notion
that as people suffer from specific painful feeling states and
psychiatric disorders this plays a role in how they self-medicate
and with what substance. Alcohol, the only legal drug other than
prescription medications, is a type of sedative-hypnotic that has
particular appeal because it lowers inhibitions and allows the
experience of feelings that are usually walled off and leave
people feeling empty and cut off (Khantzian, et al.). Therefore
for the purposes of this study self-medication refers primarily
to the consistent use or abuse of alcohol or prescription drugs
(substance abuse) to relieve perceived or experienced physical or
emotional pain resulting from distress and burnout.
5. Gender: For the purposes of this study gender is defined
as either male or female.
6. Sworn Police Officer: Law enforcement officers sworn to
protect lives, personal safety, and property of others, who have
21
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
the authority to make arrests, regardless of rank, and who are
employed as full-time law enforcement officers for municipal or
city police departments in the state of Alabama and serve
populations ranging from 30,000 to 100,000.
7. Mid-sized Alabama law enforcement agency: Any Alabama
city or municipal law enforcement agency that according to the
Alabama Criminal Justice Information Center (2004), serves a
population range of at least 30,000 persons but not greater than
100,000 persons.
8. SPSS, Version 12: The Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences which is a computer program designed to perform a wide
range of statistical procedures for analysis of gathered research
data (Cronk, 2002).
Study Assumptions and Limitations
For the purposes of this study, the following assumptions were
made:
1. The majority of sworn police officers selected by means
of a random sampling technique will participate in the study by
completing survey packages.
22
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
2. Those respondents that return completed survey packages
were sworn police officers, working full-time for a government
supported mid-sized city or municipal law enforcement agency in
the state of Alabama.
3. The survey packages distributed were returned during the
length of one visit to participating agencies by the study's
principal researcher. Each complete package should take no more
than 30 minutes to complete.
4. The participant police officers who complete the survey
package will respond honestly based on guaranteed anonymity.
5. The participant police officers understand their role in
the study.
Limitations inherent to this study include the following:
1. The application of the instruments used in this study
(e.g., The Perceived Stress Scale, The Maslach Burnout Inventory–
Human Services Survey, and the Michigan Alcoholism Screening
Test), must be determined to be valid measures of stress,
burnout, and the assessment of alcohol abuse potential.
Contemporary reviews of these assessment instruments
inconsistently compare norms generated from police officers
specifically (Balzer, Ironson, Parra, & Smith, 2002; Cohen, 1994;
Conoley, Murdoh, & Reese, 1980; Maslach & Jackson, 1986; Maslach,
Jackson, & Leiter, 1996).
23
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
2. The volunteer status of survey participants will restrict
the generalizability of findings. Additionally, the sample
population, (n size), may restrict generalizability of the
findings to any population broader than police officers working
in mid-sized law enforcement agencies in the state of Alabama.
3. In any questionnaire that asks for self-disclosure,
limitations arise because attitudes and beliefs expressed may not
reflect true attitudes and beliefs of the participant (e.g.,
respondents fake good or fake bad).
4. The population sampled consisted of full-time sworn
police officers who were employed by mid-sized Alabama police
agencies and practice law enforcement. There will be no
differentiation made between officers filling an administrative
role and those officers who are field practitioners. Retired,
former, or non-sworn police personnel were not part of the
randomly selected sample.
5. The study population was constructed based on a
stratified random sampling technique to survey a sample of
officers from selected mid-sized Alabama law enforcement agency
personnel. However the proportion of male and female officers in
mid-sized Alabama agencies may not reflect comparable proportions
of sworn officer populations at the national or state level. In
this case skewed data may be eliminated by comparing data between
24
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
male and female participants based on a common trait such as age
(Sprinthall, 2003).
6. The demographic characteristic surveyed was gender. Other
demographic characteristics that could influence the study
findings such as age range, officer tenure, whether the practice
setting is urban, rural, or metropolitan and salary range were
not included in data analysis for this study.
7. Potential identifiable information collected was gender,
age, tenure, and the population of the city the officer serves.
8. The principal researcher is a retired career law
enforcement officer from a mid-sized Alabama city. In the
interpretation of data analysis the researcher's career
experience has the potential to bias this interpretation.
However, every effort has been made to eliminate any bias by
using totally quantitative data.
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
The remainder of this study was organized in the following
manner. Chapter Two reviews and discusses the current literature
related to stress, the syndrome of burnout, organizational
factors related to stress and burnout, and substance abuse.
Substance addiction, help-seeking behaviors and their costs as it
relates to police officers and others were also reviewed. Chapter
25
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Three, outlines the research methodology employed to examine the
problems presented. Chapter Four presents and analyzes the data
collected using the methodology described in Chapter Three. This
study concludes with Chapter Five, which is a summary of the
conclusions drawn from the data presented in Chapter Four and
also presents recommendations for future research and government
policy implications.
26
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter reviews the literature related to each variable
from the theoretical model depicted in Chapter One (see Figure 1,
page 19). Stress, burnout, substance abuse, and topics related to
each of these variables identified by the literature were
researched and included in this chapter of the study to support
the hypothesized relationships outlined in Chapter One.
Stress and Burnout in General
Analyzing sources of stress and burnout in police officers
leads one to explore an officer's commitment to a career that has
been described as a de facto marriage that at times supersedes
the intimacy of family (Brink, 2001). Maintaining such a
professional and intimate life style is for many a difficult task
and this notion does not yet consider the individual causes of
extreme stressors reported by practicing police officers. The
professional practice of police work is loaded with situations
and circumstances that create an environment that is inherently
stressful and filled with danger and physiologic excitation.
According to Bremner, (2002) we carry our stress with us
over the course of our lifetime. This notion underlies the
knowledge that our bodies have biological systems that respond to
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
life threatening danger that acts like a fear alarm system. This
alarm system has a memory built into it that leaves us
feeling fearful when confronted with dangerous situations and
circumstances that we have been confronted with previously that
left us fearful and seeking to protect ourselves. This capacity
for memory affects the entire body over extended periods. The
nature of police work is filled with periods of boredom that in
an instant can turn dangerous and life threatening. Police work
has been described by Hess & Wrobleski (1993) as long periods of
devastating boredom that are punctuated by sporadic periods of
complete terror. This makes the character of police work one of
the most stressful and physically and emotionally demanding in
the contemporary professional world. Isolating the sources of
stress and burnout in police work and gaining an understanding of
its potential for individual self-destruction is frequently
listed as being of primary concern by individual officers,
organizational administrators, and others. However, according to
Feemster & Harpold (2002) the law enforcement profession has not
learned from the history of negative influences of job stress and
what that stress does to officers that are exposed to it. This
review of literature seeks to uncover and discuss the sources of
stress and burnout for police officers as a group, the effects of
that stress and burnout, and how substance abuse is used to self-
28
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
medicate emotional pain. Police officers do not easily seek help
for individual problems because of their belief system. This
review of literature also discusses the tendency for officers to
resist seeking help and how their personal and organizational
belief systems related to seeking help affects them and others.
Sources of Stress and Burnout
Hanson (1985) reports that stress can be fantastic or fatal.
Many people have an idea of what stress is and perceive it as
always being negative. This belief is inaccurate. Eustress, what
is perceived as positive stress functions to help one succeed or
achieve goals and solve problems. Distress, what is perceived as
negative stress reactions is what people are subjected to that
have the potential for causing dysfunction in their lives
(Kossen, 1991). Further, Sheehan & Van Hasselt (2003) report that
job-related stress often contributes to suicide, which is
considered an extreme maladaptive response. However, many
stressors faced by police officers, as well as most other
workers, are beyond individual control (Hurrell, 1995).
Organizational efforts to make the working environment less
stressful and individual coping strategies to relieve the strain
of experienced stress are at the core of eliminating distress in
the police officer's professional capacity. This also helps to
29
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
emotionally control role conflict and ambiguity, which also helps
eliminate distress. However, as cited earlier, many sources of
stress are out of individual control. Depue (1981)
suggests that law enforcement is one of the few professions that
can have profound adverse effects on one's life and total well
being. This suggests that police work affects an officer's
personal social life, his family's social life, the friends he or
she has contact with, often creating isolation, and frequently
the officer's children have distorted views of them as parents.
This effectively puts not only the police officer in uniform, but
his or her family as well. Additionally, according to Walker
(1997) police officers constantly maintain a state of vigilance
to be prepared for unknown and often challenging events that may
confront them. The actions taken relative to these events or the
scenes that come into view may remind them of their own mortality
and the failure of others. The sources of stress in police work
include internal, individual stressors, stressors inherent to
police work, administrative and organizational stressors, and
external stressors from the criminal justice system and the
public served that are often manifested as role conflict. Because
of these stressors powerful symptoms and reactions often occur.
Symptomology of Stress and Burnout
30
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Symptoms of stressors in general include deteriorating work
performance, absenteeism, low morale, and negative psychological
states such as emotional burnout. Frustration, depression, anger,
and psychosomatic and physical conditions such as headaches and
ulcers are also frequent (Burke, 1998). Bird (2002) reports that
work related stress expenses for employers are between $200-$300
billion dollars per year. Forty-three percent of adults suffer
adverse health effects due to stress, and greater than 75% of all
visits to primary care physicians are stress related. As well,
Kushnir & Milbauer (1994) report that sixty percent 60% of work
absences are stress related. However, neither critical incidents
alone nor organizational stressors, job factors, nor personal
stressors cause most police officer stress; the combination of
all these causes the stress. Different types of stressors
combined contribute to high rates of gastrointestinal disorders,
high blood pressure, coronary heart disease, and leads to the
syndrome of burnout in police officers (Sheehan & Van Hasselt,
2003). Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter (1996) report that burnout
represents a particular type of job stress that is represented by
a pattern of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a
feeling of diminished personal accomplishment. Additionally,
specific stressors such as role conflict, ambiguity, and over-
stimulation in one's environment can cause stress in the short
31
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
term, while long term experience of these stressors can have an
accumulating effect which causes burnout (Densten, 2001). This is
a result of a variety of work demands or stressors. In this case
burnout can be considered a distinctive type of job stress that
has been studied primarily in work settings (Densten). Pines &
Aronson (1981) suggest that burnout can be understood as one's
high priority work goals being frustrated and blocked by
circumstances that cause failure. Burnout is mostly manifested by
emotional exhaustion and sometimes by various physical and
psychiatric symptoms. An example is offered by Lacoursiere,
(2001) as he reports a significant level of burnout in substance
abuse treatment staff because of work pressure, difficult or
inappropriate work policies, and the development of a declining
ability to cope with work loads. Further, Harris and Maloney
(1999) indicate that burnout is highly personal and individual.
In fact two workers may be confronted with the exact set of
circumstances and respond in totally different ways. Therefore
burnout must be thought of in personal terms. What some workers
believe to be important and meaningful work becomes challenging,
boring, and meaningless for others. Workers eventually become
exhausted, cynical, and ineffective. Victims of burnout become
mentally and emotionally exhausted and have no energy. The fuel
necessary to continue working is used up, they no longer have fun
32
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
with their work, and consistently feel hassled and annoyed with
relatively minor concerns. They often find themselves not getting
enough sleep or unable to sleep at all (Gordon, McManus, &
Winder, 2002; Pfifferling, 2001). These circumstances may often
be beyond the individual's control, but such stressors have
affects on the police officer's ability to function effectively
and efficiently.
Stressors Specific to Police Work
Inherent in police work is a constant threat to the
officers' health and safety. Also, many people enter the
profession with a crime fighting orientation and become
disillusioned when they find that there is a large amount of
public service involved in the work, leaving officers with the
feeling that they are society's community butlers. According to
Pines & Aronson, (1981) people who begin human service careers
often have a strong desire to give of themselves. Being able to
do so leaves those people feeling helpful, excited, and
idealistic during their early years on the job, which leaves them
more susceptible to burnout than others that are not so excited.
"In order to burn out a person must have been on fire at one
time" (Pines & Aronson, p.4). Those who are or were on fire at
one time describes the prevailing attitude that many in the law
33
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
enforcement profession refer to as the "John Wayne Syndrome"
(Tye, 1994). However, this attitude is dependent upon the
individual officer's role orientation and what he or she believes
is the legitimate scope of police work. According to Trautman,
(1991) the greatest cause of police stress is the perceived
mismatch between where and who the officer is and where and who
he or she believes they should be. This produces role conflict in
many. Professional police officers do not confine themselves to
one role. They acknowledge the multiple functions performed by
the police and view order maintenance or the service function as
a legitimate part of police business (Sun, 2003). Other sources
of police stress that must be considered include criminal injury
or violence to officers or others that are clearly traumatic in
nature. These stressors also include natural disasters like
tornados, hurricanes, mud slides, or tsunamis. Severe motor
vehicle accidents, body mutilations and fatalities, public
disorder events, line of duty injuries like being wounded by
gunfire, or seeing abused or deceased children are also man-made
sources of stress that must be considered (Sewell, 1980; Olisa,
1997; Sheehan & Van Hasselt, 2003).
Also threatening to the officer's health and safety is the
need to alternate between the boredom of normal patrol and the
need for sudden alertness causing excitation of the body's fight
34
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
or flight response (Artwohl & Christensen, 1997), the results of
which can last for an entire 8, 10, or 12 hour shift leading to
exhaustion. Thrasher (2001) reports:
…officers learn that at any moment a situation can threaten their life, the life of another officer, or the life of a citizen. Therefore, officers spend their every working shift in a constant state of heightened anxiety. Whether anything happens or not, this anxiety remains reinforced by prior learning, and by the end of the shift officers find themselves emotionally, if not physically, exhausted. At this point of exhaustion and depression, the duty shift ends and the officer goes home. (p.185).
Changes in the physical ability of the older officer are
also stressful. Natural changes in the body's systems that come
with the aging process include changes in muscle density, bone
density, cardiovascular, respiratory, nervous systems, immune
systems, and neuroendocrine systems that have powerful
consequences. Visual acuity, loss of hearing, waning stamina,
lowered dexterity, and poor balance create limitations for
officers that on-the–job experience may not cover up. Older
officers are forced to face the fact of their physical decline.
This can obviously create stress if one considers that police
work has been described as a de facto marriage (Brink, 2001).
Life as the officer has come to know is ending. Therefore for
some this might rise to the level of being an issue of grief due
to the loss. Psychological factors such as lack of spiritual
meaning, loss of control over aspects of life, unrealized career
35
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
goals, and interpersonal conflict are also stressful (Sheehan &
Van Hasselt, 2003). One may earnestly perceive that a police
officer's primary concern is for his or her own personal safety.
The primary goal taught repeatedly in basic police training is go
home safe and alive at the end of the shift. However, some of the
most significant stressors for officers are related to the safety
and well being of others.
Hess and Wrobleski (1993) report that the criminal justice
system and the citizens served by police officers can induce
stress. Sewell (1980) developed a critical life events scale for
law enforcement. The top reported critical life events in a
police officer's career are the violent death of a partner in the
line of duty, dismissal or suspension from work, taking another
person's life in the line of duty, shooting someone else in the
line of duty, and suicide of an officer who is a close friend.
Organizational and administrative issues are also of great
concern and likewise stressful for police officers.
More subtle, but no less devastating stressors interfere
with police officer's ability to withstand negative stress
reactions. Organizational stressors often cause as much or more
stress than critical incidents. Examples of these organizational
stressors are inadequate training, poor supervision and
leadership, lack of recognition for superior performance, the
36
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
perception of nepotism in the process of promotions and awarding
financial incentives, and poor pay. An additional organizational
stressor is insensitivity to the officer's family or his or her
personal needs (Sheehan & Van Hasselt, 2003). Additionally, the
notion that organizational factors can contribute to and affect
the level of stress on the job is supported by 1998 research
conducted using randomly selected members of the Institute of
Directors. Almost 90% of this sample population indicated that
working practices could be a contributing factor that affected
the level of stress people reported. Sixty percent of this same
population also believed that responsibility for dealing with
stress on the job should be shared by employers and the employee
(Smith, 2001). Similarly, Brown, Cooper, & Kirkcaldy, (1996)
report from their research of senior police officers in the
United Kingdom that from the calculation of mean scores from 61
sources of stress, over half the highest ten endorsed items from
an entire sample of senior officers were found to be
organizational in nature. However, studies of the efficacy of
individual stress coping mechanisms agree strongly with the
organizational philosophy that coping with stress is an
individual problem and not an organizational one (Hurrell, 1995).
This notion suggests that if police officers possess and make use
of effective coping strategies, then stress would not be a
37
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
problem. This is clearly an inaccurate proposal, but does include
police officers taking individual responsibility for seeking help
when they feel overly distressed.
Help seeking behavior by police officers has been
historically resisted since police officers resist interaction
with the mental health system. According to Reiner (1992) and
Sheehan & Van Hasselt (2003) part of the macho behavioral
repertoire reveals that participating in such interaction and
admitting a personal or professional crisis carries with it the
perception of weakness which produces role conflict for many
officers. This is not only related to the macho image of police
officers but also potentially relates to male gender role
socialization. Robertson (2001) reports that traditional help-
seeking behavior requires men, the majority population of
officers, to set aside a large portion of their masculine
socialization simply to get through the door and ask for help.
Because of this it is suggested that men find it difficult to
believe mental health professionals will be of help and this
becomes a block to help-seeking behaviors in men. Women however,
seek professional help almost 2 to 1 over men. Based on this
report one could support the hypothesis that gender will have an
effect on the rates of stress, burnout, and substance abuse
reported by police officers in this study.
38
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Role Conflict as a Stressor for Police Officers
Because of state law governing entrance criteria for Alabama
law enforcement officers, as well as other states across the
United States, officers are more stringently screened than people
in any other occupation (Alabama Peace Officers Standards and
Training Commission, 2004). Because of these required screenings
officers tend to be more often mentally stabile and resilient,
and officers are trained to suppress their feelings. This allows
them to absorb emotional blows, function during times of crisis,
recover and function effectively again (Chamberlin, 2000). Add to
this certain aspects of police training that encourages a
perpetual outward portrayal of rigid
strength and the need for mental stability and resiliency becomes
even more evident. One must ask if he or she would seek
assistance from the police if they were not strong, resilient,
and able to respond. Because of this, stress and burnout in
police officers is sometimes difficult to recognize since
officers are trained to portray this basic sterility in their
outward appearance and demeanor. Yet in the final analysis police
officers are only human beings wearing a uniform, badge, and
weapon. Often what the police officer thinks about his or her
work when compared to specific functions or organizational goals
39
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
are in conflict and this causes role conflict. This subtle
cognitive structure developed within officers has the potential
to develop into burnout if it relentlessly continues day-in and
day-out on regular basis.
According to Lazarus & Folkman (1984) and Siegall (2000) the
cognitive model of stress suggests that a situation does not
cause distress unless it is appraised as somehow threatening. A
situation would be stressful if it is perceived to block
individual outcomes or goals. Police officers are often charged
with enforcing the law and fighting crime but find they
experience conflicting and ambiguous feelings based on the
results achieved. The goals they were sent to achieve by superior
officers are subjected to uninformed scrutiny because of
organizational bureaucracy and this leads to conflict and
frustration. This resulting set of circumstances often has
profound effects on the officer's personal and organizational
outcomes. According to Burke (1998) there is a clear link between
this experience of occupational stress and adverse psychological
and physical health of individuals and workplace performance
difficulties. An additional source of role conflict for police
officers is personality types of most officers as compared to
personality types of just over one-third of private citizens.
40
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Personality as a Stressor for Police Officers
The work of Carl Jung leads to insight into how ones
personality might be a significant stressor. Jung studied Alfred
Adler and Sigmund Freud and found their theoretical differences
to be very simple. Even though in Jung's day the prevailing
thought was that personality was formed from environment rather
than inheritance, he believed two people from the same background
could approach any issue before them from two completely
different points of view (Hennessey, 1999). According to Jung
there are four basic functions that serve to structure an
individual's personality. Two of them involve how one takes in
information, or perception, and the other two involve decision
making, or judgment.
According to Jung, people naturally have a preference for one way of taking in information over the other. After accessing this information, a decision must be made or a conclusion reached. This is accomplished
through one of two processes, thinking or feeling. Jung referred to these as the two judging functions. Jung felt these functions were an integral part of a person's personality which resulted in certain patterns of behavior which could be classified. The possible combinations of perception and judgment were sensing with thinking, sensing with feeling, intuition with thinking, and intuition with feeling. (Hennessey, 1999, p.2).
In this type of system sensing types gather information
about the world around them using the five senses. These people
are usually practical, realistic, grounded in the present, and
41
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
have a strong aptitude for detail. Alternately, intuitive types
are less aware of specific details (e.g., those gained by the
five senses) and see abstract patterns and relationships. These
people are usually creative, think globally, are able to plan
and research, and are able to readily see patterns and
relationships (Hennessey, 1999). Further, Jung found that what
ideas people gathered through their perception goes through a
mental distillation process based on how that person thinks and
believes that allows them to make decisions. It was believed that
people make decisions based on their thinking or their feelings.
If one makes a decision with the thinking process that
person is very analytical and impersonal and usually doesn’t
readily take into consideration the impact his or her decisions
will make on others. He or she is usually objective, impartial,
has a sense of fairness and justice and has skill in applying
logical analysis. On the other hand the feeling type reaches
decisions through his or her feelings. These people tend to use a
process of reasoning which takes into consideration the effects
on people first. These people usually have an understanding of
others. They also have a desire for harmony, and a capacity for
warmth, empathy, and compassion (Hennessey, 1999). Jung also
believed that people were either extroverts that focused on their
outer world or introverts that felt more comfortable focusing on
42
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
their own inner thoughts and ideas. This can be understood by
observing those around us. Some people tend to verbalize their
thinking process and have a preference for talking about how to
make a decision. Alternately, introverts tend to have a
preference for thinking quietly about the alternatives to making
a decision and then verbally expressing the selected answer
(Baron, 1998; Kroeger & Thuesen, 1992). Jung combined these
developed characteristics or processes, also referred to as
cognitive styles and defined them as a) Sensing-thinking; b)
Sensing-feeling; c) Intuitive-thinking; and d)Intuitive-feeling.
These combinations of cognitive styles, along with the
characteristics of introversion or extroversion, characterize a
variety of behaviors that a person demonstrates over a period of
time. Jung's work is the foundation for today's Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (Baron; Hennessey; Kroeger & Thuesen).
People are attracted to professions that appeal to their
strongest preferences for doing things. Police officer
personality descriptions are often comparable to the described
tasks necessary for carrying out the job. As reported earlier
sensing-thinkers tend to be concrete, decisive, practical,
direct, logical, thorough, impersonal, factual, structured, and
service oriented among others. According to Hennessey's (1999)
research data, 70% of the police officers he studied were found
43
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
to have these types of personality characteristics, while only
32%-42% of the general population had them. The general
population are generally sensing-feelers. The sensing-thinker
seems to personify the tough cop image. They are what most people
inside and outside of police work visualize when they
imagine or describe how cops generally conduct themselves.
Looking at the majority of police officers as decisive, concrete,
practical, direct, and logical, as they provide services to the
public, and realizing that over one-third of the general public
have ways of looking at life that are almost the polar opposite,
police officers encounter sources of stress and conflict simply
by making routine contacts with the public they serve. Also,
Euwema, Kop, & Schaufeli, (1999) report that police officers who
experience burnout tend to be negative, callous, and cynical
towards the public they come in contact with at work. This
suggests that the burnout subscales of emotional exhaustion and
depersonalization discussed by Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter (1996)
may correlate strongly with the variable of stress, lending
support to hypotheses of the present work. Adding stress and
burnout to the daily routine of officers to contend with, along
with officers already being reported as the polar opposite in
personality of almost half of the public they come in contact
with, the stage becomes set for regular conflict during routine,
44
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
somewhat detached and short public contacts. However,
organizational issues are often reported as being more stress
producing than those issues discussed thus far.
Organizational Factors as a Stressor
According to Perry (2001) three organizational failures can
foster cynicism, resentment, and demoralization within the law
enforcement organization that are all signs of internal disorder.
These are frequently significant stress producers. Those failures
are a) poor or ineffective discipline and negligent retention of
individuals that display an inability to perform duties
appropriately; b) the failure to recognize that the farther
individuals get away from appropriate goals the less they remain
passionately interested in its achievement; and c) the allowance
of a double standard within the organization which creates
decreased moral accountability as professional responsibility
increases. Perry goes one step further and suggests that these
mentioned principles must be monitored from an organizational
perspective. In short, it is suggested that as opposed to
monitoring the one bad apple in the barrel, the rotten barrel may
be the entity that needs monitoring.
For some time now industry has been taking a hard look at
itself in an effort to make changes that will reflect
45
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
effectiveness, efficiency, and an organizational attitude that is
perceived as being sensitive to the needs of its members (Bennett
& Hess, 1996). Organizations do this in an effort to maintain
their share of the market, to increase profits, or to maintain a
healthy employee environment. However, nearly all organizations
tend to become top heavy with administrators. Middle management
adds levels of decision making, creating processes and record
keeping, which in turn further slows down the process of taking
action. The organizational hierarchy gets heavier and heavier at
the top when what holds the most promise for increasing
productivity and efficiency in law enforcement agencies is adding
personnel in the lower ranks where the work
actually gets done. Change in a law enforcement organization is
often accepted slowly and the current paramilitary structure of
these organizations will create even more difficulty.
Changes in organizational structure will generate difficulty
for the bureaucratic paramilitary structure of police agencies in
the future. This is particularly accurate since the face of
American law enforcement is changing and this creates more
difficulty in hiring and maintaining police officers in today's
America (Ashcroft, Daniels, & Hart, 2004). Officers employed in
the 1970s were more likely recently discharged from military
service, possessed a high school diploma or G.E.D., and were
46
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
keenly accustomed to taking orders without question. However,
officers employed in the 1990s and in the 21st Century are more
likely well educated, perhaps with a college degree, and have
never served in the military, which is perhaps a function of an
all volunteer military. These individuals have been taught to be
critical thinkers during their academic careers and are less
likely to take orders without understanding their origin and
reasoning.
In a study of a major law enforcement agency reported by
Harrison (1994) it was concluded that the agency's paramilitary
bureaucratic structure was the reason for the most destructive
and unmanageable organizational problems. The bureaucracy of that
structure was an impediment to innovation and customer service.
It also tended to build mediocrity into the workforce and made it
impossible to terminate those that did not perform. However,
according to de Jager (2001) creating change in such an
environment is very difficult because people are reluctant to
leave behind what they have grown comfortable with. Organization
members find themselves anxious about how the old moves to the
new, particularly when they are functioning well and must learn
new techniques and risk failure to participate in change. de
Jager (p.26) further suggests how administrators decide what
47
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
might be replaced with organizational change must be based on
four basic questions:
1. Why is the old status quo no longer sufficient? Is the
change intended to remedy a deficiency or seize an opportunity?
The answer will help determine how people will react to the
change and how stressful that change will be.
2. What will it cost to make the transition from the old way
of doing things to the new-fangled method? Beside this cost, the
cost of disruption, training, temporary low morale, new hires,
people leaving, and the emotional cost of destroying what once
was must be considered. The grieving process with this loss will
be stressful.
3. Is the cost of transition justified by the incremental
benefits of what is being proposed?
4. Does the proposed change support and reinforce the existing
core values? Integral to asking these questions is the
involvement of others in the process.
The agents of change must involve organizational members in
the process of decision making to reduce the potential for
creating unmanageable stress inside the organization. Further,
they must deal with one of the most significant stress producers
created with organizational change; the failure to indict their
48
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
own previous ways of thinking and behavior (Dolan, 1994).
Backlash expressed from this source of stress could be visible
frustration or even outright mutiny. However if one asks members
of the organization what the most pressing source of stress and
concern for individual members of the organization is, it seems
to be organizational administration and leadership techniques.
This returns us to the notion of the failure of change agents to
indict their own past performance, behavior, and thinking.
Everyone must change with the process from the top down or
survival instincts manifested as resistance within the
organization will rise up and the development of stress, or
burnout in the long term will become a problem (de Jaeger, 2001).
Burnout in Police Officers
Depending upon the various published research or texts one
is reviewing, burnout has been described several ways. One
description of burnout is that it is the result of stress that is
being inappropriately managed (Kosinski & Vettor, 2002).
According to Pines & Aronson (1981) burnout is informally defined
as being an emotional experience one is frequently confronted
with when working with other people and their problems. Further
they suggest those who genuinely want to work with others find
them selves putting much more into their work than they get in
49
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
return. Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter (1996) provide their specific
definition of burnout and report that its definition involves
three specific aspects much as Selye's (1976) research first
suggested. Their definition begins with Selye's last stage of the
stress syndrome. According to these researchers burnout is a
syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced
personal accomplishment. With emotional exhaustion, resources are
used up and workers are no longer able to give of themselves at a
psychological level (Hawkins, 2001; Selye). Depersonalization
causes negative, cynical attitudes and feelings about clients or
customers, and reduced personal accomplishment tends to lead
workers to assess themselves negatively with regards to work
performance with clients or customers. Also, Arthur (1990)
reports that professionals who work continuously with others
often respond to chronic emotional strain from dealing with
others on a continuous basis when those people are troubled or
having problems. People begin feeling unhappy about themselves
and their professional accomplishments based on their ability to
provide the quality of services they started out being able to
provide. According to Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter (1996)
individuals in human services professions are often required to
spend large amounts of time in close, intense contact with those
who are having problems. Police officers are included in this
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
category of professionals. While working with these clients a
solution to their problem is not always obvious or readily
available or is resisted by the client, as in an individual
resisting arrest for driving under the influence. The arrest
solves the issue of safety to the individual and others on the
roadway but the person being arrested hardly, if ever, will
appreciate the solution. Working continuously with people under
these circumstances leads to chronic stress, is emotionally
draining, and can lead to burnout.
Burnout is frequently measured with use of the Maslach
Burnout Inventory (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). This
particular assessment is based on the idea that burnout is a
progressive syndrome that over time occurs as a direct result of
helping others in difficult situations (Arthur, 1990). According
to Hawkins (1990) the concept of depersonalization can often turn
into callous or dehumanized perceptions of others and can lead
professionals to view their clients as deserving their troubles.
The development of this depersonalization also appears to be
linked to emotional exhaustion. When stress related to helping
others is relentless and continues over time, burnout is the
result.
Police work is described as inherently stressful and is
thought to be one of society's most stressful occupations. This
51
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
being accurate it can easily lead to the development of burnout,
even across different cultures and genders (Storm & Rothmann,
2003). The mere nature of police work does not allow the stress
level to change over time. This is the notion that Pines &
Aronson (1981) lend support to when they discuss the dual
dimensionality of burnout and its ability to mutate, where the
hazard is built into the task and is either continuous or
intermittent. According to their report the dimension of
continuousness indicates that some stressors are continuous and
constantly pose a threat to individuals. One such stressor is the
officer's need to always be vigilant. For officers to allow their
attention level to drop while at work is simply a very dangerous
safety issue. If officers are not involved with gruesome scenes
of trauma, natural disasters, or man's inhumanity to man, then
officers will be confronted with organizational and
administrative issue. Numerous reports say these issues are even
more stressful than traumatic events because they are faced on a
routine daily basis. In a review of literature conducted by
Hawkins several issues that stand out relating to police officer
stress, are consistent with those suggested in the present study.
Hawkins (2001) reports that police job performance often
suffers as a result of continuous stressors and that officers
were more likely to drink alcohol or use tranquilizers to cope
52
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
with stress if they scored high on emotional exhaustion and low
on personal accomplishments on the Maslach Burnout Inventory.
Additionally, Hawkins also reports burnout tends to correlate
with alcoholism and other physical and psychological problems.
These reports are consistent with hypotheses proposed in the
present study. Organizational stressors including paramilitary
organizational structure, lack of participation in decision
making, lack of administrative support, and poor supervision and
leadership as stressors are also further supported. Police
officers suffer the damaging effects of burnout. Storm & Rothmann
(2003) suggest that when one looks for patterns where police
officers are regularly exposed to violence, have a high
percentage of attrition and frequent early retirement, or high
suicide rates exist then there is a strong indication that
officers experience their working conditions as highly stressful
and traumatic. This reported stress and burnout is hypothesized
to lead to substance use and abuse as a coping mechanism that
often includes alcohol and prescription drugs. Also, as reported
by Cherniss (1992) there is a plethora of research investigating
the immediate consequences of burnout but little work conducted
on the long-term effects. Cherniss conducted a 12-year
longitudinal study of human services workers in an effort to
determine if burnout was a phenomenon of early career life, or if
53
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
its effects followed through over the course of ones career when
that person stayed in the same profession. Findings indicate that
of the small sample that was followed many were able to develop
flexibility later in the career life. The data analyzed indicated
few statistically significant relationships. The possible
explanation offered for these findings was that the impacts of
early career experiences become relatively weak over time
suggesting that officer tenure may have a mitigating effect on
stress and burnout. This lends support to a notion that there is
a decrease of substance abuse with an increase in tenure. This
particular variable is a meaningful area for exploration for
future studies.
Substance Abuse in Police Officers and its Prevalence
Studies of the relationship between alcohol consumption and
its moderating effects on stress indicate that stress reduction
does take place with alcohol use for certain people in particular
circumstances (e.g., camaraderie or socialization into the
workplace environment). Some people, such as those with a family
history of alcoholism, are particularly susceptible to these
moderating effects (Sayette, 1999). Corelli (1994) reports from a
study of Royal Canadian Mounted Police that law enforcement as a
54
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
culture is strongly attached to alcohol as a means of coping with
stressors. Further he suggests that
such a workplace culture has a tendency to support some
maladaptive aspects of alcohol consumption. Over time this
becomes a cunning pattern of use for officers that consume
alcohol to relieve stress or fit in with the workplace culture.
Additionally, this perceived stress is considered a major
facilitator for first time alcohol or drug use as well as relapse
after treatment for abuse or dependence (Brady & Sonne, 1999).
This set of circumstances establishes the use and abuse of
alcohol in individuals and has the potential for leading the user
in the direction of substance dependence. Alcoholism was listed
as the top symptom of stress when it was studied in 146 public
safety organizations across the United States. This alcoholism
cost government billions of dollars each year and is manifested
in poor job performance, lost time from work, and medical
expenses (Shearer, 1989).
Abuse and dependence on alcohol and drugs is considered a
complex phenomenon by clinicians and researchers alike. It is
further suggested that the complexity of these problems is
determined by psychological and physiological components (Brady &
Sonne, 1999). These researchers also report that animal studies
support a positive relationship between stress and alcohol use
55
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
and abuse. In a human clinical arena where treatment takes place
with alcoholics and addicts the relationship between stress and
alcohol use has been more difficult to characterize. Studies in
this environment do not uniformly support a prominent theory
called the tension-reduction hypothesis of alcohol use, which
suggests that people use alcohol to reduce stress (Brady &
Sonne). However, it is suggested that studies of stress and
alcohol use are difficult to conduct in alcoholic humans simply
because they have the power to choose and can leave treatment or
terminate participation in research studies.
Various studies have demonstrated an association between
stress and alcohol use but they have not been able to establish a
causal relationship. Research methodology simply cannot support a
causal relationship between these variables. Even with a true
experimental research design the scientific community does not
pinpoint cause and effect relationships one-hundred percent of
the time (Sprinthall, 2003). Even so, studies by Rouge-Pont,
Deroche, LeMoal, & Piazza (1998) conducted on rodents that were
exposed to stress for long periods or repeated exposure indicate
that such stress can influence durable alterations in the brain's
neural pathways. Having been dosed with alcohol in the laboratory
to reduce stress later resulted in a drug-prone state that was
found to be independent of the presence of a stressor. These
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
findings lend support to the hypothesis posed in the present
study that suggests a significant correlation between the
development of stress, burnout, and substance abuse. Fassel &
Schaef, (1988, pp. 51-54) further suggest that "it is not that
everyone is running around with an addiction, it is more that
there is the existence of addictive processes underlying
addictive systems that influences everyone". People are
influenced to function similar to the organizations they inhabit
and organizations are influenced by the systems they function in.
This suggests that the problem is not only individuals that
consume alcohol or other drugs, but also the organizational
culture that allows, facilitates, or perpetuates this use.
According to Brown, Cooper, & Kirkcaldy (1996) over half of the
top ten reasons for perceived stress in police agencies were
related to organizational structure and climate. The substance
use and abuse discussed here reportedly has affects on
camaraderie, internal socialization as a means of fitting in
within the organization, and stress management. Reports such as
these spark an intense interest in the prevalence of alcohol use
and abuse in different occupations.
DeBakey & Stinson (1992) conclude that there is intense
interest among researchers and the public concerning the
magnitude of alcohol problems in various professions. Their
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
research indicates there is considerable variation in alcohol
disorders among varying occupations. Also reported is greater
prevalence of alcohol use disorders among young persons;
therefore those occupations having groups of younger workers may
have more problem employees. They suggest it is important to know
what occupations have a higher prevalence of alcohol disorders
even if the higher rate is due to a young work force. Included in
this investigation were occupations that are stereotyped as
having high rates of alcohol abuse. A popular fiction exists that
law enforcement officers in varying assignments have high rates
of alcoholism. However, research findings indicate the contrary.
The prevalence for alcoholism in this population is about the
same as for the general public (DeBakey & Stinson). The findings
did indicate that male police officers and detectives had a
slightly higher prevalence for alcohol abuse than did females,
again lending support for the hypothesis that gender may affect
the use or abuse of substances such as alcohol or drugs. However,
Davey, Obst, and Sheehan (2000) report stark contrast to these
findings.
Davey, Obst, & Sheehan (2000) report that the dangerous
consequences of substance abuse in the law enforcement profession
are obvious. Excessive alcohol consumption impedes the necessity
of quick reflexes and thinking. Their recent survey of 852 [New
58
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
South Wales] police officers found that 48% of male police
officers and 40% of female officers consumed alcohol excessively,
both by drinking in excessive quantities during the week or by
binge drinking, both of which are considerably higher than those
of the general Australian population. Despite these findings
police were not listed as a high risk group in other studies of
drug awareness, which is consistent with the findings of DeBakey
& Stinson (1992). However, when these research findings are
compared further, male and female officers were found to
participate in excessive or binge drinking at a higher rate than
the general population. This indicates that the prevalence of
alcohol use in the police service is of concern, particularly
since 26% of the sample studied reported having consumed alcohol
on duty, drinking excessively, or binge drinking. Even though it
is reported that police do not frequently report a high frequency
of drinking behavior, the quantities they do drink are cause for
concern. Therefore research into this problem, as well as methods
of deterrence and treatment is of interest to police officers,
their employers, the public, and the helping professions alike.
Alcohol Consumption as a Function of Camaraderie, Socialization,
and Stress Relief
59
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Alcohol and other drugs often function to facilitate
camaraderie among organization members, act as a social lubricant
to ease anxiety during social interactions or arduous
communication, or to relieve stress (Monahan & Lannutti, 2000).
Frone, (1999) reports that organizational employees' use of
alcohol is either external to the workplace or it arises from the
work environment itself. Reporting further, Frone suggests that a
culture/availability paradigm exists if alcohol is physically or
socially available or use is encouraged by the workplace culture.
Likewise, he suggests an alienation/stress
paradigm exists, if employees use alcohol as a response to
physical and psychosocial aspects of the work environment. The
notion that policing is a stressful occupation and that stress is
relieved by substance abuse is often discussed in the literature
on the subject (Hess & Wrobleski, 1993; Hailstone, Kehoe,
Richmond, Uebel, & Wodak, 1999; Olisa, 1997; Sheehan & Van
Hasselt, 2003; Thrasher, 2001; & Trautman, 1991). However, Davey,
Obst, & Sheehan, (2001) report that different aspects of the
organization that officers work for may contribute more to stress
because they do not regularly have to deal with traumatic
stressors. They do have to deal with workplace demands such as
inadequate equipment, poor supervision and leadership, or
excessive paperwork on a daily basis and this often contributes
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to feelings of stress. Blum, Martin, & Roman, (1992) suggest that
characteristics of the work often function to support alcohol
consumption by providing a justification for it in an effort to
escape unpleasant emotional states. This is not to say that
stress is the only factor that contributes to alcohol consumption
by police officers, other factors do exist. However, Blum,
et.al., further report that when people drink to relieve stress
it is associated with higher levels of consumption and is labeled
self-medicating behavior that is used as a method of tension
management or mood enhancement. This report lends further support
to the hypotheses in the present study.
Camaraderie or esprit de corp during traditional times of
celebration (e.g., successful police operations, promotions,
transfers, or Christmas parties) motivates some officers to
consume alcoholic beverages as a means of fitting in with the
dominant workplace culture (Davey, Obst, & Sheehan, 2001;
Hailstone, Kehoe, Richmond, Uebel, & Wodak, 1999). This suggests
that a subculture within police organizations exists that exerts
peer pressure on others to participate in that internal culture.
Additionally, the availability of alcohol inside and outside the
workplace, a lack of organization policy governing alcohol use,
or the requirement of some members to consume alcoholic beverages
as a part of covert police operations all help to support an
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alcohol consuming culture (Davey, Obst, & Sheehan). This suggests
a need for intervention strategies that address these areas.
However, Anderson, Decker, Gajda, Ison, Kavet, & Loomis, (1989)
report lack of proof that intervention initiatives are solving
these problems in the workplace. Combine this with clear
dissatisfaction with public sector efforts to combat substance
abuse and a need to examine existing approaches to the problem of
drug abuse and the problems associated with alcohol misuse become
evident. Further, such sub-cultures within police agencies often
view their rituals of alcohol consumption as a private matter
that is beyond the concern of the organization (Hailstone, Kehoe,
Richmond, Uebel, & Wodak, 1999). Regardless of the reasons for
use or individual expectations of alcohol consumption, continued
or uncontrolled abuse of alcohol in or around the workplace is a
critical problem. Frone (1999) and Shearer (1989) report that
determining whether or not substance abuse occurs within
America's workforce while on the job is an extremely important
policy issue since it has the potential for undermining health
and productivity. Additionally from a management perspective
substance abuse can cause impaired job performance, accidents and
injuries, poor attendance, high employee turnover, and increased
health care costs.
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Substance Abuse in the Workplace and Its Costs
Few individuals can dispute the social and moral concern of
drug and alcohol abuse. According to La Shier (1991, ¶ 12) the
National Institute of Drug Abuse reports "44% of 18-25 year-olds
have used illegal drugs in the previous year"; the Journal of
American Insurers reports "23% of all employees have either a
drug or alcohol problem"; and the U.S. Department of Justice,
providing what is perhaps the most convincing statistic of all,
reports that the United States only makes up about six-percent of
the world population but consumes sixty-percent of the world's
illicit drugs. Analyzing this statistic leads one to question if
the working population in America is the primary consumers of
alcohol and illicit drugs. However, according to Bellegris (1996)
this substance abuse cannot be connected to any specific industry
and it exists at all levels of the various organizations.
Further, Kennedy (2001) reports that the greatest threats are
created by tobacco, alcohol, illicit drugs, and prescription
medication. When the impact of substance abuse is considered,
increases in employee theft, accidents and injuries, including a
rise in damage to company property, and poor attendance and
absenteeism become major concerns.
According to La Shier (1991) when substance abusers are
compared to other workers they are late for work three times as
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often, absent from work two and one-half times as often, and call
in sick three times as often. Additionally these same abusers are
injured on the job slightly over three and one-half
times more often, file worker's compensation claims five times as
often, and only produce at sixty-seven percent of the average
worker's capacity. These employees are also more likely to steal
from their employer. According to the National Institute on Drug
Abuse (1998) and the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and
Alcoholism (1998), costs of crimes attributed to illicit drug and
alcohol abuse totaled $78.8 billion dollars in 1992. Both these
institutes also report that the total economic cost of alcohol
and drug abuse was $246 billion dollars in 1992, the most recent
year for which sufficient data were available (NIAAA; NIDA).
Although these figures are related to costs across the United
States and not specifically related to police officer substance
abuse alone, this specific population is likely a portion of this
total. These characteristics cause employers to look at substance
abuse as a critical problem in their workplaces (Anderson,
Decker, Gajda, Ison, Kavet, & Loomis, 1989). However, research
conducted by DeBakey & Stinson (1992) reports that police
officers are no more likely to abuse alcohol or become dependent
on it than other workers in the general population, although this
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
report is contradicted by research findings of Davey, Obst, &
Sheehan, (2000).
Defining Substance Abuse, Dependence, and its Neurobiology
The DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000) & Juhnke (2002) define substance
abuse as a maladaptive pattern of substance use that is
associated with reoccurring consequences that cause distress like
not fulfilling obligations at home, school or work, or legal
sanctions such as DUI charges over the past 12 months. It is
important to note that diagnosing substance dependence in an
individual preempts a diagnosis of substance abuse and that
diagnosing substance abuse does not include the withdrawal
symptomology included in substance dependence (APA; Juhnke).
Therefore one may infer that substance abuse is about choice
since the abuser is making conscious choices about using
substances such as alcohol or drugs (Erickson, 2003). Examples of
these choices might be intentional overuse in cases of
celebration, anxiety or despair, ignorance, or simply making bad
choices about the use of substances. However, decisions of this
type tend to decline with adverse consequences, supply reduction,
or a change in one's environment.
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
According to Erickson (2003), abuse is the problem to solve
since these individuals may hurt others in the process of their
abuse. They deserve appropriate punishment since this becomes an
issue of responsibility and culpability. On the other hand the
DSM-IV-TR (APA (2000), (Erickson), & Juhnke (2002) all define
substance dependence as persistent substance use despite
reoccurring related problems. These problems are associated with
the development of a physical tolerance to the substance of
choice. This tolerance is manifested by the need to consume
increasing amounts of the substance. Withdrawal from the
substance causes symptomology like tremors, shaking, nausea or
vomiting. Dependence also includes compulsive substance use
behaviors. Craving of the substance is not required but
frequently accompanies dependence.
Describing dependency a bit further Erickson, (2003) reports
substance dependence is impaired control, not complete loss of
control over drug use that may be caused by a dysfunction in the
brain's pleasure center. This is the disease of addiction. This
disease usually requires formal involvement in a Twelve Step
program. Its treatment may also require psychopharmacology.
Understanding that dependence is a disease is made easier by
having a very basic understanding of how chemicals such as drugs
and alcohol function in the brain and where dependence areas of
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
the brain are located. It is also useful to have a basic
understanding of the model of the development of impaired control
and how specific
neurotransmitters are involved in dependence. This is what
Erickson terms functional dysregulation.
According to Burnett (2001) clinicians provide more
appropriate therapy when having a clear understanding of the
disease of addiction. A person's sense of well being is due to
the action of key neurotransmitters working in a cascade fashion
in the brain. Their final site of action is in the limbic system
located near the center of the brain in what is referred to as
the Mesolimbic Dopamine System or medial forebrain bundle. One
can locate this bundle by placing one finger in the center of the
forehead and one finger over the center of the ear, and imagining
where the two lines intersect inside the brain. Here lies the
medial forebrain bundle (Erickson, 2003). When aroused, this
brain system begins to take over and tell us we really do not
know the things we think we know or we do not know what is best
for us. If adrenaline is present this causes current events to
become triggering events, such as when one is confronted with
stressful situations. Some animal research, such as that
conducted by Ciccocioppo, Colombo, Froldi, Gessa, Massi, &
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Panocka, (1999) relative to a self-medication hypothesis,
indicates that the very existence of stress in the brain can
actually trigger a reward seeking response. This assertion is
supported by studies mentioned earlier that were conducted by
Rouge-Pont, Deroche, LeMoal, & Piazza (1998) which revealed that
rodents exposed to stress for long periods or repeatedly
indicated that stress influences durable alterations in the
brain's neural pathways. This response leaves individuals with
less control of their emotional states and develops accelerated
brain stress that leads them to more alcohol consumption or
depressive states. This activity takes place in the limbic system
near the mid-brain and therefore is considered to be beyond
conscious control and directs individuals toward a compulsive
cure. Recall that substance abuse was about conscious choice.
This creates the idea that dependence is also a disease that
results in a complete loss of willpower. According to Erickson
(2003) and Hedlund (2002) dependence is still not a complete loss
of willpower, but more a pathological impairment of decision
making. This effectively flips on one's addictive switch which
causes functional dysregulation in the brain. The brain's primary
dependence related neurotransmitters (Dopamine, Serotonin,
Endorphins, GABA–gamma-aminobutyric acid, Glutamate, and
Acetylcholine) are not working in harmony and are functionally
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
dysregulated. Biological brain based conditions that could
account for this dysregulation are too much neurotransmission,
too little neurotransmission, abnormal metabolism of
neurotransmitters, or abnormal receptor function in cell to cell
transmission of messages in the brain (Erickson, 2003). This
creates a brain chemistry disease. According to Burnett (2001) if
chemical dependence is compared to other diseases based on the
degree it has a biological basis, the degree it shows a
predictable course and outcome, and the degree to which the
condition is caused by an individual's deliberate acts, then the
disease of alcoholism is very comparable to other diseases such
as heart disease, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, gout, cancer,
or syphilis. However, it is suggested that reductionistic
thinking takes place when one believes that dependence leads to a
complete loss of one's control and choice making ability.
Dependence does not absolve one of individual responsibility or
culpability for consumptive behavior or inappropriate or illegal
acts arising out of that consumption. This is only half the
picture. However, this reductionistic thinking and the
accompanying stigma often attached could well be one of the
primary reasons most individuals, as well as police officers are
resistant to the notion of seeking help.
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Help-Seeking Behaviors in Police and Others
Feelings of disappointment, frustration, anger, low
organizational bonding, stressful working conditions, and a lack
of job control has been described as job strain (Paternoster &
Mazerolle, 1994; Bennett & Lehman, 2002). These feelings
experienced by employees in high-risk jobs such as police work
compounds working conditions that are already inherently
stressful and include situations that have life threatening
components to them. Regularly these stressful conditions lead to
substance use or abuse behaviors that originate by individuals
attempting to self-medicate themselves to relieve symptoms of
emotional or physical pain (Aharonovich, Nguyen, & Nunes, 2001).
Although, many studies have demonstrated an association between
stress and alcohol or drug use, a causal relationship between the
two has not been established (Brady & Sonne, 1999). It is
believed continued substance abuse via self-medication can lead
to the development of alcohol or drug dependence problems that
individuals have traditionally sought help for on a voluntary
basis. However, according to Schmidt & Weisner (1999), managed
health care, the criminal justice system, and employee assistance
programs have altered access and pathways to treatment. Many
paths to treatment are resisted by police officers, even though
risk factors for substance use problems or risky behaviors exist
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in the workplace domain; especially those workplaces that involve
high-risk occupations (Bennett & Lehman).
Tucker (1999) suggests that most Americans would probably
find themselves believing that the use of drugs and alcohol has
shaped our collective social fabric. The drug that people prefer
and its availability has changed over time but the demand for
psychoactive substances has remained consistent. She also reports
the development of a distinctive American approach to dealing
with substance abuse and dependence problems. In fact, it is
suggested that there is no middle ground for the American way of
dealing with drug problems in the United States. Further, if one
is to seek help and be treated for drug or alcohol problems he or
she must be willing to seek help after hitting bottom or having
the bottom brought up for them, accepting the social label of
alcoholic or addict with its lifelong proscription against
substance use, and accept the associated stigma. In short, there
is only one pathway to salvation from substance abuse or
dependence (King & Tucker, 1999; & Shaffer, 1999); even though
Tucker reports being in search for a middle ground for an
addictive behavior change continuum. However, the notion is
offered that for those public sector workers that maintain
safety-sensitive positions such as police officers, fire
fighters, EMS workers, or public transportation workers, no
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middle ground opportunity can be extended because of zero
tolerance for use or abuse of substances on and off the job.
Probably American society would not want such a middle ground to
exist for these individuals. They are nonetheless human beings
and deserve development of some effective way to help them cope.
Simply because they chose the work they do, they do not cease to
posses their humanity. Regardless of the goal, police officers,
as well as many others characteristically resist self-motivated
help-seeking and persuasive intervention efforts.
Tucker (2001) reports that the disease perspective on
addiction requires a formal treatment process that involves
Alcoholics Anonymous participation to start change in ones
established patterns of substance abuse. However, this rationale
is brought into question by King and Tucker (1999) when they
discuss the conventional view of recovery and whether or not some
components are absolutely essential to successful sobriety or
harm-reduction. These researchers specifically question the view
that the necessary first step to recovery is preceded by denial
and hitting bottom or losing all of one's resources. They further
question the rationale that entering treatment requires the
acceptance of the social label of alcoholic or addict and the
life long proscription against substance use. The idea that
refusing to seek help is seen as denial and a lack of motivation
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to change and that this attitude must be broken down through
confrontation until the need for help is recognized is also
questioned. These researchers suggest the contrary and report;
that 1) there are multiple pathways to problem resolution that do
not always occur because of intervention; 2) some processes
involved in behavior change and some environments are commonly
connected to resolution to problems; 3) it is uncommon to seek
help through formally established pathways; and 4) help-seeking
is influenced by social processes and the nature of substance
problems more often than denial or poor motivation (King &
Tucker).
Essentially, there are several ways to solve the problem of
substance abuse and achieve prolonged behavior change. It must be
understood that help-seeking behavior is a social process like
being motivated by someone that matters to the individual such as
friends, family, or employers. Realizing that having a strong
support system is perhaps a better indicator of successful
treatment than formal treatment itself is integral to success
because treatment, with its accompanying proscriptions and labels
is not appealing. King & Tucker, (1999) suggest that it is not
necessarily denial of a problem that takes place, but more so
avoidance of the process of treatment. Some individuals would
rather be addicted than stigmatized as weak and non-resilient.
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This is consistent with the assertion that police officers will
rarely seek help for fear of being stigmatized as emotionally
weak by their peers, the agencies they work for, and the public
they serve (Hailstone, Kehoe, Richmond, Uebel-Yan, & Wodak,
1999). This is particularly true when natural resolutions appear
to be more common and work better (King and Tucker). Commonly
reported influences that either started or
maintained natural behavior change in addicted individuals were
health problems, a change in occupation, increased marital
satisfaction, finances, social relationships, or significant
accidents. This strongly suggests that substance abuse and its
treatment remain stigmatized and that current services are not
appealing to or responsive to the needs of the majority of people
with problems. Individuals needing treatment often delay or avoid
treatment entry because of concerns about privacy and the stigma
of treatment. Further they are critical of common treatments and
believe that some interventions (e.g., methadone maintenance) can
make their problem worse. Research on long-term outcomes that
included treated and untreated substance abusers has demonstrated
that getting treatment is not absolutely necessary nor is it
sufficient alone to create change in substance abusers (Tucker,
2001).
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Further, Simpson & Tucker, (2003) suggest that denial really
does not exist in substance abusers. Rather, they know very early
on they have a substance abuse problem and wait until their
drinking becomes problematic for their health in several areas
before seeking help. As earlier reported by Reiner (1992), and
Sheehan & Van Hasselt (2003), part of the macho behavioral image
and the basic professional sterility of personality portrayed by
police officers reveals that participating in such interaction
and admitting a personal or professional crisis carries with it
the perception of weakness. Police officers reportedly feel they
cannot let their guard down and still remain resilient and strong
in the eyes of their peers, their organization, and the public
they serve. Because of this, stress, burnout, and substance abuse
in police officers is sometimes difficult to recognize and may
remain hidden if not proactively addressed by the individual and
the organization.
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CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
The law enforcement profession is filled with excitement and
danger. What is at one moment boring can in an instant turn
dangerous and stressful. Rapid change in circumstances such as
these, with no outlet for the build-up of stress it causes can
lead to serious consequences. The mismanagement of that stress
can lead to the syndrome of burnout in anyone, as well as police
officers. It is hypothesized that both stress and burnout have
the potential for leading individuals to substance abuse to
medicate the physical and emotional pain created by the work
police officer's perform. For the purposes of this study, the
variables of stress and burnout were examined for their
association with substance abuse with alcohol or drugs in police
officers working in mid-sized Alabama agencies. Additionally,
collected demographic data (e.g., officer gender) were analyzed
to determine if differences in the two groups exist related to
the variables of stress, burnout, and substance abuse.
Research Methodology and Study Design
This study was conducted using quantitative methods that
resulted in a descriptive, correlational, non-experimental
design. The data was collected using a developed self-
administered questionnaire and currently published, self-
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
administered assessments designed to measure stress, burnout, and
substance abuse (Creswell, 2003; Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). This
methodological approach was selected above a phenomenological or
ethnographic study since the principal researcher conducting this
study is a retired career police officer. This researcher's
familiarity and experience with law enforcement will likely
afford a degree of credibility and access to participants that
might otherwise be unavailable to civilian researchers. This also
involves an understanding of or being highly sensitized to
potential mental health crises police officers face on the job
(Chamberlin, 2000). An attempt to eliminate bias related to this
set of circumstances was made by making use of strictly
quantitative data, although the potential for bias in data
interpretation still exists. Even though one's individual point
of view is certainly of value when studying and attempting to
explain various phenomena in the world, studies are best
conducted absent individual biases that can skew collected data.
While this study could have been conducted qualitatively using
ethnography or phenomenology, a quantitative approach was
selected to prevent the imposition of individual, personal
meaning to collected data and strengthen the study's internal
validity (Benard, 2000; Benton & Craib, 2001).
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The demographic questionnaire used in this study was
constructed by the study's principal researcher and is short,
concise, and was used to collect demographic data only. The
published assessments used in this study were The Perceived
Stress Scale, (Cohen, 1994); The Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human
services Survey, (Maslach & Jackson, 1986; Maslach, Jackson, &
Leiter, 1996); and The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test
(Conoley, Murdoh, & Reese, 1980; Murdoch, 2001; Selzer, 1971;
Selzer, Vinokur, & Rooijen, 1975).
Sample Population and Setting
This study initially proposed to make use of a systematic
stratified random sampling of 975 sworn male and female police
officers that are employed by eight separate mid-sized Alabama
law enforcement agencies (Bernard, 2000; Sprinthall, 2003). These
population numbers reflect sworn officer populations of eight
mid-sized Alabama cities as reported by the Alabama Criminal
Justice Information Center (2003). However, only six of the eight
cities recruited for participation agreed to participate in this
study. Each agency reported an accurate number of currently
employed sworn officers and provided badge or employee numbers
for development of a sampling frame. The total number of sworn
officers available for this study was 633, 587 males and 46
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females. A complete sampling frame divided into male and female
sworn officer subframes that are currently employed was requested
from each of the agencies that participated in this research
study. This sampling frame was requested in a format that did not
identify any potential participant by name (i.e., male officer,
badge number 024; female officer, badge number 025). A random
point of origination in the sampling frame began random
participant selection. From this randomly selected spot every
3rd. badge number was selected from the male subframe. The female
officer population from these six mid-sized Alabama cities was
small therefore all 46 of these officers were recruited to
participate in this study. In this fashion every person in the
male sampling frame had an equal chance of being selected
creating a probability sampling, where anonymity was guaranteed
and a sample of both male and female officers was available to
calculate any hypothesis of difference (Bernard, 2003). A sample
size with sufficient statistical power to obtain a confidence
level of 95% (e.g., p < .05) was calculated using a population
parameter of 587 male officers. This calculation requires a
margin of error of 5% and a response distribution of 50%, all of
which resulted in a suggested sample size of 233 randomly
selected officers from the six mid-sized Alabama police agencies.
This sample size allows generalization of findings back to the
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population sampled. This calculation is based on randomly
selecting male officers only and intentionally selecting all 46
of the female officers since gender in this population is so
disproportionate. Therefore the total recommended sample size was
233 if a consistent confidence level of p < .05 was to be
obtained.
Permission to survey was obtained from the Chief's of Police
of six agencies out of the eight Alabama law enforcement agencies
meeting criteria for inclusion in the study (e.g., service
populations of 30,000 to 100,000). The survey packages included a
letter of introduction, letter of instructions, an informed
consent document, a demographics questionnaire, the Perceived
Stress Scale, the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services
Survey, and the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test. These
documents may be seen in Appendix A. These survey packages were
used for the purpose of data collection from human participants
for this study. Surveying a sampling of officers from each of the
agencies meeting inclusion criteria was conducted by the
principal researcher and an assigned agency point of contact.
This was accomplished by this study's principal investigator and
agency contacts surveying the agency workforce at their work site
during duty hours (e.g., beginning or end of the daily tour of
duty or shift briefings, or other available times).
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The Alabama agencies that met population inclusion criteria
included Tuscaloosa (79,400), Dothan (58,426), Decatur (53,988),
Hoover (47,690), Auburn (45,533), Gadsden (38,087), Florence
(35,928), and Madison (32,221). These eight Alabama law
enforcement agencies employ 975 sworn male and female officers.
Of this total number of sworn officers 911 (93.4%) are male and
64 (6.6%) are female. This compares closely to the state total of
10,414, where 9,667 (92.8%) are male and 747 (7.2%) are female
(ACJIC, 2003). Nationally, the sworn officer totals are 88.6%
male and 11.4% female (UCR, 2003). The six participating agencies
include 587 (92.7%) males and 46 (7.3%) females which are also
within comparable margins. Measurements were attempted to obtain
statistically meaningful results that had sufficient statistical
power to detect effects at an alpha level of p < .05 while
analyzing data using a Pearson r Correlation Coefficient and
paired t-tests (Cone & Foster, 1993; Sprinthall, 2003).
Sampling Procedure
The sampling of participants was generated from sampling
subframes of sworn officers employed by six mid-sized Alabama law
enforcement agencies. It was hypothesized that statistical
generalizations about the larger populations of sworn police
officers in the state of Alabama might be made by surveying a
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random sampling of officers from mid-sized Alabama agencies
(Bernard, 2000; Francis & Murphy, 2002). A request was made of
officers selected by means of a systematic stratified random
sampling technique to complete survey packages on-site at the
agency where they are currently employed.
The survey packages used in this study consisted of a cover
letter explaining the study and the participant's role in the
study, and a letter of informed consent for study participants
guaranteeing anonymity and confidentiality. These consent forms
were coded with participant badge or employee numbers for
document control and any follow up purposes that might be
necessary. The consent forms were endorsed by the participant
with his or her badge or employee number only, thereby providing
a further measure of guaranteed anonymity for the participant,
since even the principal researcher had no knowledge of
individual participant officer's names. The survey packages also
included the Perceived Stress Scale, the Maslach Burnout
Inventory-Human Services Survey, the Michigan Alcoholism
Screening Test, and a demographics questionnaire asking the
participant to report individual characteristics (e.g., gender,
age, marital status, and tenure with his or her agency). The
additional collected demographic data, although seemingly
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extemporaneous, will be made use of for future research and study
of the variables presently under investigation.
Data Collection Procedures
Participants for this study were recruited by use of a
letter of introduction introducing the researcher, the study, its
purpose, the participant's confidential role in the study, and
explaining to potential participants that they might be randomly
selected and recruited to participate in the study. This letter
of introduction was sent to all participating agencies in advance
of the researcher's site visit. These were sent in sufficient
number to provide all potential participants a copy of this
document so all agency members were informed about the study.
This letter of introduction may be inspected in Appendix A.
The principal researcher was assigned a point of contact by
the police chief at each agency. When the researcher made his
site visit to participating agencies he was met by this point of
contact. The point of contact was provided with a list of
randomly selected badge numbers and numbered survey packages.
While accompanied by the point of contact attempts were made to
hand a survey package to each selected participant and ask this
individual to take the time to complete the survey package and
return it to the researcher immediately after completing it or
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declining to participate. This was the procedure followed with
both male and female participants, however only 46 female
participants were available from the entire population and they
were all recruited to participate in the study rather than being
randomly selected. With the prior approval of police chiefs this
individual officer contact was accomplished immediately prior to,
during, or after work briefings, report times, break times or
other times during the participants regularly scheduled work
hours that he or she was available.
It was known in advance that one agency police chief would
not allow outside persons to attend work briefings due to agency
security initiatives. With this agency the point of contact was
given the complete list of randomly and deliberately selected
participants and the survey packages to distribute to all
recruited participants. The point of contact was given specific
verbal instructions regarding informing each selected participant
that his or her participation was completely voluntary and there
was no consequence for not participating. The survey package
instruction sheet provided the participant specific instructions
for completing the assessments and questionnaire or opting to
decline participation. The participant then completed the package
or declined to participate on the informed consent form,
completed the assessments if participating, and returned the
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survey package sealed to the point of contact. The researcher
then made a site visit to meet with the point of contact and
obtained completed packages. With the remaining agencies the
researcher could not always remain on-site at the agency to
provide all selected participants the opportunity to participate
in his presence. In these cases the remaining survey packages
were left with the assigned point of contact to distribute to
selected participants, along with the same specific verbal
instructions regarding voluntariness and the absence of
consequences for declining participation in the study as with the
one previously described agency.
Selected participants were asked to complete a demographics
questionnaire, the Perceived Stress Scale, the Maslach Burnout
Inventory-Human Services Survey, and the Michigan Alcoholism
Screening Test. These tests were self-administered. The data was
collected on an individual basis in some cases and in groups
where the researcher had access to group meetings. Survey
packages were completed in 20 minutes or less, with the
approximate average time to complete a package being 15 minutes.
Any survey packages that were not completely filled out were
discarded. No monetary inducement was offered or provided for
participation in the study.
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There were 633 potential participants working for
participating agencies meeting criteria for inclusion in this
study. According to Leedy & Ormrod (2001, P. 221) "the basic rule
is, the larger the sample, the better". In selecting an
appropriate number of survey respondents Leedy & Ormrod suggest
that if the population is around 500, at least half of the
population should be sampled. This leads to approximately 300
needed participants. The number needed for an adequate sample of
police officers, a relatively heterogeneous group, needs to be as
high as possible. The only homogeneity expected with this group
will be related to gender. A power analysis was conducted based
on a 5% margin of error, a desired 95% confidence level, and a
50% response rate on the available population of 587 officers.
The sample size required to maintain a level of confidence at p
<. 05 was 233. To complete the suggested sample size, 187 male
officers were randomly selected, and all 46 female officers were
intentionally selected bringing the study population total to
233. From the 233 officers recruited to participate in the
survey, 148 completed survey packages for a return rate of 64%.
Assessment Instrumentation Reliability and Validity
For the purposes of this study demographic data related to
study participants was generated from a research questionnaire
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developed to ask participants to report their gender and other
non-identifiable demographic characteristics. This questionnaire
generated descriptive statistics relative to the population
sampled. The questionnaire used in this study was constructed by
the principal researcher and may be reviewed in Appendix A.
For the purposes of this study stress was measured by asking
participants to complete the Perceived Stress Scale. The
Perceived Stress Scale and the Stress in General Scale were both
evaluated for use in this study with the Perceived Stress Scale
being selected because it is reported to be the most widely used
psychological test to measure perceived stress and because some
normative data are available. An example of this normative data
is stress correlated with gender, even though this normative data
is approximately 20 years old (Cohen, 1994). These stress scales
are self-report assessments used to assess stress, provide a
broad global measure of job stress, or measure the degree to
which situations in one's life are appraised as stressful
(Balzer, Ironson, Para, Smith, & Stanton, 2001; Cohen; Clemence &
Handler, 2001). These measurement instruments were evaluated for
this study since they are self-administered, short and simple,
take approximately 2-5 minutes to complete, and are free to non-
profit researchers.
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The Stress in General Scale was reported to calculate scores
for two subscales, pressure and threat. Items are rated on a
three point closed-ended item response format ranging from "no"
which equals zero points, "cannot decide" which equals 1.5
points, to "yes" which equals 3 points. The instrument requires a
sixth grade reading level and can be administered individually or
in groups (Balzer, et al.; Clemence & Handler). Clemence and
Handler also report the Stress In General Scale to be useful for
research purposes, but suggested that it requires further
development before being useful on an individual clinical basis.
Balzer, et al., (2001) reported that reliability estimates
of the two Stress In General subscales are modest: Pressure, r
=. 88 and Threat, r = .82 and therefore recommend that any
results gleaned from the applied use of the instrument be
interpreted with caution. They also reported that validity of the
Stress in General Scale was limited and no normative data were
available for the instrument. Clemence & Handler, (2001) report
that the greatest asset of the Stress In General Scale appears to
be its use as a simple, straightforward instrument for research.
Alternately the Perceived Stress Scale is reported to be the
most widely used psychological instrument for measuring the
perception of stress (Cohen, 1994). The assessment's author
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reports correlations with stress measures, reported health
behavior measures, and help seeking behavior. However,
because of daily hassles, major life events, and changing
resources for coping, the predictive validity of the Perceived
Stress Scale should be expected to fall off sharply after four to
eight weeks. Normative data for the Perceived Stress Scale are
available related to gender, age, and race, which produces a
reasonable fit with the design of this study. The Perceived
Stress Scale is a 10-item self-administered questionnaire that
asks about feelings and thoughts in the last month with responses
ranging from 0 = never, to 4 = very often, and is designed for
use with populations that have at least a junior high school
education. Scores for the Perceived Stress Scale are obtained by
reversing items 4, 5, 7, and 8 and then summing across all the
scale items (Cohen). There are no cutoff scores for the Perceived
Stress Scale. The data obtained provides a comparison of stress
within a specific study population.
For the purposes of this study burnout was measured by
asking participants to complete the Maslach Burnout Inventory-
Human Services Survey to assess the different aspects of burnout
experienced by police officers. The Maslach Burnout Inventory-
Human Services Survey measures burnout in staff members in
service settings that often require staff to spend considerable
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time in close, intense involvement with other people
(http://www.psychometrics.com; Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996).
The Maslach Burnout Inventory is self-administered, inexpensive,
and has a short administration time of 10-15 minutes. The Maslach
Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey is designed to assess
three identified aspects of experienced burnout: emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of personal
accomplishment (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter). These aspects of
burnout are thought to be characteristic of workers in human
service settings or government such as police officers. Each
aspect is measured by separate subscales (Hargrove, 1989; Maslach
& Jackson, 1986; Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996; Sandoval,
1989).
Hargrove (1989) also reports that reliability of the Maslach
Burnout Inventory is demonstrated with subscale coefficients that
range from .71 to .90. Standard errors of measurement in the
subscales ranged from 3.16 to 3.80 and reported test-retest
reliability coefficients ranged from .60 to .82 after 2 to 4
weeks and .54 to .60 after 2 years. Sandoval (1989) reports that
the emotional exhaustion scale tends to have a higher reliability
coefficient than the other two scales but the two remaining
scales have reliability coefficients consistent with those
reported by Hargrove. Convergent validity scores have been
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correlated with behavior ratings made by knowledgeable
informants, with job characteristics that are expected to
contribute to burnout, and with other measures of outcome that
are related to burnout (Sandoval). Further, Storm & Rothmann,
(2003) report that the Maslach Burnout Inventory has shown high
internal consistency. The Maslach Burnout Inventory is suggested
to have two primary uses by its authors. One, as a research
instrument to gain further knowledge of burnout, and two, as an
organizational assessment device to determine if large numbers of
employees are experiencing burnout in a particular setting
(Maslach & Jackson, 1986). The Maslach Burnout Inventory is
scored by using a scoring key that contains directions for each
of the three subscales. Each subscale has a cutoff score for low,
medium, or high scores for emotional exhaustion,
depersonalization, and personal achievement, with the cutoff
score for personal achievement being scored in reverse. Scores
can be correlated with other demographic information (Maslach,
Jackson, & Leiter, 1996).
For the purposes of this study substance abuse was measured
by asking participants to complete the Michigan Alcoholism
Screening Test. Conoley, Murdoh, & Reese (2001) and Murdoch
(2001) report that the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test is a
25-item questionnaire developed for assessing alcohol abuse and
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alcohol related problems. The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test
can be licensed for reproduction, is inexpensive, is self-
administered, and takes approximately 10 minutes administration
time. The assessment itself and reproduction rights for the
Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test were purchased from its
author, Dr. Marvin Selzer by this study's principal researcher
for use with this study. Questionnaire items require a yes or no
response and the MAST is reported to have reasonable face
validity. Items on the questionnaire address drinking behavior,
consequences of drinking, and attempts to receive help for
drinking problems. The test is reported to be valid whether
administered orally or in writing. A score of <3 or less
indicates non-alcoholism. A score of 4 indicates possible
alcoholism and a score of >5 indicates the respondent is
alcoholic (Conoley, et al.; Piazza, Martin, & Dildine, 2000).
Scores are obtained by adding the number of "yes" or "no"
responses and assigning listed response values (Selzer, 1971;
Selzer 1975).
According to Murdoch (2001) the MAST was found to have good
internal consistency and good test-retest reliability. Internal
consistency estimates ranged from .83 to .95 among several
studies. Test-retest reliability estimates ranged from .97 for a
one-day interval to .84 for an average 4.8 month interval
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
(Murdoch). Items on the MAST are reported to be directly related
to drinking behavior and to the negative consequences associated
with drinking. However, Murdoch does report that the test allows
the possibility for alcoholics to deliberately "fake good".
According to Piazza, Martin, & Dildine (2000) this is a problem
characteristic of logically derived screening instruments. The
potential for respondents attempting to falsely report their
drinking behavior and affect results is minimized by low cut off
scores for the MAST. This assessment is also reported to have
reasonable concurrent validity with other measures of alcohol use
such as the Substance Abuse Subtle Screening Inventory (Fernandez
& Pittenger, 1997).
Data Analysis and Statistical Procedures
A probability sampling of sworn police officers regardless
of rank, in mid-sized Alabama law enforcement agencies was
measured to ensure the collection of data sufficient to obtain
statistically meaningful results and have sufficient statistical
power to detect effects at an alpha level of p <. 05 (Cone &
Foster, 1993; Sprinthall, 2003). Collecting data in the fashion
described provides a probability sampling of sworn officers
making up the total population of the officers in the six
participating Alabama cities. Each officer had an equal chance of
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being selected to participate, with exception of the female
officers who were intentionally selected (Bernard, 2000;
Sprinthall). Data analysis was calculated upon the return of all
completed survey packages. Each of the presented hypotheses using
the variables and theoretical relationships from Figure 1, page
19, were entered into the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences, Version 12 computer program and analyzed using a
Pearson r Correlation Coefficient to test the hypotheses of
association between variables and paired t-tests were conducted
to test the hypotheses of difference between male and female
groups (Sprinthall).
Descriptive statistics were generated to describe
participant demographics and summarize the important
characteristics of gathered data from those participating in the
study (Simon & Francis, 2001). These statistics also provide the
mean, standard deviation, kurtosis, skewness, and range for each
variable and were analyzed for potential difference in means with
the demographic variables identified (Bernard, 2000; Sprinthall,
2003).
Inferential statistics compare numerical results to a number
that is reflective of a chance happening and determine how
significant associations or differences are between variables or
groups (Benard, 2003; Simon & Francis, 2001; Sprinthall, 2003).
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The instruments used in this study produced interval level data
and therefore the statistical procedures used were appropriate
for this level of data (Sprinthall). To generate these
inferential statistics this study made use of the Pearson r
Correlation Coefficient which is a parametric statistical test to
determine strength and direction of correlations between the
variables under study (Sprinthall). Although not a part of the
basic plan of analysis in this study, Stepwise Multiple
Regression Analysis of the correlations discovered were used in
this study. This method of regression analysis was also used by
researchers in a study of stress and burnout in athletic trainers
(Acevedo, Hebert, & Hendrix, 2000). These researchers conducted
this type of regression analysis to assess contributions of
personal and situational variables on three burnout factors
(e.g., emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal
accomplishment). In the present study the variable of gender was
assessed to determine its contribution to the three factors of
burnout in Alabama police officers. Anson, Carlson, & Thomas
(2003) report that investigations in the 1990s failed to detect
gender differences related to job stress and that few studies
examine gender differences on burnout. Examining differences
based on gender and the effect it has on stress, burnout, and
substance abuse in Alabama police officers working for mid-sized
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
agencies can yield useful and important information. This
suggested statistical procedure provides indications of the
amount of variance in one set of variables that may be accounted
for by another set. The minimum variance considered as being
significant and meaningful is 10% (Acevedo, et. al.).
To further support statistical calculations obtained from
analysis of data, paired t-tests were used to determine
differences in the means between the male and female samples
(Bernard, 2003; Sprinthall, 2003). As reported by Carroll,
DeSarbo, & Green, (1978) if variables are intercorrelated in a
multiple regression, as the three burnout sub-scales are with
burnout related to males and females, then their significance
cannot be accurately predicted. Paired t-tests were used to
strengthen this accuracy and uncover potential differences in the
two groups. The use of additional statistical analyses is further
supported by Brottman, (1990) because if stepwise procedure is
used it is up to the principal researcher to demonstrate that the
proposed model is logical, and the statistical relationships
reported are as expected.
Presentation of the data obtained and interpretations and
conclusions made from the data analysis are presented in Chapter
Four of this research. Coding legends used to enter data into the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences is displayed in
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Appendix C. All variables were assigned numerical values for
analysis. This data analysis is discussed in detail in Chapter
Five along with recommendations for future research, a summary of
the findings, practical applications of the findings, and
potential government policy implications related to the research
findings.
97
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to describe in detail the
results of this research study. The research sought to determine
if a significant correlation existed between stress, burnout and
substance abuse in police officers working in mid-sized Alabama
cities. Additionally the research sought to determine if
significant differences existed in these variables when gender
was considered. Literature discussed in Chapter Two strongly
suggested that public safety professions such as police work were
characterized by high levels of stress, burnout and the
development of substance abuse Brehm & Khantzian, (1997); Euwema,
Kop, & Schaufeli, (1999); Feemster & Harpold, (2002); Finn,
(1997); Garland, (2002); Harris & Maloney, (1999); Hess &
Wrobleski, (1993); Hailstone, Kehoe, Richmond, Uebel-Yan, &
Wodak, (1999); Kosinski & Vettor, (2002); Kushnir & Milbauer,
(1994); Lacoursiere, (2001); Sewell, (2002). There are clearly
many variables that could affect the development of substance
abuse in police officers, but in this study the variables
hypothesized to play significant roles in its development in
police officers were stress and burnout. These variables were
measured with currently published assessments designed for their
measurement.
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Once data was collected it was entered into the Statistical
Package for Social Sciences, Version 12, and was analyzed using
several statistical methods. Hypotheses were tested using
Pearson's Product Moment Correlation Coefficient analysis to
determine if significant associations existed between the
variables under study. Multiple Regression analysis was also
conducted to measure the proportion of variability that could be
explained between gender, stress, emotional exhaustion,
depersonalization, and personal accomplishment. Additionally
t-tests were conducted to determine if significant differences in
the means existed when analyzing these variables accounting for
gender.
This chapter begins with a discussion of the characteristics
and demographics of the study sample. This is followed by
descriptive statistics related to the study's variables. The
results of correlational and regression analysis, as well as the
results of t-tests are also reported so that the research
questions and hypotheses posed in Chapter One may be answered.
Sample Characteristics and Demographics
This research examined hypothesized relationships between
stress, burnout, and substance abuse, along with the demographic
variable of gender in police officers working in mid-sized
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Alabama cities. The study sample was developed by randomly
selecting male police officers from an available male population
of 587. This sample was selected by creating a list of badge or
employee numbers, picking a random point of origination within
this sampling frame, and then selecting every third badge number
on the list to create the randomly selected sample. The available
female population was grossly disproportionate, a ratio of over
12:1, and only provided 46 potential female respondents. Because
of this, female officers were intentionally selected from the six
participating mid-sized Alabama law enforcement agencies to
create a male/female sample within the sample frame for gender
comparisons. The add-in population was a result of volunteers
from the participating agencies and thus resulted in three
categories of participant selection. There were 633 sworn
officers available for study overall. All available 46 females
were selected for inclusion and 187 male officers were randomly
selected bringing the total recruited population to 233 potential
respondents. Two hundred thirty-three survey packages were
distributed to attempt obtaining the sample size suggested by a
computed power analysis seeking to maintain a 95% confidence
level. From the 233 survey packages delivered, 148 were returned
and were usable for a return rate of 64%. This return rate
precludes generalizing statistical results more broadly than
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
within the study sample itself, but indicates need for additional
research in the area of the burnout sub-scales within this
population. Thirteen respondents declined to participate in the
study and the remaining 82 survey packages have not been
returned. Data collection took place over a 40 day period between
April 7 and May 17, 2005. Table 1 shows the number of responses
from participating city agencies.
Table 1
Proportion of Respondents from Participating Cities and CityPopulation
Number of Responses Percent
Madison PD 23 16.0Florence PD 27 18.0Gadsden PD 9 6.0Hoover PD 24 16.0Decatur PD 29 20.0Dothan PD 36 24.0
148 100.0
Participants in the study reported a wide range in age,
ranging from a low of 25 to a high of 58. For this study sample
the mean age was 40.33. As expected, the majority of participants
were male, 81%. Respondents were 89.9% white-American; 9.5%
African-American; and .7% other races. Experience in the law
enforcement profession (e.g., tenure) was also reported and
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
ranged from 15% reporting 1-5 years experience, 15% reporting 6-
10 years experience, 23% reporting 11-15 years experience, 23%
reporting 16-20 years experience, and finally 24% reporting
greater than 20 years experience in law enforcement. Those
reporting tenure in the range of 11 years to greater than 20
years were most prevalent. The majority of participants were
married, 55%, with 13% being divorced, 10% being single, 2% being
widowed, and 20% being divorced but remarried.
Descriptive Findings
This study sample was compiled from randomly selected male
participants, intentionally selected female participants, and a
small sample of volunteers that were "add-ins" came from the
agencies surveyed. The "add-in" group, (n=22), did not differ
significantly from the randomly or intentionally selected samples
when cross tabulated with the variables studied in this research
(e.g., stress, burnout, substance abuse). No "add-in" respondents
were female. Table 2, displays the frequency and percentage of
respondent types.
Table 2
Participant Selection
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Frequency Percent
Random Selection 99 67.0Add-in 22 15.0Intentional Selection 27 18.0Total 148 100.0
Overall, respondents were typically married, white-American
males that have been practicing law enforcement for an average of
11 to greater than 20 years. The majority of respondents worked
for a law enforcement agency that served an average population of
46,000.
Research Findings on Stress
In this research study the variable of stress was measured
using the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, 1994). The Perceived
Stress Scale does not make use of cutoff scores that are provided
by calculated norm standards, but makes comparisons within an
individual study sample. Possible scores on the Perceived Stress
Scale range from an extreme low of 0 to an extreme high of 40.
For the purposes of this research study, individual sample cutoff
scores were established for low, moderate, and high perceived
stress scores within the study sample. These were established by
dividing the distribution of scores into thirds. Low scores
ranged from 1-9 points, moderate scores ranged from 10-18 points,
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
and high scores ranged from 19-35 points within the sample. This
pattern of cutoff scores was established by the researcher so
that results from the Perceived Stress Scale more closely matched
results from the Maslach Burnout Inventory, which has established
cutoff scores for each of three subscales, and the Michigan
Alcoholism Screening Test which also has three defined cutoff
scores. Resulting analysis of data could then be more
consistently reviewed. These low, medium, and high level stress
scores were used to calculate Pearson's Product Moment
Correlation Coefficients with the three categories of substance
abuse scores from the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test. Thirty-
five percent of respondents (n=51), reported low levels of
stress, 51%, (n=76), reported moderate levels of stress, and 14%,
(n=21), reported high levels of stress.
Based on these scores, approximately two-thirds of the
police officers working for mid-sized cities in Alabama
experience stress at a moderate to high level. This finding is
consistent with current literature which reports police work as
being inherently stressful. Although 65% of stress levels were
reported as moderate to high in this study sample, Pearson's
Product Moment Correlation Coefficients demonstrate that
perceived stress was not significantly correlated with substance
abuse when Perceived Stress Scale scores were correlated with
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test scores, r = .126. Based on the
results of this correlation coefficient Hypothesis One, which
suggests there is a statistically significant correlation between
stress and substance abuse was not supported. The null was not
rejected and any correlation is assumed to be the result of
chance or potential confounding variables. This result reflects
no statistically significant relationships between levels of
stress and levels of substance abuse within the study sample.
Further, when measured for differences between genders there were
no significant differences in reported stress levels or substance
abuse, r = .069. Reported Perceived Stress Scale scores
correlated with Michigan Alcoholism Test Scores for the study
sample may be seen in Table 3.
Table 3
Stress Scores Correlated with Substance Abuse Scores examined for Gender Differences
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Gender Stress Substance Level Abuse
Gender Pearson Correlation 1 .012 .069 Sig. (2-tailed) . .881 .405 N 148 148 148Stress Pearson Correlation .012 1 .126Level Sig. (2-tailed) .881 . .127 N 148 148 148Substance Pearson Correlation .069 .126 1Abuse Sig. (2-tailed) .405 .127 . N 148 148 148
Research Findings on Burnout
The Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey was used
to measure burnout in this study sample. Burnout is described by
Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter (1996) as consisting of three separate
sub-scales (e.g., emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and
personal accomplishment). In the case of emotional exhaustion,
depersonalization, and personal accomplishment individual scores
and percentage of total values were recorded for an overall study
sample comparison and overall measurement of burnout in police
officers working in mid-sized Alabama cities. Normative data were
established from a national study conducted by Maslach, Jackson,
& Leiter where police officers were studied along with other
human services personnel. The normative data were generated from
a study sample of 2,897 legal aid employees, attorneys, police
officers, probation officers, ministers, librarians, and agency
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
administrators (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter). The normative data
published in the Maslach Burnout Inventory Manual, 3rd. Edition
are re-printed in Appendix B as supportive data.
In this study sample burnout was measured to be low,
moderate, or high using the same cutoff scores as determined from
the Maslach study. Respondent officers reported emotional
exhaustion at the low level 63% of the time, (n=94), moderate
levels 17% of the time, (n=25), and high levels 20% of the time,
(n=29). Depersonalization was reported at low levels 20% of the
time, (n=29), moderate levels 29% of the time, (n=43), and high
levels 51% of the time, (n=76).
Levels of perceived personal accomplishment are scored in
reverse order from emotional exhaustion and depersonalization.
Scores that are > 40 represent low levels. Scores that are 39-34
are moderate, and scores that reflect high perceived personal
accomplishment are < 33. Respondents reported high levels of
personal achievement 47% of the time, (n=70), moderate levels of
personal achievement 32% of the time, (n=47), and low levels of
personal accomplishment 21% of the time, (n=31). Maslach Burnout
Inventory score frequencies for this study sample are expressed
as percentages and can be seen in Table 4.
Table 4
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Percentage of Total Burnout Reported in mid-sized Alabama PoliceDepartments
LOW MODERATE HIGH EE 63% 17% 20% DP 20% 29% 51% PA 21% 32% 47%
Based on the work of Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter (1996) high
levels of burnout are reflected by high scores on emotional
exhaustion and depersonalization and low scores on personal
accomplishment. Average or moderate levels of burnout are
reflected by average scores for all three subscales. Low levels
of burnout are reflected by low scores on emotional exhaustion
and depersonalization and high scores on personal accomplishment.
Based on the scores reported by police officers working for mid-
sized cities in Alabama officers most frequently reported overall
low levels of burnout. However, scores reflected in the
depersonalization scale give rise for concern.
In 80% of the cases reported by respondents from mid-sized
Alabama police agencies moderate to high levels of
depersonalization are reported. According to Maslach, Jackson, &
Leiter (1996, p. 4), "the depersonalization subscale measures an
unfeeling and impersonal response toward recipients of one's
service, care, treatment or instruction". Police officers are
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
taught to portray a sterile disposition and to maintain
objectivity while working with the public (Hennessey, 1999).
However, one must begin to wonder at this significant level of
depersonalization if the majority of officers in this study
sample cope with the stressors of police work by looking at the
public they serve as an unfeeling object rather than human
beings. Further support for this question, and indeed support for
further research in this area is indicated when one considers the
descriptions of low, moderate, and high burnout offered by
Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter. Even though low burnout is indicated
when emotional exhaustion and depersonalization are low and
personal accomplishment is high, the current sample reports low
emotional exhaustion, moderately high personal accomplishment,
and high depersonalization overall.
It would be both interesting and professionally beneficial
to public service to examine this phenomenon more deeply in an
effort to proactively relieve symptoms of burnout in officers.
However, as reported by Hennessey (1999) more officers are
reported to have a personality type that is objective, fair, and
looks to rules and regulations when making decisions, as opposed
to the type that makes use of feelings for making decisions.
As with stress, burnout did not correlate significantly with
substance abuse. Hypothesis Two reflects the idea that a
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
statistically significant correlation exists between burnout and
substance abuse in officers working for mid-sized Alabama police
agencies. Pearson's Product Moment Correlation Coefficients
demonstrated no statistically significant relationship among the
scores for burnout subscales, EE, r = .069; DP, r = .024; and PA,
r = -.067. These results reflect no statistically significant
difference between respondents within the study sample that
experience the varying levels of burnout as described by the
burnout subscale levels and those that do not. Further, when
measured for difference between genders there were no
statistically significant differences in reported substance abuse
levels when correlated with burnout subscales, (EE),
r = .020; (DP), r = .069; (PA) r = -.80; and (SA) =.069. The null
hypothesis cannot be rejected related to these variables.
Correlation results can be seen in Table 5. Statistically
significant correlations did exist among stress and two of the
burnout subscales. Perceived Stress and Emotional Exhaustion
correlated at a significance level of p < .01,
r = .493. Perceived Stress and Depersonalization, r = .285; and
Perceived Stress and Personal Accomplishment, r = .175,
correlated at significance level of p < .05. Emotional Exhaustion
and Depersonalization as well as Emotional Exhaustion and
Personal Accomplishment correlated at a significance level of p <
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
.01, r = .484 and r = .306 respectively. Depersonalization and
Personal Accomplishment also correlated at a significance level
of p < .01, r = .250. These correlations are consistent with the
findings of Acevedo, Hebert, & Hendrix (2000) when they
discovered that levels of Perceived Stress could be predicted by
levels of Emotional Exhaustion and Personal Accomplishment.
However their findings were the result of Multiple Regression
Analysis.
Table 5
Burnout Sub-Scale Scores Correlated with Substance Abuse Scores examined for Gender Differences
GENDER PSS MBI-EE MBI-DP MBI-PA MAST
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
GENDER r=.020 r=.069 r=-.080 r=.069
PSS r=.493** r=.285** r=.175*
MBI-EE r=.484** r=.306**
MBI-DP
MBI-PA r=.250**
MAST
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed).
Research Findings with Multiple Regression Analysis
While calculating correlations between stress, burnout, and
substance abuse did not reveal significant correlations between
these variables, significant correlations were indicated between
perceived stress and two of the dimensions of burnout. Multiple
Regression Analysis conducted in this study partially replicated
results from a study conducted by Acevedo, Hebert, & Hendrix
(2000). In their study of stress and burnout of athletic trainers
at Division I-A Universities these researchers found multiple
regression analysis provided an indication of the amount of
variance in one set of variables that could be accounted for by
another set of variables. In the present study part of the
Acevedo study was replicated. In both studies the Perceived
Stress Scale and the Maslach Burnout Inventory were used as
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
assessment instruments. In this study perceived stress was used
as the criterion variable and the burnout dimensions of emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment were
used as the predictor variables. The Multiple r was significant
for emotional exhaustion in the Alabama police study at a level
of P < .05: r = 0.38, F = 9.73. This finding is consistent with
results found by Acevedo, et al, in a study of athletic trainers,
although personal accomplishment was also significant in that
study. Based on these findings a significant amount of stress can
be explained by the burnout subscale of emotional exhaustion in
the present study. Higher perceived stress levels are predicted
by higher levels of emotional exhaustion in Alabama police
officers working for mid-sized cities.
Multiple Regression Analysis was also calculated for this
study's primary variables of stress, burnout, and substance
abuse. Difference related to gender was also explored using this
statistical method. No significant correlations were indicated
using this calculation. Results of this analysis can be seen in
Tables 6, 7, & 8.
Table 6
Regression Analysis for Burnout Subscales and Substance Abuse(a)
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Std. B Error Beta t Sig.
(Constant) .920 .249 3.690 .000MBI EE .375 .071 .449 5.268 .000 MBI DP .051 .072 .059 .709 .479MBI PA .025 .067 .030 .383 .702MAST SA .104 .079 .096 1.312 .192Gender .016 .126 -.009 -.129 .897
Dependent Variable: Stress Level
Table 7
Model Summary of Regression Analysis for Burnout Subscales and Substance Abuse
R R Adjust Std. Error R Square F Sig. F Square R Square of Estimate Change Change Change
.505 .255 .229 .594 .255 9.727 .000
Table 8
ANOVA for Regression Analysis of Burnout Subscales and Substance Abuse
Sum of Squares Mean Square F Sig. Regression 17.174 3.435 9.727 .000Residual 50.144 .353Total 67.318
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Predictors: (Constant) Gender, emotional Exhaustion, Officer Substance Abuse, Officer Personal Accomplishment, Officer DepersonalizationDependent Variable: Stress Level
Research Findings on Substance Abuse
For the purposes of this study substance abuse potential was
measured by use of the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test.
Respondents were asked to complete this self-administered
assessment of alcoholic potential that was developed by Selzer
(1971). The assessment measures drinking habits and attempts to
get help for substance abuse. Each question is answered with a
yes/no response with each answer being assigned a point value.
Cutoff scores for the MAST are >5 points indicating the
respondent is in the alcoholic category, 4 points being
suggestive of alcoholism, and <3 points indicating the respondent
is not alcoholic.
The work of Blum & Roman (2002) suggests that approximately
7% of full time employees in America are heavy drinkers and one-
third of these use illegal drugs. Additionally, Corelli (1994, ¶
23) reports from his study of Royal Canadian Mounted Police that…
"the culture of policing seems too attached to alcohol as a means
of coping. This suggests that alcohol use and abuse is an
insidious pattern that builds up for police officers over time".
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Based on these studies and others the hypothesis was developed
that stress and burnout in police officers in mid-sized Alabama
cities leads to substance abuse and/or dependence. The reported
data indicate differently for the Alabama police sample.
Responses from the 148 participants indicate that 78%, (n=116),
of officers surveyed report no problems or concerns with
substance use or abuse, although officers do report consumption
of alcoholic beverages. This does not indicate a strong
attachment to alcohol in Alabama police officers in mid-sized
cities as a means of coping. Thirteen percent of respondents,
(n=19), reported answers reflecting alcoholism being suggested,
and 9%, (n=13), reported being alcoholic. Respondents reporting
alcoholism or suggestive alcoholism were 16% male and 5% female
with the remaining respondents reporting no alcoholism. Those
reporting alcoholism reported a range of scores from a low of 5
to a high of 46. The 9% reporting alcoholism is slightly higher,
but consistent with the reports from a national study conducted
by Blum & Roman. Table 9, shows the distribution of scores
reported for the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test.
Table 9
Alabama Officer Substance Abuse Reports
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Frequency Percent0-3 pts. Not 116 78.4 Alcoholic4 pts. Suggests 19 12.8 Alcoholism> 5 pts. Alcoholic 13 8.8Total 148 100.o
Based on these reported figures not only is substance
abuse not statistically significant in its correlation with
stress and burnout, alcohol use is not reported as a significant
coping mechanism for police officers practicing law enforcement
in mid-sized Alabama police agencies, see Table 5. More in-depth
research examining how officers in mid-sized Alabama agencies do
cope with stress and burnout, as well as other like sized cities
and agencies, would be beneficial to the profession.
Variable Differences Due to Gender
This research hypothesizes a statistically significant
difference between gender groups when examining substance abuse
intensified by stress and burnout. To measure this hypothesized
variance paired t-tests were calculated using the variables under
study. This study sample was significantly disproportionate in
its sample of males and females. Data were collected from 120
males and only 28 females. To create paired samples useful for
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
examining a hypothesis of difference, 28 males were selected with
a paired sampling technique using SPSS statistical software. This
pairing of samples was conducted to create a proportionate sample
with which to examine between group variance. Based on the
results of Paired Samples t-Tests there is no statistically
significant variance in substance abuse related to stress or
burnout when pairing gender with these variables. This finding
indicates that the null hypothesis for Hypotheses Three and Four
cannot be rejected. However, Table 10, reflects the results of
paired samples t-tests for the variables of perceived stress,
emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, personal accomplishment,
and substance abuse with gender and indicates a statistically
significant difference between males and females and reported
alcoholism potential, t = 1.96, at a significance level of
P < .05. This t-test also reflects statistically significant
differences between genders when analyzing perceived stress, t =
9.61, emotional exhaustion, t = 5.25, depersonalization, t =
16.12, and personal accomplishment, t = 15.38, all at a
significance level of
p < .001.
Table 10
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Paired Samples Test for Study Variables and Gender
Mean Std. Std. t Sig. (2- Dev. Error tailed)
Mean PSS-Pair Gender .615 .778 .064 9.611 .0001
MBI-EEPair Gender .385 .892 .073 5.251 .0002
MBI-DPPair Gender 1.128 .851 .070 16.123 .0003
MBI-PAPair Gender 1.074 .850 .070 15.378 .0004
MASTPair Gender .115 .715 .059 1.956 .0525
Summary of Research Findings
This research examined the effects of stress and burnout in
police officers practicing law enforcement in mid-sized Alabama
cities. It was hypothesized that these variables potentially led
to the use or abuse of substances such as alcohol or prescription
drugs as a coping mechanism. Correlational relationships were
tested between stress and substance abuse and burnout and
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
substance abuse. In the first hypothesis the null was not
rejected since significant correlations did not exist between
stress and the development of substance abuse. In the second
hypotheses the null was not rejected since significant
correlations did not exist between burnout and the development of
substance abuse. In the third hypothesis the null was not
rejected since no significant difference in the means existed in
the development of substance abuse from perceived stress when
examined for variance between genders. In the fourth hypothesis
the null was not rejected since no significant difference in the
means existed in the development of substance abuse from burnout
when examined for variance between genders. Chapter Five will
examine these findings in greater detail and will also discuss
issues of limitations and potential future research questions.
Implications for policy change in government regulation and
employment standards for police officers in Alabama will also be
addressed.
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CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
This research project sought to investigate relationships
between stress, burnout, and the development of substance abuse
in police officers working for mid-sized Alabama cities. Its goal
was to add to the understanding of what leads to police stress
and burnout and if, as reported by prior research, this
population of police officers was attached to alcohol as a means
of coping with stress and burnout. Having a better understanding
of these concepts will provide agency administrators, individual
officers, and counselors who lie outside the tightly knit circles
of those that wear the blue uniform, valuable information with
which to better serve and protect society's protectors.
In this final chapter, the research study is summarized,
including a review of the problem, conceptual framework, and
proposed hypotheses used in the study. This is followed by
discussion and conclusions of the findings for each hypothesis,
recommendations for future research, and finally implications for
modification in regulatory policy related to the employment and
retention of Alabama police officers is presented.
Statement of the Problem Review
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
It was hypothesized that stress or burnout in law
enforcement personnel led to substance abuse with alcohol. It was
also reported that law enforcement professionals often
experienced stress since the profession was found to be
inherently stressful. Left unmanaged, stress and burnout was
hypothesized to lead to substance abuse to reduce suffering.
Conducting research to explore how often and to what magnitude
stress and burnout leads to substance abuse has the potential for
providing helpful information to the law enforcement profession.
Use of such information can enable administrators and police
trainers to educate experienced, newly employed, and prospective
officers alike. Additionally the individual officer can have
access to information on what can influence stress, burnout, and
substance use in their profession and what impact these can have
personally and professionally. Without this knowledge police
officers and others in the human service professions may continue
to suffer the effects of stress, burnout, and substance abuse.
The topic of this research study was concerned with determining
if correlations existed between these variables and if so how
significant those associations were. Additionally, it sought to
understand whether or not officer gender played any role in the
development of substance abuse behaviors based on the experience
of stress or burnout.
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Review of Conceptual Framework
The theoretical model used for this study was comprised of
four variables; stress, burnout, substance abuse, and officer
gender. The goal of the study was to explore hypothesized
relationships among those four variables to assist Alabama
officers in learning how stress and burnout might lead to
substance abuse if strategies were not developed for preventing
their development. This work also has the potential for
enlightening officers as to what may happen during the course of
their career if stress, burnout, or substance abuse begins to
develop.
Review of Hypotheses
The hypotheses used for this research study included:
H: 1 As the amount of perceived stress increases the amount of
substance abuse to relieve stress symptoms also increases.
H: 2 As the amount of burnout increases the amount of substance
abuse to relieve burnout symptoms also increases.
H: 3 There is statistically significant difference in the amount
of substance abuse that takes place as a result of stress when
measuring these variables between male and female groups.
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
H: 4 There is statistically significant difference in the amount
of substance abuse that takes place as a result of burnout when
measuring these variables between male and female groups.
Discussion
Discussion of the findings of this study begins with a
review of the methodology used. This study was conducted using
quantitative methods that resulted in a descriptive,
correlational, non-experimental design. The data was collected
using a developed self-administered questionnaire and currently
published, self-administered assessments designed to measure
stress, burnout, and substance abuse Creswell, (2003); Leedy &
Ormrod, (2001); Cohen, (1994); Maslach & Jackson, (1986);
Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, (1996); Conoley, Murdoh, & Reese,
(1980); Murdoch, (2001); Selzer, (1971); Selzer, Vinokur, &
Rooijen, (1975). It was expected that this researcher's
familiarity with law enforcement and being a former part of the
police subculture would afford a degree of credibility and access
to participants that might otherwise be unavailable to civilian
researchers. This involved an understanding of or being highly
sensitized to potential mental and physical health crises police
officers face on the job (Chamberlin, 2000). This expectation did
not prove to be true. Participation in the study was not met with
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
enthusiasm by many and the status of former or retired police
officer did not seem to encourage any participation. Perhaps this
is due to a cynical and mistrusting attitude of those that try to
infiltrate this culture. The study sample was drawn from a random
selection of male officers from six mid-sized cities in Alabama,
as well the intentional selection of all available female
officers due to a disproportionate sample size. A small add-in
population was also included in the study sample from individuals
that volunteered to participate. Three assessment instruments and
one questionnaire were used to gather data from this population.
Data analysis was conducted using SPSS Version 12 software,
which generated descriptive statistics. Inferential statistics
were also generated and included Pearson's Product Moment
Coefficient Correlation and Multiple Regression analysis for
hypothesis one and two. Hypothesis three and four were analyzed
using a paired t-test to discover differences in calculated means
between gender groups.
Sample of Alabama Police Officers
There were a total of 148 sworn police officers that
participated in the study. This figure does not include 13
potential participants that declined to participate. All 148 of
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
the completed surveys were usable. Before the study was conducted
a power analysis revealed that 233 participants were needed to
maintain a confidence level of p = < .05 and be able to measure
at least moderate effect of the independent variables on the
dependent variable. These participants were sought over a 40 day
period and resulted in a 64% return rate. Based on this rate of
return the data obtained from this study may only be generalized
across the study sample itself.
The study sample was comprised of males and females that
were a mixture of white-Americans, African-Americans, and
Hispanic-Americans. The age range for this sample was 33 years
with most being in their forties. Significantly more males
responded to this study than females but this was as expected due
to the disproportionate numbers of males to females available for
study at the six participating agencies. Although this study did
not focus on marital status or tenure in the law enforcement
profession more often respondents were married and had been
working in law enforcement from 11 to greater than 20 years. This
makes the study population more so middle aged, married,
experienced law enforcement professionals that may indeed
maintain a stable lifestyle that is relatively free of stress,
burnout, and substance abuse as a coping mechanism. More times
than not with age comes maturity and perhaps police officers in
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
this study population have developed means to relieve stress and
burnout other than the use or abuse of mood altering substances.
Stress and burnout and how they lead to substance abuse was not
statistically significant in this study's population. However,
certain aspects of the subscales of burnout were statistically
significant in this population and warrant deeper investigation
related to the causes of development and what affects these have
on the individual and the public.
Relationship Between Stress and Substance Abuse, Hypothesis One
Stress was measured by administration of the Perceived
Stress Scale. This scale is a widely used psychological
instrument for measuring the perception of stress (Cohen, 1994).
It has reported correlations with stress measures, reported
health behavior measures, and help seeking behavior, as well as
age and gender. The Perceived Stress Scale is a 10-item self-
administered questionnaire that asks about feelings and thoughts
in the last month and is designed for use with populations that
have at least a junior high school education. There are no cutoff
scores for the Perceived Stress Scale, but cutoff scores were
established for this study sample to determine low, moderate, and
high levels of reported stress. The data obtained provides a
comparison of stress within this study's population sample.
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Police work is described as inherently stressful and is thought
to be one of society's most stressful occupations. The mere
nature of police work does not allow this stress level to change
over time. An example of a stressor that does not change over
time is the officer's need to always be vigilant. For officers to
allow their attention level to drop while at work becomes a
dangerous safety issue.
Approximately two-thirds, 65%, of participant officers in
this study reported their perceived stress being at a moderate to
high level. This finding is consistent with current literature
which reports police work as being inherently stressful, even
across different cultures and genders (Storm & Rothman, 2003).
However, this particular stress scale does not differentiate
between the causes of stress as reported by Depue, (1981);
Hanson, (1985); Hurrell, (1995); Scott, (2004); Sheehan & Van
Hasselt, (2003); Walker, (1997). Sixty-five percent of stress
levels in Alabama police in mid-sized cities were reported as
moderate to high in this study sample but stress was not
significantly correlated with substance abuse. Based on the
results of this correlation coefficient Hypothesis One cannot
reject the null hypothesis. This result reflects no significant
differences between respondents within the study sample that
experience moderate to high stress and cope by using mood
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
altering substances and those that do not. Gender created no
variance in the amount of substance abuse reported, but gender
was significantly correlated with the burnout subscales. This is
an indication that a difference in the way males and females
report stress and burnout exists in this study sample. To analyze
this finding further and determine which gender reported the
variables more so than the other, the variable of gender was
recoded as a dummy variable where 0 = males and
1 = females and where 0 = females and males = 1. Paired t-tests
were again calculated with stress, burnout subscales, and
substance abuse. In all cases female officers were found to
experience stress, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization,
personal accomplishment, and substance abuse more so than male
officers. All obtained scores were statistically significant at a
significance level of p < .05. Table 11, depicts t-test scores
for males and females for comparison.
Table 11
Paired Samples t-Test for Male and Female Officers
t-female t-male Sig.(2-tailed)
PSS- 25.242 15.358 .000
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Pair Gender1
MBI-EE 18.884 10.250 .000Pair Gender2
MBI-DP 30.412 20.374 .000Pair Gender3
MBI-PA 29.692 19.506 .000Pair Gender4
MAST 18.982 7.891 .000Pair Gender5
Relationship Between Burnout and Substance Abuse, Hypothesis Two
Burnout is associated with the subscales of emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment and is
frequently measured with use of the Maslach Burnout Inventory
(Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). This particular assessment is
based on the idea that burnout is a progressive syndrome that
over time occurs as a direct result of helping others in
difficult situations (Arthur, 1990). The Maslach Burnout
Inventory-Human Services Survey was used in the present study and
revealed some significant correlations that were consistent with
the work of Acevedo, Hebert, & Hendrix, (2000). However, Pearson
Correlation Coefficients did not reveal any significant
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
correlation between burnout and substance abuse in the Alabama
police population. Based on these findings Hypothesis Two cannot
reject the null hypothesis. There was no significant correlation
between burnout and substance abuse, nor was there any variance
between male and female groups when considering these two
variables. However, when analyzing burnout subscales with
perceived stress, emotional exhaustion was found to correlate
significantly indicating that higher scores on emotional
exhaustion are indicative of higher scores on perceived stress in
the Alabama police sample. Additionally significant variance was
found between the male and female groups when examining gender
and depersonalization as well as gender and personal
accomplishment. A high percentage of both respondent groups
reported a significant amount of depersonalization.
According to Hawkins (1990) the subscale of
depersonalization can often turn into callous or dehumanized
perceptions of others and can lead professionals to view their
clients as deserving their troubles. The development of this
depersonalization also appears to be linked to emotional
exhaustion. Eighty percent of respondents in this study of
Alabama police in mid-sized cities reported a high level of
depersonalization. This finding alone causes reason for alarm
related to the effects of depersonalization on the quality of
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
service provided by police to the public. This high level of
depersonalization may also be significant in that it relates to
reports of moderately high levels of personal accomplishment in
this same study sample. The natural question for one to ask would
be what is achieved with this level of depersonalization and at
what expense or whose expense does it occur. Further, knowing the
reasons for the development of such a high level of
depersonalization will provide helpful information to officers
and those that try to help them. Considering that officers are
trained to portray a sterile disposition on the street and more
times than not have a completely different personality type than
the majority of society, depersonalization may have developed as
a coping strategy rather than substance abuse. It is suggested
that depersonalization being reported at this level is
significant and raises concerns for public service in the Alabama
police population serving in mid-sized cities.
Variance Between Gender Groups for Stress, Burnout, Substance,
Hypotheses Three and Four
This study also examined differences in the two gender
groups for variance in the means of measured stress, burnout, and
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
substance abuse. Sixteen percent of the male population reported
alcoholism, but only 5% of the female population reported the
same findings. It was necessary to use a paired sampling t-test
statistical method to generate heterogeneous groups of males and
females to calculate any differences in the means. This
calculation resulted in no significant variance when related to
stress or burnout and substance abuse indicating that gender
creates no significantly measurable differences when examining
these variables together. However, significant differences do
exist between males and females with the development of stress
and all three of the individual burnout subscales.
Limitations of the Study
Data collection made use of randomly selecting male
participants, intentionally selecting female participants, and
including volunteers in the study sample. This leads to the
collection of a study sample that in effect is a non-probability
sampling rather than the probability sampling originally intended
for use. The use of intentionally selected participants and
volunteers may not necessarily weaken the study but does give
rise to potential concerns for sampling procedure. However,
without intentionally selecting all potential available female
officers (n=46) there may have been none randomly selected for
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
use in the study at all. Even though the proportion of males to
females in Alabama law enforcement is broad, without
intentionally selecting the females available the study
population would not have been an accurate representation of
Alabama police officers. Volunteers were ultimately made use of
when some officers contacted the researcher to inquire as to why
they were not included in the study sample. They were included as
"add-ins" to the sample population (n=22), but this population
posed no significant differences with the remaining sample
population.
Use of the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test as a research
instrument in this study may have been an inappropriate
selection. Either the question of selection must arise or
concerns arise related to some of the questions asked on the
assessment being worded suggestively or with circular reasoning.
The assessment is used primarily for those individuals that are
assumed to have a drinking problem and to measure alcoholic
potential. Evidence of this suggestive content is present in
question number 4 which asks "Can you stop drinking without a
struggle after one or two drinks". It assumes that all
respondents consume alcoholic beverages, but this was not found
to be the case. Several respondents objected to the question and
indicated this on the assessment itself or in one case the
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
researcher was telephoned for an explanation. This respondent
made the issue by saying what if the judge in a courtroom asked,
"Officer, do you still beat your wife"? Either way the officer
could answer suggests he or she is guilty and this would
certainly have negative effect in the case of domestic violence,
and could also in the case of use of the MAST as a research
instrument in this study. Other questions on the MAST that give
rise for concern are question number 6, "Do friends or relatives
think you are a normal drinker"; question number 1, "Do you feel
you are a normal drinker"; and question number 16, "Do you drink
before noon fairly often"? All these questions gave rise to
concerns for individual participants and accurate reporting of
their consumptive behaviors.
The response rate with this study precludes generalizing the
findings of this research any broader than back to the sample
population itself. It was originally believed that police
responses might be more easily obtained if a retired officer was
identified as being the researcher; however the researcher was
more times than not looked at with cynicism and distrust and was
still viewed as an outsider. It is believed that being former law
enforcement had no positive effect on the study's return rate.
Recommendations for Future Research
135
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
This study looked at a small sample of Alabama police
officers and how they experience stress and burnout. Being able
to enlarge the study sample sufficiently so that generalization
of the findings could be applied more broadly would create more
effective results and stronger research. This would allow for
greater diversity and perhaps would include a broader range of
races, ages, or law enforcement tenure.
Although this study was correlational in nature, future
research with this population could be modified to include
qualitative research measures as discussed in Chapter Three.
Using a qualitative study methodology might allow more in-depth
research into phenomenon such as depersonalization of the public
the police serve and protect. Implications of this
depersonalization might also be more easily uncovered with the
researcher participating in longitudinal phenomenology or an
ethnographic study of police sub-culture while riding along with
officer on the beat (Schulman, 2001).
This study might also be more effective by modifying it to
include the entire United States or regions of it. Originally
this research planned to make use of a sample of convenience by
surveying officers attending an international conference for the
Commission on Accreditation of Law Enforcement Agencies. If the
commission had approved of participation in this study the
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
results would have been a cross sectional study of police
officers from the United States, Canada, Mexico, and Barbados.
This would have been a study population much broader than exists
with the present study and would have yielded more effective
results.
Future research could also focus on an in-depth study of
stress and burnout as it relates to organizational factors,
officer role conflict, or individual officer personality traits
and how these characteristics affect officers mentally and
physically or affect their professional performance.
Additionally, research focused on how male and female officers
experience emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, or personal
accomplishment, the three subscales of burnout, could yield
useful and more in-depth information than the present study was
designed to provide.
One last area that is ripe for research is the long-term
effects of stress and burnout on the police population. As
reported by Cherniss (1992) there is a large amount of research
investigating the immediate consequences of burnout but little
work conducted on the long-term effects. Cherniss conducted a 12-
year longitudinal study of human services workers in an effort to
determine if burnout was a phenomenon of early career life, or if
its effects followed through over the course of one's career when
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
that person stayed in the same profession. Finding that the
majority of the present study's sample was more mature in age,
tenure, and general life style stability, it would be interesting
and helpful to determine if and how this population changes over
time. Cherniss' findings indicated that of the small sample that
was followed many were able to develop flexibility later in the
career life. However, the data analyzed indicated few
statistically significant relationships. The possible explanation
offered for these findings was that the impact of early career
experiences becomes relatively weak over time suggesting that
officer tenure may have a mitigating effect on stress and
burnout. This lends support to a notion that there may be a
decrease in stress, burnout, or substance abuse with an increase
in professional tenure. This particular variable is a meaningful
area for exploration for future studies.
Policy Implications of Study Results
Sharing of findings in this study with the Alabama Peace
Officers Standards and Training Commission is believed to be an
appropriate action. According to Alabama Peace Officers Standards
and Training Commission rules, Rule 650-X-2-.05, related to
officer character, prospective police applicants must undergo
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
certain background examinations to become eligible for
certification as a peace officer in Alabama. One such examination
is a psychological examination that must be approved by the
Commission in cases where there is concern for an applicant's
stability or suitability for certification as a peace officer in
Alabama (http://apostc.state.al.us). Many agencies already have
in place policies for administering initial psychological
examinations for prospective employees but few if any have
policies in place providing for subsequent or regular evaluations
to maintain psychological fitness for duty standards. Guller &
McDaniel (2002) report that law enforcement agencies have a duty
to take reasonable precautions in hiring and retaining officers
who are not psychologically disturbed. They further report that
the doctrine of official immunity may not be invoked to protect
an agency from civil claims arising out of negligent retention.
This being the case an amendment in regulatory policy for the
state of Alabama at the very least seems clearly appropriate.
Even though the present study does not reflect significant
correlations in stress and burnout with substance abuse it does
reflect need for examination of such a high level of
depersonalization of the public. Depersonalization on the part of
Alabama officers may in fact be a negative coping skill that
develops over time. The fact that only this one aspect of officer
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
emotional fitness may develop over time gives rise for the need
to regularly evaluate officers for psychological fitness for
duty. Doing so proactively and requiring that everyone
participates on a regular schedule will serve not only the public
but the individual officer and his or her family as well.
This notion is supported by the National Institute of
Justice in its (2001) report on responding to problem police
officers with an early warning system. According to the National
Institute of Justice a growing body of evidence suggests that in
any police agency a small percentage of officers are responsible
for a disproportionate share of citizen complaints. An early
warning system assists police managers with identifying problem
officers early, intervening and facilitating assistance with
them, and monitoring their performance. The system encourages
changes in behavior of supervisors as well as officers and the
programs appear to reduce problem behaviors significantly. As of
2001 only 27% of agencies serving populations of 50,000 or more
had an early warning system in place. As reported by Guller &
McDaniel (2002) proactively addressing problems within the police
agency not only promotes professional performance, good emotional
and physical health, but also creates an environment where
careers can be built and fostered over the long term rather than
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
losing substantial investments by employing new officers on a
regular basis.
Summary and Conclusions
As reported in this study, Corelli (1994) suggests that law
enforcement as a culture is strongly attached to alcohol as a
means of coping with stressors. He further supports the assertion
that workplace culture tended to support some maladaptive aspects
of alcohol consumption. Additionally, according to Brady & Sonne
(1999) perceived stress was found to be a major facilitator for
first time alcohol or drug use as well as relapse after treatment
for abuse or dependence. Alcoholism was listed as the top symptom
of stress when it was studied in public safety organizations
across the United States and costs the government billions of
dollars each year due to poor job performance, lost time from
work, and medical expenses (Shearer, 1989).
The intent of this study was to examine the development of
stress and burnout and how these problems potentially led to
substance abuse. The information collected in this study was
gathered to provide valuable information for police officers and
police managers to help them understand themselves and the
possible ramifications of allowing stress and burnout to go
untreated.
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
The data analyzed in this study suggests that there is no
significant relationship between stress, burnout and substance
abuse but significant correlations between stress and the
subscales of burnout were noted and warrant further study. This
also means that mental health professionals and employee
assistance program professionals may want to understand the
development of stress and burnout and what coping skills are
commonly developed to cope with these difficulties. Additionally
they may want to gain a better understanding of substance abuse
and co-occurring disorders that so frequently appear in their
offices and behavioral medicine centers.
In conclusion, law enforcement officers are frequently asked
why they wanted to become police officers in the first place. The
most frequent answer is to help others and make a difference in
the quality of their lives as well as their own. Officers may not
realize at the beginning of a law enforcement career all of the
issues, pressures, and job-related stressors they will face in
relatively short order after completing basic police training.
Those with advanced tenure have learned from that experience and
realize that before they can offer quality, professional service
they must take care of themselves first. How they do this for
themselves is of paramount concern to agency administrators and
the tax paying public.
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Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police 143
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APPENDIX A
CAPELLA UNIVERSITY225 South 6th. St., 9th. FloorMinneapolis, Minnesota 55402
1-888-CAPELLA Ext. 5377
GRADUATE SCHOOL RESEARCH STUDY:A Doctoral Dissertation On:
Police Officer Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse
This letter is to kindly ask you for your assistance. Your agency chief has approved participation in a research study being conducted to learn more about the effects of stress and burnout on police officers in Alabama cities such as yours. You may be randomly selected to participate in the completion of a doctoral dissertation research study being conducted by me under the supervision of Dr. Joanna Oestmann. Completion of this dissertation is part of the Ph.D. degree requirements for Capella University.
As a retired Police Lieutenant with 26-years active duty law enforcement experience, I have a passionate interest in the factors that lead police officers to the development of difficulty in their professional and personal lives. I am diligently working toward a better understanding of such issues that so often cause chronic physical and emotional disease, and all too often the early end to promising careers. Over the course of my law enforcement career I have come to understand the demands on your time and your agency. Completing this entire survey package should not take more than 20-30 minutes and your police chief has approved of your participation. Please understand that your participation is completely voluntary and if you decide to participate but find you do not want to complete the survey package you have the right to do so absent of questions or duress.
During the small amount of time it takes to complete the survey package your truthful and honest responses will help our profession to better understand the issues under study and assist other professionals in helping brother or sister officers as well as ourselves.
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Please understand that all of the results obtained from the survey packages will be strictly confidential at all times. You will not be identified to anyone as having provided any specific or particular responses. You will be identified with a control number (your badge or employee number) to be used for package inventory or follow-up purposes only. The information used in completing the dissertation will have no source identification other than aggregate demographics and that participants were all sworn police officers, regardless of rank. All completed survey packages will be kept secure by me in a locked file cabinet. At the completion of the study paper copies of the assessments and questionnaire will be shredded leaving behind only raw data and numbers in electronic format.
If you are randomly selected to participate in this study which is important to our entire profession, you will be asked to fill out a consent form indicating whether or not you choose to do so and return it to me with a completed survey package. I will be physically present at your agency to conduct this survey procedure and collect completed survey packages. An area will be set up for face-to-face contact with me to obtain the survey package and it should be returned to me at that same location. If you have any questions or you would like a summary of the statistical results, you may contact me by telephoning at (256) 353-7542 in Decatur, Alabama, USA or your may e-mail me at [email protected] to request the summary or have your questions answered.
Thank you so very kindly for your participation in this study and realize that your participation is just another part of our chosen profession, helping others. Good luck and stay safe.
Sincerely,
J. Danny Dutton, MS,MA,LPC,NCC,CCJASCapella UniversityPolice Lieutenant (Ret.)
No. ______ / ______
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CAPELLA UNIVERSITY225 South 6th. St., 9th. FloorMinneapolis, Minnesota 55402
1-888-CAPELLA Ext. 5377
GRADUATE SCHOOL RESEARCH STUDY:A Doctoral Dissertation On:
Police Officer Stress, Burnout,And Substance Abuse: A Crossectional View of Officers
in mid-sized Alabama Police Departments
INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENTATION
The research study you are about to take part in is related to
stress, burnout, and substance abuse by police officers in mid-
sized Alabama police departments. You role in the study is to
complete a demographics questionnaire and three (3) assessments
that are in this survey package, along with endorsing this
Informed Consent Form with you badge or employee number and the
date only. Please do not put your name on any of these documents.
The entire survey package should take no more than 30 minutes to
complete from start to finish. There are no financial inducements
or rewards being offered for your voluntary participation. You
were selected by your badge or employee number being randomly
selected from a pool of officer numbers that are employed for six
(6) mid-sized Alabama police departments. Your participation in
this study is completely voluntary and you may terminate your
participation at any time during completion of your role in the
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study without any consequence what so ever. All of your
individual responses will be kept strictly private and
confidential. This study asks you to rate your perception of the
stress you experience on the job, the burnout you experience as a
result of working in close contact with people in difficult
situations, and the amount of your individual substance use such
as alcohol. During your participation in this study should you
become uncomfortable with the assessment package in any way you
may terminate further participation without any consequence. If
you become distressed over participation then you may be referred
to you agency Employee Assistance Program or be referred to a
licensed counselor who will assist you with processing your
discomfort. The principal researcher in the study is Danny
Dutton, a retired police officer with the City of Decatur,
Alabama that is now a licensed practicing counselor in Alabama.
If you wish to contact this researcher about the study you may do
so by telephoning (256) 353-7542 or e-mailing Danny Dutton at
[email protected]. You may also contact Danny Dutton's
academic supervisor connected to this study, Dr. Joanna Oestmann,
by telephoning the Capella University telephone number provided
or e-mailing her at [email protected]. You may also
contact Capella University by writing or telephoning at the
address or telephone number provided. At the completion of this
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study, if interested, you may obtain a summary report of
aggregate collected data and its analysis. To obtain this
information, request it from the principal researcher using the
telephone number or e-mail address provided or make your desire
known when submitting your survey package. Thank you very much
for your considerate participation in this doctoral dissertation
study.
Researcher: J. Danny Dutton, MA,LPC,NCC,CCJAS ________________ _______________Participant Badge or DateEmployee Number
Participant Declines to Participate
_____________________ _______________Badge or employee Number Date
CAPELLA UNIVERSITYMinneapolis, Minnesota
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GRADUATE SCHOOL RESEARCH STUDY:A Doctoral Dissertation On:
Police Officer Stress, Burnout,And Substance Abuse in mid-sized Alabama Agencies
Dear Sworn Police Officer:
Thank you very much for consenting to participate in a study that is sure be valuable to the profession of law enforcement. Since you have endorsed your participation with an Informed Consent Form with your badge or employee number, I am presenting you with the package of assessments and a demographic questionnaire. While completing these assessments if you chose to discontinue your participation in this study you are free to do so without consequences. These instruments will serve as tools to gather data related to the influences of stress and burnout and their impact on professional police officers practicing law enforcement today. Please be reminded that you SHOULD NOT put your name on any of these instruments or in any way identify yourself other than as requested while completing this assessment package. All questionnaires and assessments will only be handled by me and will be kept strictly confidential at all times. After their use they will be kept in my personal locked file cabinet in my private residence.
Inside this assessment package you will find 1) a demographic questionnaire asking you for information about demographic descriptions; 2) a Perceived Stress Scale that takes approximately 2 minutes to complete; 3) a Human Services Survey that takes approximately 10-15 minutes to complete; and 4) a Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test which takes approximately 10 minutes to complete. After completing the assessment package please seal the envelope and return it directly to me. Thank you very much for taking approximately 20 minutes of your valuable time to help me complete this research study. If you have any questions about this study you may contact me at (256)353-7542 or [email protected]. Sincerely,
Lt. J. Danny Dutton, (Ret.)MS,MA,LPC,NCC,CCJAS
The following letter of introduction and request for permission to survey officers from eight mid-sized Alabama Law
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Enforcement agencies was mailed to the police chiefs listed below on January 12, 2005.
**Ken Swindle *Rick SingletonChief of Police Chief of PoliceTuscaloosa Police Department Florence Police DepartmentP.O. Box 2089 702 S. Seminary St.Tuscaloosa, AL 35403-2089 Florence, AL 35630(205) 349-2121 (256) 768-2737
*Nick Monday *David BuskinChief of Police Chief of PoliceDothan Police Department Madison Police Department210 N. Saint Andrews St. Municipal ComplexDothan, AL 36303 100 Hughes Road(334) 615-3000 Madison, AL 35758
(256) 772-5689
*Joel T. Gilliam *Richard CrouchChief of Police Chief of PoliceDecatur Police Department Gadsden Police DepartmentP.O. Box 488/402 NE Lee St. P.O. Box 267 / 90 Broad St.Decatur, Al 35602 Gadsden, AL 35902(256) 341-4660 (256) 549-4582
*Nick DerzisChief of PoliceHoover Police Department * = Approved Participation100 Municipal Drive ** = Participation DeclinedHoover, AL 35216(205) 444-7700
**Frank DeGraffenriedChief of PoliceAuburn Police Department141 North Ross St.Auburn, AL 36830(334) 887-4907
12 JANUARY 2005CEO's Name
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Chief of PoliceAlabama Police DepartmentP.O. Box 0000Any town, AL 00000-9999
Lt. Danny Dutton (Ret.)319 Robinson St. SWDecatur, Al [email protected](256) 353-7542
RE: Doctoral Research Study with Alabama Police Officers
Dear Chief of Police:
My name is Danny Dutton and I am a retired police Lieutenant from Decatur Alabama Police Department. At my retirement July 31, 2003 I was a 26 year veteran of the department. Since retiring I have begun a second career in psychotherapy and I am actively involved in completing a doctoral dissertation that is related to Alabama police officers working in mid-sized Alabama police departments. Your city, along with seven others in the north, central, and south Alabama area meet the inclusion criteria for participation in this research study (e.g., population).
I am pursuing a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Health and Human Services specializing in Counseling Studies from Capella University which is located in Minneapolis, Minnesota. This dissertation effort is being supervised by Dr. Joanna Oestmann who serves as my academic committee chairperson. She may be e-mailed at [email protected] for any verification that you deem necessary.
To briefly explain the research purpose it is a simple matter to ask a police officer if his or her work is stressful and the answer would be yes, absolutely. Stress seems to be inherent in the profession. You as well as the men and women that you work with know this all too well. That stress, left unmanaged, often turns into the syndrome of burnout. Both these physical and emotional maladies frequently result in the use or abuse of substances such as alcohol or prescription drugs. The main goal of this research effort is to survey and determine if correlations exist in these variables and if there is any variance in the correlations when one considers officer gender.
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To collect data for this research study I am asking for your department's participation and your permission to travel to your department and survey a random sampling of the male and female officers working in your department. I would be asking this random sampling of officers to complete a demographics questionnaire, and three currently published assessments that measure stress, burnout, and substance use. The entire survey package will take no longer than 15-20 minutes for each individual to complete. This can be accomplished in groups at shift briefings, the end of the shift, report times or whenever officers that are willing to voluntarily participate would be allowed to give me 15-20 minutes of their time.
If you approve of your department's participation I will ask that you provide me with a dual list of sworn officers only, one male and one female that are identified by their badge numbers or employee numbers only. In this way I have no idea what the names of any voluntary participant might be and their anonymity is guaranteed in this way. Further, to support documentation that you do approve of the agency's participation I would need a letter from you on your department letter head indicating your approval to satisfy Institutional Review Board requirements. The random sampling would then be accomplished by my selection of every "nth." badge number on the list to make up the randomly selected population that I would solicit voluntary participation from. Based on currently published data from the Alabama Criminal Justice Information Center (2003) the eight Alabama cities meeting criteria employ 975 sworn officers, 911 male and 64 female and this provides a respectable population to attempt to draw data from.
If you will allow your department's participation in my study I would be so very grateful and will gladly share any findings that you might be interested in. I must however guarantee complete anonymity to participants for the study's methodology to be approved through Capella University's Institutional Review Board and my dissertation committee.
If you allow participation from your department please send me the requested information via the e-mail address or USPS address listed on page one of this correspondence. Once your approval has been documented and I have completed Institutional Review Board review and the Dissertation Proposal conference, (prior to the end of March 2005) I will contact you again to set
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up a date or dates to travel to your department and survey for data.
Thank you very much for your consideration.
Sincerely,
Lt. Danny Dutton (Ret.)MS,MA,LPC,NCC,CCJASDecatur, Alabama
QUESTIONNAIRE Date _________ No. ____/_____
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This questionnaire contains questions designed to identify demographic data only. Please complete each question by circling the appropriate response or filling in the blank with appropriate information.
What is your gender?
(1) Male_________ (2) Female_________
What is your race? (1) African-American _____(2) White-American ____(3) Hispanic ____(4) Other ____; Please describe_______________________
What is your age? __________
What is your marital status? (1)Single_____; (2)Married_____; (3)Divorced_____; (4) Divorced, remarried_______; (5) Widowed_____.
Please check the appropriate answer regarding your complete tenure as a sworn law enforcement officer. Please combine your total number of years of experience whether with the same agency or not.
I have been a sworn police officer
(1) ____1-5 years.
(2)____6-10 years.
(3)____11-15 years.
(4)____16-20 years.
(5)____more than 20 years.
Census Data –Source of City size
Thank you for taking the time to fill out this questionnaire.
PERCEIVED STRESS SCALE Date ___________ No. _____/_____
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The questions in this scale ask you about your feelings and thoughts during the last month. In each case, you will be asked to indicate by circling how often you felt or thought a certain way.
0=Never 1=Almost Never 2=Sometimes 3=Fairly Often 4=Very Often
1. In the last month, how often have you beenupset because of something that happenedunexpectedly?...............................0 1 2 3 4
2. In the last month, how often have you feltyou were unable to control the important thingsIn your life?...............................0 1 2 3 4
3. In the last month, how often have you feltnervous and "stressed"?.....................0 1 2 3 4
4. In the last month, how often have you feltconfident about your ability to handle yourpersonal problems?..........................0 1 2 3 4
5. In the last month, how often have you feltthat things were going your way?............0 1 2 3 4
6. In the last month, how often have you found that you could not cope with all the things thatyou had to do?..............................0 1 2 3 4
7. In the last month, how often have you beenable to control irritations in your life?...0 1 2 3 4
8. In the last month, how often have you feltthat you were on top of things?.............0 1 2 3 4
9. In the last month, how often have you beenangered because of things that were outside ofyour control?...............................0 1 2 3 4
10.In the last month, how often have you feltDifficulties were piling up so high that youCould not overcome them?...................0 1 2 3 4
Mind Garden, Inc.
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1690 Woodside Road, Suite #202Redwood City, CA 94061 USA
Phone (650) 261-3500 FAX (650) 261-3505E-mail: [email protected]
www.mindgarden.com
References
The PSS Scale is reprinted with permission of the American Sociological Association, from Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., and Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 386- 396.
Cohen, S. and Williamson, G. Perceived Stress in a Probability Sample of the United States. Scacapan, S., and Oskamp, S. (Eds.). The Social Psychology of Health. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988.
Reproduced from original electronic download;
Cohen, S. (1994). The Perceived Stress scale. MindGarden.com.
Retrieved July 29, 2004 from http://www.mindgarden.com/
assessments/name(p-s).htm
Christina Maslach – Susan E. Jackson
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MBI Human Services Survey
(NOT LICENSED FOR DUPLICATION, EACH INSTRUMENT MUST BE PURCHASED FOR RESEARCH USE BUT IS REPRODUCED HERE FOR IRB REVIEW)
The purpose of this survey is to discover how various persons in human services or helping professions view heir job and the people with whom they work closely. Because persons in a wide variety of occupations will answer this survey, it uses the term recipients to refer to the people for whom you provide your service, care, treatment, or instruction. When answering this survey please think of these people as recipients of the service you provide, even though you may use another term in your work.
On the following page there are 22 statements of job-related feelings. Please read each statement carefully and decide if you ever feel this way about your job. If you have never had this feeling, write a "0" (zero) before the statement. If you have had this feeling, indicate how often you feel it by writing the number (from 1 to 6) that best describes how frequently you feel that way. An example is shown below.
Example:________________________________________________________________HOW OFTEN: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Never A few Once a A few Once A few every
times month times a times day a year or month week a
or less less week
HOW OFTEN0-6 Statement:
_______ I feel depressed at work.
If you never feel depressed at work, you should write the number "0" (zero) under the heading "HOW OFTEN". If you rarely feel depressed at work (a few times a year or less), you should write the number "1". If your feelings of depression are fairly frequent (a few times a week, but not daily) you should write a "5".
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CPP, Inc. 3803 E. Bayshore Road, Palo alto, CA 94303
(NOT LICENSED FOR DUPLICATION, EACH INSTRUMENT FOR USE MUST BE PURCHASED)
MBI Human Services Survey___________________________________________________________HOW OFTEN: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Never A few Once a A few Once A few every
times month times a times day a year or month week a
or less less week
HOW OFTEN0-6 Statements:
1. ____ I feel emotionally drained from my work.
2. ____ I feel used up at the end of my workday.
3. ____ I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning andhave to face another day on the job.
4.____ I can easily understand how my recipients feelabout things.
5.____ I feel I treat some recipients as if they wereimpersonal objects.
6.____ Working with people all day is really a strain for me.
7.____ I deal very effectively with the problems of myrecipients.
8.____ I feel burned out from my work.
9.____ I feel I'm positively influencing other people's lives through my work.
10.____ I've become more callous toward people since Itook this job.
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11.____ I worry that that this job is hardening meemotionally.
12.____ I feel very energetic.
13.____ I feel frustrated by my job.
14.____ I feel I'm working too hard on my job.
15.____ I don't really care what happens to some recipients.
16.____ Working with people directly puts too much stress on me.
17.____ I can easily create a relaxed atmosphere with my recipients.
18.____ I feel exhilarated after working closely with my recipients.
19.____ I have accomplished many worthwhile things in this job.
20.____ I feel like I'm at the end of my rope.
21.____ In my work, I deal with emotional problems very calmly.
22.____ I feel recipients blame me for some of their problems.
(Administrative use only) cat. cat. cat.
EE:____ ____ DR: ____ ____ PA: ____ ___
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Revised 8-25-80 Melvin L. Selzer, M.D., F.A.C.P.6967 Paseo LaredoLa Jolla, CA 92037(619) 459-1035
(THIS ASSESSMENT IS LICENSED FOR USE AND REPRODUCTION IN THIS RESEARCH STUDY)
MICHIGAN ALCOHOLISM SCREENING TEST (MAST)
Points YES NO
0. Do you enjoy a drink now and then? ___ ___
(2) *1. Do you feel you are a normal drinker? (By normal we mean you drink less than or as much as most other people). ___ ___
(2) 2. Have you ever awakened the morning after some drinking the night before and found
that you could not remember a part of the evening? ___ ___
(1) 3. Does your wife, husband, a parent, or other near relative ever worry or complain about your drinking? ___ ___
(2) *4. Can you stop drinking without a struggle after one or two drinks? ___ ___
(1) 5. Do you ever feel guilty about your drinking? ___ ___
(2) *6. Do friends or relatives think you are a normal drinker? ___ ___
(2) *7. Are you able to stop drinking when you want to? ___ ___
(5) 8. Have you ever attended a meeting of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA)? ___ ___
(1) 9. Have you gotten into physical fights when drinking? ___ ___
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YES NO(2) 10. Has your drinking ever created problems between you and your wife, husband, a parent, or other relative? ___ ___
(2) 11. Has your wife, husband, (or other family member) ever gone to anyone for help about your drinking? ___ ___
(2) 12. Have you ever lost friends because of your drinking? ___ ___
(2) 13. Have you ever gotten into trouble at work or school because of drinking? ___ ___
(2) 14. Have you ever lost a job because of drinking? ___ ___
(2) 15. Have you ever neglected your obligations, your family, or your work for two or more days in a row because you were drinking? ___ ___
(1) 16. Do you drink before noon fairly often? ___ ___
(2) 17. Have you ever been told you have liver trouble? Cirrhosis? ___ ___
(2) **18. After [heavy] drinking have you ever had Delirium Tremens (D.T.s) or severe shaking, or heard voices or seen things that really were not there? ___ ___
(5) 19. Have you ever gone to anyone for help about your drinking? ___ ___
(5) 20. Have you ever been in a hospital because of drinking? ___ ___
(2) 21. Have you ever been a patient in a psychiatric hospital or on a psychiatric ward of a general hospital where drinking was part of the problem that resulted in hospitalization? ___ ___
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YES NO(2) 22. Have you ever been at a psychiatric or mental health clinic or gone to any doctor, social worker, or clergyman for help with any emotional problem, where drinking was a part of the problem? ___ ___
(2) ***23. Have you ever been arrested for drunk driving, driving while intoxicated, or driving under the influence of alcoholic beverages? ___ ___
(IF YES, How many times?____)
(2)***24. Have you ever been arrested, or taken into custody even for a few hours, because of other drunk behavior? ___ ___
(IF YES, Howe many times?____)* Alcoholic Response is Negative** 5 points for Delirium Tremens***2 points for each arrest
SCORING SYSTEM In general, five points or more would place the subject in an "alcoholic" category. Fours points would be suggestive of alcoholism, three points or less would indicate the subject was not an alcoholic.
Programs using the above scoring system find it very sensitive at the five point level and it tends to find more people alcoholic than anticipated. However, it is a screening test and should be sensitive at its lower levels.
References:
Selzer, M.L., The Michigan Alcoholism screening Test (MAST): The quest for a New Diagnostic Instrument. American Journal of Psychiatry, 3: 176-181. 1971.
Selzer, M.L., Vinokur, A., and van Rooijen, L., A Self- Administered Short Version of the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test (SMAST). Journal of Studies On Alcohol, 36: 117-126, 1975.
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APPENDIX B
Normative Data for Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey
Normative Data for MBI-HSS Subscales
Normative data listed in the manual reflect police officers being listed in the "other" category along with attorneys, legal aid employees, probation officers, ministers, librarians, and agency administrators (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996, p.6). LOW AVERAGE HIGHOther EE <16 17-27 >28 DP <5 6-10 >11 PA > 40 39-34 <33
APPENDIX C
Data Coding Key SheetDemographics Survey
Survey Number Column 1 Agency Code Column 21. Gender Col. 42. Race Col. 53. Age Col. 64. Marital Status Col. 75. Tenure Col. 8
Gender 1 – Male2 - Female
Race 1 – African American2 – White-American3 – Hispanic4 – Other
Age Reported in Years
Marital Status 1 – Single2 - Married3 – Divorced4 – Divorced, Remarried5 – widowed
Tenure 1 – 1 – 5 years2 – 6 – 10 years3 – 11 – 15 years4 – 16 – 20 years5 – More than 20 years
City Size/Population2000 Census data rounded up to thenearest thousand
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
Data Coding Key SheetPerceived Stress Scale
Items 1 – 100 – Never1 – Almost Never2 – Sometimes3 – Fairly Often4 – Very Often
*Item 1 Column 11 Item 2 Column 12 Item 3 Column 13 Item 4 Column 14 Item 5 Column 15 Item 6 Column 16 Item 7 Column 17 Item 8 Column 18 Item 9 Column 19 Item 10 Column 20
Column 22 – Total Score
Items 4, 5, 7, & 8 are recoded with numbers being reversed.
*Items 4, 5, 7, & 8 – positively stated, responses are reversed
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Data Coding Key SheetMaslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey
1 Column 24 0 – Never2 Column 25 1 – A few times a month 3 Column 26 2 – Once a month4 Column 27 3 – A few times a month5 Column 28 4 – Once a week6 Column 29 5 – A few times a week7 Column 30 6 – Everyday8 Column 319 Column 3210 Column 3311 Column 3412 Column 3513 Column 3614 Column 3715 Column 3816 Column 3917 Column 4018 Column 4119 Column 4220 Column 4321 Column 4422 Column 45
Column 47 – Emotional ExhaustionColumn 48 - DepersonalizationColumn 49 - Personal Accomplishment
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Data Coding Key SheetMichigan Alcoholism Screening Test
1 Column 52 1 – Yes2 Column 53 2 – No3 Column 544 Column 555 Column 566 Column 577 Column 588 Column 599 Column 6010 Column 6111 Column 6212 Column 6313 Column 6414 Column 6515 Column 6616 Column 6717 Column 6818 Column 6919 Column 7020 Column 7121 Column 7222 Column 7323 Column 74
Follow-up – DUI Column 75 Actual Number24 Column 76
Follow-up – PI Column 77 Actual Number
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APPENDIX D
CAPELLA UNIVERSITYInstitutional Review Board
225 South 6th Street, 9th FloorMinneapolis, Minnesota 55402
Institutional Review Board Application(When this IRB application is completed, it is to be submitted with the research proposal for the next stage of review. The Provost, or designee, gives final approval. See the checklists at the end of this form to verify that you have completed all of the information for this application.)
Name (e.g., Learner, Faculty Employee, Consultant, Directed Employee/Agent, Independent Contractor, Adjunct Faculty) Jeffery D. DuttonDate March 19, 2005Address 319 Robinson St. SW Decatur, Alabama 35601________________________________________________________________Phone (Work) (256) 306-4111 (Home) (256) 353-7542Email Address(es) [email protected]________________________________________________________________Field of Study Health and Human Services, Professional Counseling Degree Program Ph.D.
Supervisor Name Dr. Joanna OestmannSupervisor Title Mentor, Dissertation Committee Chairperson ; Chair, Counseling & General Human Services Areas & First Course Team Address No. 1: 4790 Summerset Dr. Rapid City, South Dakota, 57702; No. 2: 8311 Haven Harbor Way, Bradenton, Florida 34212Phone (Work) (941) 746-5913 (Home) (941) 224-1559 - CellEmail Address(es) No. 1: [email protected] No. 2: [email protected]
Provost Dr. Karen Viechnicki
11/ 13/ 04 Fill in date you successfully completed the online IRB Training required modules and optional modules appropriate to research topic (See attached documentation)
1. Project Title: (Use same title as Final Proposal)
POLICE OFFICER STRESS, BURNOUT, AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE: A CROSSECTIONAL VIEW
OF OFFICERS WORKING IN MID-SIZED ALABAMA POLICE DEPARTMENTS
2. Inclusive dates of project: March 19, 2005 through July 31, 2005
Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in Police
3. AbstractDescribe your research, including research questions and methods to be used (research question, hypothesis, and methodology). Describe the purpose of the research and explain what the research subjects/participants will be asked to do. Please use language that can be understood by a person unfamiliar with the area of research. Avoid area-specific jargon as much as possible. If you must use area-specific jargon, also include an explanation of its meaning. If using existing data or records, describe the sources of the data and your means of access to the data. If you are not using human participants, clearly indicate the nature of the data collection.
Background for the Study
Police officers routinely face exposure to humantragedy when dealing with traumatic injuries and man's inhumanity toward man (Kosinski & Vettor, 2002). Add to these stressors the demands of the public, differences in personnel demographics, conflicting personality characteristics; along with complex social systems created by organizational and administrative bureaucracy, and it becomes easy to see how occupational stress develops in police officers and eventually leads to burnout.
Stress or burnout in police officers is often difficult to recognize because officers are trained to portray a basic sterility in their personality and behavior, yet they are certainly human and are providing human services that usually involve close contact with the public they serve. The stress and burnout experienced by these police officers frequently leads to the use or abuse of substances such as alcohol or drugs that can have an impact on their work performance.
Substance abuse in the workplace or altered performance because of substance abuse can be considered unacceptable professional behavior based on police officers being society's protectors. Continuous substance abuse may also lead to dependence upon alcohol, drugs, or other substances as a means of relieving the negative emotions being experienced. The topic of this proposed research is concerned with determining if a positive correlation exists between the variables stress, burnout, and substance abuse and if so how significant that association is. Additionally, it seeks to understand whether or not officer gender plays a role in the development of substance abuse behaviors based on the experience of stress or burnout. Therefore stress and burnout will be examined for their association with abuse of alcohol or drugs in police officers working in mid-sized Alabama police agencies.
Purpose of the Study
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The purpose of this proposed study is to examine a hypothesized association between two different variables influencing the development of substance abuse in male and female sworn police officers working in mid-sized Alabama police departments.
The specific objectives of this research study will be the following,
5. To determine a global measure of job stress and itscorrelation with substance abuse in the selected population.
6. To determine a global measure of burnout and itscorrelation with substance abuse in the selected population.
7. To determine if there is a stronger or weakerrelationship between stress and substance abuse or burnout and substance abuse in the selected population.
8. To determine if the gender of officers creates anysignificant differences in the association of stress, burnout, and substance abuse with alcohol or drugs in the selected population.
Rationale
Stress or burnout in police officers can eventually lead to individual substance abuse or other dangerous behaviors leading to health problems, marital problems, career difficulties, abuse of family, abuse, of the public or even suicide (Feemster & Harpold, 2002). Also, according to reports from Euwema, Kop, & Schaufeli, (1999) burnout in police officers is characterized by negative, callous, and cynical attitudes towards the citizens they are supposed to protect and serve. Police officers that are emotionally exhausted are often left feeling incompetent, lack energy, and have fewer alternatives to choose from when problem solving. Conflict resolution skills, which police officers are regularly in need of, are less often used in a positive way. One negative way of solving individual problems is substance abuse with alcohol or drugs.
A problem that often results from stress and burnout issubstance abuse with alcohol, drugs, or other behaviors that
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can become self-destructive. Emotional suffering is often caused by stress and burnout and the problems that result. One way people choose to cope with this pain is through the use of substances such as alcohol or drugs or even risky behaviors like gambling, flamboyant sexual encounters, or excessive spending. These behaviors can be described as coping mechanisms to relieve the emotional pain of stress and burnout that ultimately can pose major problems for anyone involved.
Research Design
This study will be conducted using quantitative methods that result in a descriptive, correlational, non-experimental design. The data will be collected using a developed self-administered questionnaire and currently published, self-administered assessments designed to measure stress, burnout, and substance abuse (Creswell, 2003; Leedy & Ormrod, 2001).
Sampling Procedure
The sampling of participants will be generated from sampling subframes of sworn police officers employed by eight mid-sized Alabama law enforcement agencies. A request to participate will be made of officers selected by means of a systematic stratified random sampling technique to complete survey packages on-site at the agency where they are currently employed. The principal investigator will physically go to the participant at his or her place of employment and distribute the survey packages and be available for participant questions. Potential participants will be contacted by distribution of a letter of introduction for the study and principal investigator. This letter will precede the principal investigator's site visit and will be distributed by agency administrative personnel. The entire population of potential participants will receive this correspondence.
Data Collection Procedures
Participants for this study will be recruited by use of a letter of introduction introducing the researcher, the study, its purpose, the participant's confidential role in the study, and explaining to potential participants that they may be randomly selected and recruited to participate in the study. This letter of introduction will be sent to all participating agencies in
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advance of the researcher's site visit to distribute survey packages. These will be sent in a sufficient number to provide all potential participants a copy of this document so all agency members are informed about the study.
The researcher has been assigned a point of contact by the police chief at each agency. When the researcher makes his site visit to participating agencies he will meet with this point of contact, provide him or her with a list of randomly selected badge numbers, and while accompanied by the point of contact attempt to hand the survey package to each selected participant and ask this individual to take the time to complete the survey package and return it to the researcher immediately after completing it or declining to participate. This will be the procedure followed with both male and female participants, however only 46 female participants are available from the entire population and they will all be requested to participate in the study rather than be randomly selected. With the prior approval of police chiefs this individual officer contact can be accomplished immediately prior to, during, or after work briefings, reports times, break times or other times during the participants regularly scheduled work hours that he or she is available.
It is already known that at least one agency police chief will not allow outside persons to attend work briefings due to agency security initiatives. With this agency the point of contact will be given the complete list of randomly and deliberately selected participants and the survey packages to distribute to all potential participants. The point of contact will be given specific verbal instructions regarding informing each selected participant that his or her participation is completely voluntary and there is no consequence for not participating. The survey package instruction sheet provides the participant specific instructions for completing the assessments and questionnaire or opting to decline participation. The participant will then complete the package or decline to participate on the informed consent form, complete the assessments, and return the survey package sealed to the point of contact. This point of contact will then deliver the completed packages to the researcher. With the remaining agencies the case may present itself where the researcher cannot remain on-site at the agency to provide all selected participants the opportunity to participate in person. In these potential cases the remaining survey packages will be left with the assigned point of contact
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to distribute to selected participants, along with the same specific verbal instructions regarding voluntariness and the absence of consequences for declining participation in the study.
Selected participants will be asked to complete a demographics questionnaire, the Perceived Stress Scale, the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey, and the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test. These tests are self-administered. The data will be collected in some cases on an individual basis and in groups in those cases that permit the researcher access to group meetings. Survey packages can be completed in 30 minutes or less. Any survey packages that are not completely filled out will be discarded. No monetary inducement will be offered or provided for participation in the study.
There are 633 potential participants that work for agencies meeting criteria for inclusion in this study. According to Leedy & Ormrod (2001, P. 221) "the basic rule is, the larger the sample, the better. In selecting an appropriate number of survey respondents Leedy & Ormrod suggest that if the population is around 500, at least half of the population should be sampled. This leads to approximately 300 needed participants. The number needed for an adequate sample of police officers, a relatively heterogeneous group, needs to be as high as possible. The only homogeneity expected with this group will be related to gender. A power analysis was conducted based on a 5% margin of error, a desired 95% confidence level, and a 50% response rate on the male population of 587 officers. The number required to maintain a level of confidence at p<.05 was 233. Completing the suggested sample size included adding all 46 female participants bringing the suggested total to 279.
Research Questions
The following research questions facilitate this proposed study:
4. Does a statistically significant correlation existbetween stress and substance abuse in Alabama police officers and is the direction of this hypothesized correlation positive or negative and reach a significance level of p<.05?
5. Does a statistically significant correlation exist
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between burnout and substance abuse in Alabama police officers and is the direction of this hypothesized correlation positive or negative and reach a significance level of p<.05?
6. Does a statistically significant difference in themeans exist between these hypothesized correlations when they are analyzed relative to officer gender and does any difference in the means reach a significance level of p<.05?
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses will be tested in this study:
Hypothesis No. 1, Ha: There is a statistically significant positive correlation between measured stress and the occurrence of substance abuse with alcohol or drugs in Alabama police officers that reaches a level of significance at p<.05. This correlation and its direction will be determined by calculating a Pearson r Correlation Coefficient (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001; Sprinthall, 2003).
Hypothesis No.1a, Ho: There is no statistically significant positive or negative correlation between measured stress and substance abuse with alcohol or drugs in Alabama police officers. This will be determined by calculating a Pearson r Correlation Coefficient (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001; Sprinthall, 2003).
Hypothesis No. 2, Ha: There is a statistically significant positive correlation between measured burnout and the occurrence of substance abuse with alcohol or drugs in Alabama police officers that reaches a level of significance at p<.05. This correlation and its direction will be determined by calculating a Pearson r Correlation Coefficient (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001; Sprinthall, 2003).
Hypothesis No. 2a, Ho: There is no statistically significant positive or negative correlation between measured burnout and substance abuse with alcohol or drugs in Alabama police officers. This will be determined by calculating a Pearson r Correlation Coefficient (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001; Sprinthall, 2003).
Hypothesis No. 3, Ha: There is statistically significant difference in the means of measured stress in male and female Alabama police officers and the occurrence of substance abuse
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with alcohol or drugs that reaches a level of significance at p<.05. The hypothesized difference will be calculated using an Independent t test to measure any difference between these two groups (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001; Sprinthall, 2003).
Hypothesis No. 3a, Ho: There is no statistically significant difference in the means of measured stress in male and female Alabama police officers and the occurrence of substance abuse with alcohol or drugs. The difference between these two groups will be calculated using an Independent t test (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001; Sprinthall, 2003).
Hypothesis No. 4, Ha: There is statistically significant difference in the means of measured burnout in male and female Alabama police officers and the occurrence of substance abuse with alcohol or drugs that reaches a level of significance at p<.05. The difference will be calculated using an Independent t test to measure difference between these two groups (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001; Sprinthall, 2003).
Hypothesis No. 4a, Ho: There is no statistically significant difference in the means of measured burnout in male and female Alabama police officers and the occurrence of substance abuse with alcohol or drugs. The difference between these two groups will be calculated using an Independent t test (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001; Sprinthall, 2003).
Instruments for the Study
The demographic questionnaire proposed for use inthis study was constructed by the study's principal investigator and is short, concise, and will be used to collect demographic data only. This questionnaire asks participants to report individual characteristics (e.g., gender, age, marital status, and tenure with his or her agency). The additional collected demographic data, although seemingly extemporaneous, will be made use of for future research and further study of the variables presently under investigation. The currently published assessments proposed for use in this study are The Perceived Stress Scale, (Cohen, 1994); The Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey, (Maslach & Jackson, 1986; Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996); and The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test (Conoley, Murdoh, & Reese, 1980; Murdoch, 2001).
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The Perceived Stress Scale is a valid and reliable instrument developed by Sheldon Cohen (1994). The Perceived Stress Scale and the Stress in General Scale were both evaluated for use in this proposed study with the Perceived Stress Scale being selected because it is reported to be the most widely used psychological test to measure perceived stress and because some normative data are available. This measurement instrument was evaluated for this proposed study since it is self-administered, short and simple, takes approximately 2-5 minutes to complete, free to non-profit researchers, and enjoys reasonable validity and reliability.
The assessment's author reports correlations with stress measures, reported health behavior measures, and help seeking behavior. Normative data for the Perceived Stress Scale are available related to gender, age, and race, which produces a reasonable fit with the design of this study. The Perceived Stress Scale is a 10-item self-administered questionnaire that asks about feelings and thoughts in the last month with responses ranging from 0 = never, to 4 = very often, and is designed for use with populations that have at least a junior high school education (Cohen, 1994). The Perceived Stress Scale is available in the public domain from an internet resource www.mindgarden.com. In this study burnout will be measured by asking participants to complete the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey to assess the different aspects of burnout experienced by police officers. The Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey measures burnout in staff members in service settings that often require staff to spend considerable time in close, intense involvement with other people (http://www.psychometrics.com; Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). The Maslach Burnout Inventory is self-administered, inexpensive, and has a short administration time of 10-15 minutes. The Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey is designed to assess three identified aspects of experienced burnout: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of personal accomplishment (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter). These aspects of burnout are thought to be characteristic of workers in human service settings or government such as police officers. Each aspect is measured by separate subscales (Hargrove, 1989; Maslach & Jackson, 1986; Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996; Sandoval, 1989). The Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey is not licensed for reproduction and must be purchased in quantity by
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the principal investigator for use in this study. It is electronically produced here for Institutional Review purposes only.
In this study substance abuse will be measured by asking participants to complete the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test. Conoley, Murdoh, & Reese (2001) and Murdoch (2001) report that the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test is a 25-item questionnaire developed for assessing alcohol abuse and alcohol related problems. The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test can be licensed for reproduction, is inexpensive, is self-administered, and takes approximately 10 minutes administration time. The assessment itself and reproduction rights for the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test have been purchased from its author, Dr. Marvin Selzer by the principal investigator for use with this study. Questionnaire items require a yes or no response and the MAST is reported to have reasonable face validity. Items on the questionnaire address drinking behavior, consequences of drinking, and attempts to receive help for drinking problems. The test is reported to be valid whether administered orally or in writing. A score of 3 or less indicates non-alcoholism. A score of 4 indicates possible alcoholism and a score of 5 indicates the respondent is alcoholic (Conoley, et al.). The propensity for respondents to attempt to fake good on this assessment is countered by a low cutoff score.
The research instruments, including the questionnaire developed by this study's principal investigator are attached to this application.
Attach abstract. See checklist to verify that you have completed the abstract.
4. Participant/Subject Population (or Final Sample to be selected)
a. Number: Male __587___ Female __46____ Total 633 potential participants
b. Age Range: __21_ to _Oldest participant at participating police agencies
c. Location of Participants:(Check all that apply)
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____ business ____elementary / secondary school ____outpatient ____hospital / clinic ____university / college
__X__ other special institution / agency: Mid-sized Alabama Law EnforcementAgencies, (e.g., populations ranging from 30,000 to 100,000.
d. Special Characteristics:(Check all that apply) _X_ adults with no special characteristics ___Capella University learner, faculty, and/or staff ___inpatients ___outpatients ___prisoners ___students _X__other special characteristics: specify Police Officers
If research is conducted through organizations or agencies, written documentation of approval / cooperation from each agency (e.g., business, school, hospital, clinic) must accompany this application. See attached correspondence to Alabama Police Chiefs requesting their departments' participation and their responses acknowledging their approval or declination to participate.
e. Recruitment of Participants/SubjectsDescribe how participants/subjects will be identified and selected for recruitment. Attach recruitment information (e.g., advertisement, bulletin board notices, recruitment letters): Recruitment letter is attached.
A request to participate will be made of officers selected by means of a systematic stratified random sampling technique to complete survey packages on-site at the agency where they are currently employed. The principal investigator will physically go to the participant at his or her place of employment and
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distribute the survey packages and be available for participant questions. Potential participants will be contacted by distribution of a letter of introduction for the study and principal investigator. This letter will precede the principal investigator's site visit and will be distributed by agency administrative personnel. The entire population of potential participants will receive this correspondence.See attached introduction/recruitment letters
Attach description and examples of information as it will appear to potential participants. See attached at the end of this document.
f. Approval for Use of RecordsIf participants/subjects are chosen from records (e.g., email address list, postal address list, telephone number list, patient charts, student grades), indicate who approved use of the records. If records consist of medical, student, or other private records, provide the protocol for securing consent of the participants/subjects in the records and approval from the custodian of the records. If appropriate, specify how Standards for Privacy of Individually Identifiable Health Information (the Privacy Rule) under the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) have been observed.See website found at http://privacyruleandresearch.nih.gov/
N/A.
Attach description.
The only records requested consist of two lists from each participating agency. One list for male participants and one list for female participants. Both lists should identify potential participants by badge number or employee number only and was requested in this format. These records were requested in initial correspondence to the Police Chiefs of eight (8) mid-sized Alabama Police departments that all met inclusion criteria for the study (e.g., population size consisting of 30,000 to 100,000). This correspondence and a list of the police chiefs they were addressed to are attached.
g. Initial Contact with Participants/SubjectsWho will make the initial contact with participants/subjects? Describe how contact will be made. Attach description.
This study's principal investigator will make initial contact with study participants by sending sufficient copies of the attached letter of introduction to each participating agency to facilitate providing all employees at each participating department with a letter of introduction. This letter will
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introduce the study, the principal investigator, what the participants will be asked to do, and guarantee confidentiality to study participants. The correspondence planned for use is attached to this IRB review application.
h. Inducements or Rewards to Participants/SubjectsWill participants/subjects receive inducements before, or rewards after the study?
No financial inducements or rewards will be provided to study participants. However, individuals participating in the study will be doing so on the approval of their individual agency's police chief and therefore survey packages will likely be completed "on the clock". Those individuals or agency administrators who are interested in the research findings will be provided a summary report of the findings reported in aggregate form with no personal identifiers attached to prevent any potential identification on individual participants. These reports will be printed and mailed to each individual requesting a copy.
Include this information in your assent/consent documents. See checklist at the end of this form to verify that you have completed the informed assent/consent documents or the cover to an anonymous questionnaire.Attach description. Informed Consent Document is attached to this application.
i. Activity for Control GroupIf some of the participants/subjects are in a control group, describe in detail the activity planned for that group. (This information must be included in the consent/assent forms.)
N/A.
5. Confidentiality of Data
a. Describe what provisions will be made to establish and maintain confidentiality of data and who will have access to data. If anonymous surveys are distributed, provide all the information that would have been given in an informed consent form as a cover to the survey (see the checklist at the end of this form to verify that you have completed the cover to the survey).Attach description.
Confidentiality will be maintained by using anonymous survey responses. The survey packages will be coded with the participant's badge or employee number along with a code for the individual department, both of which are intended for follow-up purposes and to be able to distinguish individual departments
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from the total population if analysis of the data is requested by participants or individual agency administrators. Even the principal investigator is blind to the names of individual participants based on having lists of badge or employee numbers. No one but the principal investigator will have access to consent forms, although even consent forms are designed to endorsed with a badge or employee number rather than name. The only other individuals having access to completed questionnaires and assessments will be data entry personnel or statistical consultants. Neither of these individuals will know who completed the assessments. Once the raw data has been entered into computer statistical programs, the completed demographics questionnaires and assessment instruments will be kept in a locked file cabinet at the private residence of the principal investigator. All but one of the departments participating in the study is outside the principal investigator's home town. Findings will be reported in aggregate form and no personal identifiers will be attached.
b. Where will the data be stored and for how long? Whatever media (e.g., audiotape, paper, digital recording, videotape) are used to record the data, explain who will have access and how long the media will be retained. It is required that data be stored for a minimum of seven years after publication of results (such as a dissertation). If data will be destroyed, describe the secure method for destroying the materials that will maintain confidentiality.Attach description.
The data will be stored in a locked file cabinet at the principal investigator's private residence.
Ethical Issues
Any possible risks to volunteer participants mustbe taken into consideration and necessary allowances made. Participants will be asked to anonymously but candidly report their level of job stress, their level of job burnout, and most particularly their level of substance use and abuse, which has the potential to lead participants to "fake good". This may provoke intense emotions in some participants since they will be reporting something that is usually hidden. Old emotions related to previous substance use or abuse in times of celebration, holidays, or successful police operations may surface and be found to contain unresolved issues. If necessary a debriefing period after completion of the survey packages will be provided to handle resurfaced uncomfortable issues. Further, the principal
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investigator is a Licensed Professional Counselor, Nationally Certified Counselor, and a Certified Criminal Justice Addictions Specialist in the state of Alabama. Professional debriefing services will be provided to participants without charge and appropriate referrals made if these are necessary.
Participation in this study was first approved by the agency chief executive officer. After that respondent participation is voluntary and the freedom to withdraw at any time will be outlined in writing. All respondents must endorse an Informed Consent Form but they will be asked to do so with their individual badge or employee number rather than their name. All completed survey packages must contain an endorsed Informed Consent Form. The Informed Consent Form may be reviewed at the end of this document.
All documents relating to ethical treatment of human participants/subjects which will be used in the course of the research must be attached to this form. These documents include consent forms, cover letters and other relevant material.
See checklist at the end of this document to verify that the application form has been completed.
Submit completed checked checklists with this application form to your school’s designated IRB reviewer.
Signature of Researcher
As a Researcher (e.g., Learner, Faculty Employee, Consultant, Directed Employee/Agent, Independent Contractor, Adjunct Faculty) you certify that:
The information provided in this application form is correct and complete. You will seek and obtain prior written approval from the Committee for any substantive
modification in the proposal. You will report promptly to your Supervisor any unexpected or otherwise significant
adverse events in the course of this study.
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You will report to the Supervisor and to the participants/subjects, in writing, any significant new findings which develop during the course of this study which may affect the risks and benefits to participation in this study.
You will not begin the research until final written approval is granted. You understand that this research, once approved, is subject to continuing review and
approval by your Supervisor. You will maintain records of this research according to Supervisor guidelines. Substantive change requires submitting an addendum to a previously approved application. An addendum is a totally new application form with attachments. The cover letter with the addendum describes the changes that were made from the originally approved application.
If these conditions are not met, approval of this research could be suspended.
Signature of the Researcher:
J. Danny Dutton_____________ Date March 19, 2005
----------------------------------------------------------
Signature of Supervisor
As a Supervisor (e.g., Mentor, Instructor, Practicum Supervisor, Internship Supervisor, Staff Supervisor) you certify that:
The information provided in this application form is correct and complete. You will review and provide prior written approval to your Supervisee for any
substantive modification in the proposal. You will inform the committee members appointed to oversee the research and its results.
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You will receive reports from your Supervisee about any unexpected or otherwise significant adverse events in the course of this study. You will inform the committee members appointed to oversee the research and its results.
You will review research records maintained by your Supervisee until the final written document is produced and approved by you and the oversight committee.
You will inform the oversight committee about the progress of your Supervisee from the time of developing research questions, through the proposal, IRB application, collection of data, writing results, and completing the documentation of the research.
You will contact the Lead Subject Matter Expert (e.g., Chair of the Specialization, Faculty Director) if additional review is needed.
You will make sure that this application has been completed by your Supervisee including all accompanying attachments before signing your name for approval.
You assume responsibility for ensuring that the research complies with University regulations regarding the use of human participants/subjects in research.
If these conditions are not met, approval of this research could be suspended.
Signature of the Supervisor:
Name _________________________________________ Date____________
Title _____________________________________________
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Signature of Provost or DesigneeAs Provost, or designee, I acknowledge that this research is in keeping with the standards set by the university and assure that the researcher has met all requirements for review and approval of this research.
Signature of Provost or Designee
Name __________________________________________ Date____________
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Completed forms should be sent as email attachments. Scan signature pages and attach as files. Send email messages with attachments to the designated IRB reviewers in one of the following schools representing your specialization affiliation:
Harold Abel School of PsychologySchool of BusinessSchool of EducationSchool of Human ServicesSchool of Technology
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Checklist: Form Completed
Use this form to verify that an application has all the necessary information completed in the Institutional Review Board (IRB) Application
1. __X__ all items answered (use NA where item is Not Applicable)__X__ demographics of learner and supervisor__X__ #1. Project Title__X__ #2. Dates of Project__X_ #3. Abstract (see checklist)__X__ #4. Population__X__ #4.a. number__X__ #4.b. age range__X__ #4.c. location of participants/subjects__X__ #4.d. special characteristics of participants/subjects__X__ #4.e. recruitment of participants__N/A__ #4.f. approval for use of records__X__ #4.g. initial contact with participants/subjects__N/A__ #4.h. inducements or rewards to participants/subjects__N/A__ #4.i. activity for non-participants/non-subjects
(e.g., control group)__X__ #5. Confidentiality of data
__X__ #5.a. establish, maintain confidentiality, access to data__X__ #5.b. storage/destruction of data
__X__ signatures__X__ researcher____ supervisor
2. __X__ application attachments (use NA where item is Not Applicable)__X__ approval from institution housing participants_N/A___ approval from institution housing records _N/A__ assent form for minor participants (see checklist)_N/A___ checklist for extracting information from files or records__X__ consent form for parent/guardian/adult participant (see checklist)__N/A__ cover letter for mailed consent form__N/A__ cover letter for mailed questionnaire__X__ cover information for questionnaire (see checklist)
__X__ instrument(s) to elicit responses from participants__N/A__ questions to be asked during interviews__X__ script/letter/email message to recruit participants_N/A___ other ________________________________________________
3. ___X ___ IRB Application complete action: forward to School designee to review for approvaldate of action March 15, 2005
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Checklist: AbstractUse this form to verify that item #3 has been completed on the
Institutional Review Board (IRB) Application
1. The application is fora. use of human participants in research (including record review) – answer
items below and submit to Capella School IRB reviewer b. use of animal subjects in research (including record review) – contact Capella
University IRB Committee before completing applicationc. other type of research (specify _______N/A______________) – contact Capella
University IRB Committee before completing application
2. Describe what the proposed research is about, and the research design to be used.(state, in one or two sentences, the research question to be answered, and any hypotheses to be tested) (research design choices include: historical, descriptive, developmental, case/field study, correlational, causal-comparative, experimental/quasi-experimental, action
3. State the research topic; describe what research has previously been done related to this topic; and restate the research question in terms of the implications from the results that are expected to be found.
4. Describe how the data will be collected through one or more of the following:a. using standardized tests with human participants, b. interviewing human participants, c. asking human participants to complete questionnaires, d. reviewing files containing information about human participants, or e. some other procedure ______________________________________). (NOTE: attach the tests, interview questions, questionnaire, checklist for record review, or summary of other procedures) (NOTE: attach documentation from officials who give authorization to access participants, files, or other sources that will provide the data) Alabama Police Chiefs.
5. (Omit for record review)Describe how the participants will be recruited, and the characteristics of the population that is represented. Letter attached
6. (Omit for research using human participants)Specify the characteristics of the records that will be selected. N/A
7. Describe how the sample will be selected.(specify the type of sampling, such as convenience, periodic, random, snowball, or systematic), (explain how the process will be conducted),
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(specify the number of participants or records in the sample), and(specify the characteristics of the sample, such as sex, age, and other variables to be studied).
8. (Omit for record review)Describe how participants will be contacted for recruitment as a participant.(describe how participants will be identified),(describe how participants will be approached), and(describe how participants will be recruited).(NOTE: attach advertisement, bulleting board notices, recruitment letters, script for telephone call, script for announcement at gatherings, or other documentation supporting the descriptions and explain any inducements to be offered to participants) 9. (Omit for record review or mailed questionnaires)Describe how informed consent will be provided.(specify the process of obtaining consent from adults, assent from minors, and/or consent from guardians of minors).(NOTE: attach the form(s) that will be used to obtain consent and/or assent)(NOTE: attach the cover letter if mailing the request for the form(s) that will be used to obtain consent and/or assent)
10. (Omit for record review or when informed consent is required)Describe how the participant will participate.(specify how participants will have the following information: what they are expected to do, how long their participation will take, who is conducting the research, the topic of the research, the reason for conducting the research, why they were selected, how anonymity will be protected, how data are kept confidential, and how to contact those who will have answers to any questions about the research, i.e., the researcher, the faculty mentor, and Capella University).(NOTE: attach the cover letter that will accompany the questionnaire
11. Describe how the data will be analyzed.(specify the type of quantitative analysis or qualitative analysis, and include a variable code sheet where appropriate).
12. Describe how the data will be stored, for what length of time, who will have access to the data, how it will be available to others, how the data will be destroyed, and how the confidentiality of the data will be maintained.
13. Describe how the results will be interpreted in terms of answering the research questions.
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Checklist: Informed Consent/Assent Form
for Participants to Sign
Use this form to verify that a consent form has all the necessary information, if a consent form is to be attached to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) Application. If the participant/subject is a minor, both an assent form for the participant/subject and a parent/guardian consent form are required.
__X__ 1. name of researcher
__X__ 2. title of researcher
__X__ 3. location of researcher
__X__ 4. reason for conducting research
__X__ 5. title of research project
__X__ 6. reason person was selected to participate
__X__ 7. explanation of how person was selected to participate
__X__ 8. description of what participant is to do
__X__ 9. length of time participation will take
__X__ 10. how anonymity of participant will be protected
__X__ 11. how data collected will be kept confidential
_N/A___ 12. benefits to the participant, including any rewards
__X__ 13. risks to the participant, including protections from those risks
__X__ 14. assurance of voluntary participation
__X__ 15. assurance that withdrawing from the research has no consequences
__N/A__ 16. request that participant print name participant badge number
__N/A__ 17. request that participant sign name and date signature badge number
__X__ 18. make provision that participant will receive a copy of the form
__X__ 19. provide the name of the researcher and contact information for questions or concerns
__X__ 20. provide the name of the supervisor and contact information for questions or concerns
__X__ 21. provide the name of Capella University as a contact for questions or concerns using the designated IRB reviewer’s contact information
__X__ 22. print the form on letterhead of the organization authorizing the research, or use the header of Capella University, 225 South 6th Street, 9th Floor, Minneapolis, MN 55402
__X__ 23. refer to the person as “participant” rather than “subject”
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Checklist: Cover for Questionnaire Used by Participants
Use this form to verify that a cover for a questionnaire has all the necessary information if a questionnaire is to be attached to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) Application
__X__ 1. name of researcher
__X__ 2. title of researcher
__X__ 3. location of researcher
__X__ 4. reason for conducting research
__X__ 5. title of research project
__X__ 6. reason person was selected to participate
__X__ 7. explanation of how person was selected to participate
__X__ 8. description of what participant is to do
__X__ 9. length of time participation will take
__X__ 10. how anonymity of participant will be protected
__X__ 11. how data collected will be kept confidential
__X__ 12. benefits to the participant, including any rewards
__X__ 13. risks to the participant, including protections from those risks
__X__ 14. assurance of voluntary participation
__X__ 15. assurance that withdrawing from the research has no consequences
__X__ 16. provide the name of the researcher and contact information for questions or concerns
__X__ 17. provide the name of the supervisor and contact information for questions or concerns
__X__ 18. provide the name of Capella University as a contact for questions or concerns
__X__ 19. provide the name of Capella University as a contact for questions or concerns using the designated IRB reviewer’s contact information
__X__ 20. print the form on letterhead of the organization authorizing the research, or use the header of Capella University, 225 South 6th Street, 9th Floor, Minneapolis, MN 55402
__X__ 21. refer to the person as “participant” rather than “subject
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CITI Course in The Protection of Human Research Subjects
Print This Report
Saturday, November 13, 2004
CITI Course Completion Record for Jeffery Dutton
To whom it may concern:
On 11/13/2004, Jeffery Dutton (username=DDutton2; Employee Number=) completed all CITI Program requirements for the Basic CITI Course in The Protection of Human Research Subjects.
Learner Institution: Capella University
Learner Group: Group 5.
Learner Group Description: Learners from the School of Human Services
Contact Information: Department: School of Human Services Role in human subjects research: Principal Investigator Mailing Address:
319 Robinson St. SW Decatur Alabama 35601 USA
Email: [email protected] Office Phone: 256-306-4111 Home Phone: 256-353-7542
The Required Modules for Group 5. are: Date completed
Introduction 11/11/04
History and Ethical Principles - SBR 11/11/04
Defining Research with Human Subjects - SBR 11/11/04
The Regulations and The Social and Behavioral Sciences - SBR 11/12/04
Assessing Risk in Social and Behavioral Sciences - SBR 11/12/04
Informed Consent - SBR 11/13/04
Privacy and Confidentiality - SBR 11/13/04
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CAPELLA UNIVERSITY 11/13/04
Additional optional modules completed: Date completed
For this Completion Report to be valid, the learner listed above must be affiliated with a CITI participating institution. Falsified information and unauthorized use of the CITI course site is unethical, and may be considered scientific misconduct by your institution.
Paul Braunschweiger Ph.D.Professor, University of MiamiDirector Office of Research EducationCITI Course Coordinator
CR# 52235
PERCEIVED STRESS SCALE
Sheldon Cohen
The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) is the most widely used psychological instrument for measuring the perception of stress. It is a measure of the degree to which situations in one’s life are appraised as stressful. Items were designed to tap how unpredictable, uncontrollable, and
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overloaded respondents find their lives. The scale also includes a number of direct queries about current levels of experienced stress. The PSS was designed for use in community samples with at least a junior high school education. The items are easy to understand, and the response alternatives are simple to grasp. Moreover, the questions are of a general nature and hence are relatively free of content specific to any subpopulation group. The questions in the PSS ask about feelings and thoughts during the last month. In each case, respondents are asked how often they felt a certain way.
Perceived Stress ScaleThe questions in this scale ask you about your feelings and thoughts during the last month. In each case, you will be asked to indicate by circling how often you felt or thought a certain way.
Badge or Employee Number ___________________Date _________
Age ________ Gender (Circle): M F Other _____________________________________
0 = Never 1 = Almost Never 2 = Sometimes 3 = Fairly Often 4 = Very Often
1. In the last month, how often have you been upsetbecause of something that happened unexpectedly?................................... 0 1 2
3.................................................................................................................4
2. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were unableto control the important things in your life?.................................................... 0 1 2
3.................................................................................................................4
3. In the last month, how often have you felt nervous and “stressed”?......... 0 1 23.................................................................................................................4
4. In the last month, how often have you felt confident about your abilityto handle your personal problems?................................................................ 0 1 2
3.................................................................................................................4
5. In the last month, how often have you felt that thingswere going your way?.................................................................................... 0 1 2
3.................................................................................................................4
6. In the last month, how often have you found that you could not copewith all the things that you had to do?............................................................ 0 1 2
3.................................................................................................................4
7. In the last month, how often have you been ableto control irritations in your life?..................................................................... 0 1 2
3.................................................................................................................4
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8. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were on top of things? 0 12.................................................................................................................3 4
9. In the last month, how often have you been angeredbecause of things that were outside of your control?.................................... 0 1 2
3.................................................................................................................4
10. In the last month, how often have you felt difficultieswere piling up so high that you could not overcome them?........................... 0 1 2
3.................................................................................................................4
Please feel free to use the Perceived Stress Scale for your research.
Mind Garden, Inc.1690 Woodside Road, Suite #202Redwood City, CA 94061 USA
Phone: (650) 261-3500 Fax: (650) 261-3505e-mail: [email protected]
www.mindgarden.comReferencesThe PSS Scale is reprinted with permission of the American Sociological Association, from
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., and Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 386-396.
Cohen, S. and Williamson, G. Perceived Stress in a Probability Sample of the United States. Spacapan, S. and Oskamp, S. (Eds.) The Social Psychology of Health. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988.
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Christina Maslach – Susan E. JacksonMBI Human Services Survey
(NOT LICENSED FOR DUPLICATION, EACH INSTRUMENT MUST BE PURCHASED FOR RESEARCH USE BUT IS REPRODUCED HERE FOR IRB REVIEW)
The purpose of this survey is to discover how various persons in human services or helping professions view heir job and the people with whom they work closely. Because persons in a wide variety of occupations will answer this survey, it uses the term recipients to refer to the people for whom you provide your service, care, treatment, or instruction. When answering this survey please think of these people as recipients of the service you provide, even though you may use another term in your work.
On the following page there are 22 statements of job-related feelings. Please read each statement carefully and decide if you ever feel this way about your job. If you have never had this feeling, write a "0" (zero) before the statement. If you have had this feeling, indicate how often you feel it by writing the number (from 1 to 6) that best describes how frequently you feel that way. An example is shown below.
Example:________________________________________________________________HOW OFTEN: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Never A few Once a A few Once A few every
times month times a times day a year or month week a
or less less week
HOW OFTEN0-7 Statement:
_______ I feel depressed at work.
If you never feel depressed at work, you should write the number "0" (zero) under the heading "HOW OFTEN". If you rarely feel depressed at work (a few times a year or less), you should write the number "1". If your feelings of
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depression are fairly frequent (a few times a week, but not daily) you should write a "5".
CPP, Inc. 3803 E. Bayshore Road, Palo alto, CA 94303
(NOT LICENSED FOR DUPLICATION, EACH INSTRUMENT FOR USE MUST BE PURCHASED)
MBI Human Services Survey___________________________________________________________HOW OFTEN: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Never A few Once a A few Once A few every
times month times a times day a year or month week a
or less less week
HOW OFTEN0-7 Statements:
1. ____ I feel emotionally drained from my work.
2. ____ I feel used up at the end of my workday.
3. ____ I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning and have to face another day on the job.
4.____ I can easily understand how my recipients feel about things.
5.____ I feel I treat some recipients as if they were impersonal objects.
6.____ Working with people all day is really a strain for me.
7.____ I deal very effectively with the problems of my recipients.
8.____ I feel burned out from my work.
9.____ I feel I'm positively influencing other people's lives through my work.
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10.____ I've become more callous toward people since I took this job.
11.____ I worry that that this job is hardening meemotionally.
12.____ I feel very energetic.
13.____ I feel frustrated by my job.
14.____ I feel I'm working too hard on my job.
15.____ I don't really care what happens to some recipients.
16.____ Working with people directly puts too much stress on me.
17.____ I can easily create a relaxed atmosphere with my recipients.
18.____ I feel exhilarated after working closely with my recipients.
19.____ I have accomplished many worthwhile things in this job.
20.____ I feel like I'm at the end of my rope.
21.____ In my work, I deal with emotional problems very calmly.
22.____ I feel recipients blame me for some of their problems.
(Administrative use only) cat. cat. cat.
EE:____ ____ DR: ____ ____ PA: ____ ___
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Revised 8-25-80 Melvin L. Selzer, M.D., F.A.C.P.6967 Paseo LaredoLa Jolla, CA 92037
No. _____/_____ (619) 459-1035
(THIS ASSESSMENT IS LICENSED FOR USE AND REPRODUCTION IN THIS RESEARCH STUDY)
MICHIGAN ALCOHOLISM SCREENING TEST (MAST)
Points YES NO
0. Do you enjoy a drink now and then? ___ ___
(2) *1. Do you feel you are a normal drinker? (By normal we mean you drink less than or as much as most other people). ___ ___
(2) 2. Have you ever awakened the morning after some drinking the night before and found that you could not remember a part of the evening? ___ ___
(1) 3. Does your wife, husband, a parent, or other near relative ever worry or complain about your drinking? ___ ___
(2) *4. Can you stop drinking without a struggle after one or two drinks? ___ ___ (1) 5. Do you ever feel guilty about your drinking? ___ ___ (2) *6. Do friends or relatives think you are a normal drinker? ___ ___
(2) *7. Are you able to stop drinking when you want to? ___ ___
(5) 8. Have you ever attended a meeting of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA)? ___ ___
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(1) 9. Have you gotten into physical fights when drinking? ___ ___
YES NO(2) 10. Has your drinking ever created problemsbetween you and your wife, husband, a parent, or other relative? ___ ___
(2) 11. Has your wife, husband, (or other family member) ever gone to anyonefor help about your drinking? ___ ___
(2) 12. Have you ever lost friends becauseof your drinking? ___ ___
(2) 13. Have you ever gotten into trouble atwork or school because of drinking? ___ ___
(2) 14. Have you ever lost a job because ofdrinking? ___ ___
(2) 15. Have you ever neglected your obligations,your family, or your work for two or moredays in a row because you were drinking? ___ ___
(1) 16. Do you drink before noon fairly often? ___ ___
(2) 17. Have you ever been told you have livertrouble? Cirrhosis? ___ ___
(2) **18. After [heavy] drinking have you ever had Delirium Tremens (D.T.s) or severe shaking, or heard voices or seen things that really were not there? ___ ___
(5) 19. Have you ever gone to anyone for helpabout your drinking? ___ ___
(5) 20. Have you ever been in a hospital becauseof drinking? ___ ___
(2) 21. Have you ever been a patient in a psychiatrichospital or on a psychiatric ward of a generalhospital where drinking was part of the problem
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that resulted in hospitalization? ___ ___
YES NO
(2) 22. Have you ever been at a psychiatric or mental health clinic or gone to any doctor, social worker, or clergyman for help with any emotional problem, where drinking was a part of the problem? ___ ___
(2) ***23. Have you ever been arrested for drunk driving, driving while intoxicated, or driving under the influence of alcoholic beverages? ___ ___
(IF YES, How many times?____)
(2)***24. Have you ever been arrested, or taken into custody even for a few hours, because of other drunken behavior? ___ ___
(IF YES, How many times?____)
* Alcoholic Response is Negative** 5 points for Delirium Tremens***2 points for each arrest
SCORING SYSTEM In general, five points or more would place the subject in an "alcoholic" category. Fours points would be suggestive of alcoholism, three points or less would indicate the subject was not an alcoholic.
Programs using the above scoring system find it very sensitive at the five point level and it tends to find more people alcoholic than anticipated. However, it is a screening test and should be sensitive at its Lower levels.
References:Selzer, M.L., The Michigan Alcoholism screening Test (MAST): The quest for a New Diagnostic Instrument. American Journal of Psychiatry, 3: 176-181. 1971.
Selzer, M.L., Vinokur, A., and van Rooijen, L., A
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Self-Administered Short Version of the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test (SMAST). Journal of Studies On Alcohol, 36: 117-126, 1975.Dr. Selzer: I have today mailed a personal check in the amount of $40 for the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test copy. Please return it to the address listed below. Thanks, J. Danny Dutton, MS., MA., ALC, NCC Board Eligible319 Robinson St. SWDecatur, AL 35601(256) 353-7542(256) 306-1131 - cell(256) 341-1541 - [email protected] Original Message ----- From: [email protected] To: [email protected] Sent: Friday, August 06, 2004 4:51 PMSubject: Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test
There is a $40 charge for a copy of the MAST with scoring key. You are free to duplicate it for your testing use. Mail the check to: Dr. Melvin Selzer 6967 Paseo Laredo La Jolla, CA 92037-6425 The test will be sent out by return mail. Thank you.
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QUESTIONNAIRE Date _________ No.____/_____This questionnaire contains questions designed to identify demographic data only. Please complete each question by circling the appropriate response or filling in the blank with appropriate information.
What is your gender?
(1) Male_________ (2) Female_________
What is your race? (1) African-American _____(2) White-American ____(3) Hispanic ____(4) Other ____; Please describe_______________________
What is your age? __________
What is your marital status? (1)Single_____; (2)Married_____; (3)Divorced_____; (4)Divorced, remarried_______;(5)Widowed____
Please check the appropriate answer regarding your complete tenure as a sworn law enforcement officer. Pleasecombine your total number of years of experience whether with the same agency or not.
I have been a sworn police officer
(1) ____1-5 years.
(2)____6-10 years.
(3)____11-15 years.
(4)____16-20 years.
(5)____more than 20 years.
Census Data –Source of City size
Thank you for taking the time to fill out this questionnaire.
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12 JANUARY 2005CEO's NameChief of PoliceAlabama Police DepartmentP.O. Box 0000Any town, AL 00000-9999
Lt. Danny Dutton (Ret.)319 Robinson St. SWDecatur, Al [email protected](256) 353-7542
RE: Doctoral Research Study with Alabama Police Officers
Dear Chief of Police:
My name is Danny Dutton and I am a retired police Lieutenant from Decatur Alabama Police Department. At my retirement July 31, 2003 I was a 26 year veteran of the department. Since retiring I have begun a second career in psychotherapy and I am actively involved in completing a doctoral dissertation that is related to Alabama police officers working in mid-sized Alabama police departments. Your city, along with seven others in the north, central, and south Alabama area meet the inclusion criteria for participation in this research study (e.g., population).
I am pursuing a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Health and Human Services specializing in Counseling Studies from Capella University which is located in Minneapolis, Minnesota. This dissertation effort is being supervised by Dr. Joanna Oestmann who serves as my dissertation committee chairperson. She may be e-mailed at [email protected] for any verification that you deem necessary.
To briefly explain the research purpose it is a simple matter to ask a police officer if his or her work is stressful and the answer would be yes, absolutely. Stress seems to be inherent in the profession. You as well as the men and women that you work with know this all too well. That stress, left unmanaged, often turns into the syndrome of burnout. Both these physical and emotional maladies frequently result in the use or abuse of substances such as alcohol or prescription drugs. The
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main goal of this research effort is to survey and determine if correlations exist in these variables and if there is any variance in the correlations when one considers officer gender.
To collect data for this research study I am asking for your department's participation and your permission to travel to your department and survey a random sampling of the male and female officers working in your department. I would be asking this random sampling of officers to complete a demographics questionnaire, and three currently published assessments that measure stress, burnout, and substance use. The entire survey package will take no longer than 15-20 minutes for each individual to complete. This can be accomplished in groups at shift briefings, the end of the shift, report times or whenever officers that are willing to voluntarily participate would be allowed to give me 15-20 minutes of their time.
If you approve of your department's participation I will ask that you provide me with a dual list of sworn officers only, one male and one female that are identified by their badge numbers or employee numbers only. In this way I have no idea what the names of any voluntary participant might be and their anonymity is guaranteed in this way. Further, to support documentation that you do approve of the agency's participation I would need a letter from you on your department letter head indicating your approval to satisfy Institutional Review Board requirements. The random sampling would then be accomplished by my selection of every "nth." badge number on the list to make up the randomly selected population that I would solicit voluntary participation from. Based on currently published data from the Alabama Criminal Justice Information Center (2003) the eight Alabama cities meeting criteria employ 975 sworn officers, 911 male and 64 female and this provides a respectable population to attempt to draw data from.
If you will allow your department's participation in my study I would be so very grateful and will gladly share any findings that you might be interested in. I must however guarantee complete anonymity to participants for the study's methodology to be approved through Capella University's Institutional Review Board and my dissertation committee.
If you allow participation from your department please send me the requested information via the e-mail address or USPS address listed on page one of this correspondence. Once your
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approval has been documented and I have completed Institutional Review Board review and the Dissertation Proposal conference, (prior to the end of March 2005) I will contact you again to set up a date or dates to travel to your department and survey for data.
Thank you very much for your consideration.
Sincerely,
Lt. Danny Dutton (Ret.)MS, MA, LPC, NCC, CCJASDecatur, Alabama
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The previous letter of introduction and request for permission is to survey officers from eight mid-sized Alabama Law Enforcement agencies and was mailed to the police chiefs listed below on January 12, 2005.
**Ken Swindle *Rick SingletonChief of Police Chief of PoliceTuscaloosa Police Department Florence Police Depart.P.O. Box 2089 702 S. Seminary St.Tuscaloosa, AL 35403-2089 Florence, AL 35630(205) 349-2121 (256) 768-2737
*Nick Monday *David BuskinChief of Police Chief of PoliceDothan Police Department Madison Police Department210 N. Saint Andrews St. Municipal ComplexDothan, AL 36303 100 Hughes Road(334) 615-3000 Madison, AL 35758
(256) 772-5689*Joel T. GilliamChief of PoliceDecatur Police DepartmentP.O. Box 488/402 NE Lee St.Decatur, AL 35602(256) 341-4660
*Nick DerzisChief of PoliceHoover Police Department *= Participation Approved100 Municipal Drive ** = Declined ParticipationHoover, AL 35216(205) 444-7700
**Frank DeGraffenried *Richard CrouchChief of Police Chief of PoliceAuburn Police Department Gadsden Police Department141 North Ross St. P.O. Box 267 / 90 Broad St.Auburn, AL 36830 Gadsden, AL 35902(334) 887-4907 (256) 549-4582
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E-mail received in response to follow-up request for agency participation at Auburn, Alabama Police Department received 02/08/2005 at 1650 hours. Participation in the project is declined.
Mr. Dutton, We appreciate your request and think the project is very interesting. However, this department will not be able to assist you in your research. Due to scheduling and other important projects that we had previously allocated resources, we cannot assist you. Thank you for your interest and the invitation to participate.
Sincerely, Capt. Wilbur Brown Auburn Police
E-mail in response to follow-up request for agency participation at Tuscaloosa, Alabama Police Department received 02/08/2005 at 1452 hours. Participation in the project is declined.
Chief Swindle advised at this time we have so much going on that we won't be able to participate.
-----Original Message-----From: danny dutton [mailto:[email protected]] Sent: Tuesday, February 08, 2005 11:21 AMTo: Kaye PiersonSubject: research assistance request - Danny Dutton
Please see the attached correspondence created in MS Word. Please forward to Chief Swindle for his action as soon as possible. Thanks in advance. J. Danny Dutton MS, MA, LPC, NCC, CCJAS319 Robinson St. SWDecatur, Al 35601cell: (256) 306-1131work: (256) 306-4111home: (256) 353-7542
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E-mail received in response to follow-up request for agency participation at Gadsden, Alabama Police Department received 02/08/2005 at 1505 hours. Participation in the project is approved.
danny dutton wrote:
Please see the attached correspondence and advise at your earliest convenience. Thanks in advance. J. Danny Dutton MS, MA, LPC, NCC, CCJAS319 Robinson St. SWDecatur, Al 35601cell: (256) 306-1131work: (256) 306-4111
Lt. Dutton,
Your letter has been forwarded to Capt. Troy Higdon who will serve as your GPD point of contact for this project. Capt. Higdon can be reached at (256) 549-4696 or by e-mail at [email protected]. Good luck with your research.
Richard Crouch
E-mail received in response to follow-up request for agency participation at Dothan, Alabama Police Department received 02/15/2005 at 0805 hours. Participation in the project is approved.
Mr. Dutton,
It would be a pleasure to help you with your research. If you would please give me a call at (334)615-3690 we can talk about getting this set up for you. My office hours are 0800-1700 Monday through Friday. If you cannot reach me at the office, please feel free to call my cell # (334)797-0262.
Lt. Greg BentonSpecial Operations DivisionDothan Police [email protected]
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E-mail received in response to follow-up request for agency participation at Hoover, Alabama Police Department received 02/17/2005 at 0936 hours. Participation in the project is approved.
Hello Danny, No you are not a PIA, Chief Derzis has just been making a lot of changes and moves here in the department (all for the good, of course) and we have all been busier than usual. Not to mention the office renovations we are trying to get done! He has agreed to allow officers to complete questionnaires. He does not allow, nor have we ever, anyone to come to roll calls. I have been with the department for 15 years, and know of no visitors in roll call. Is this something you can give me to give to the officers? I'll be glad to help in any way possible. Ellen-----Original Message-----From: danny dutton [mailto:[email protected]] Sent: Wednesday, February 16, 2005 6:57 PMTo: Madden, EllenSubject: Follow-up contact for research assistance
Ellen: This e-mial is to follow-up on our previous contact and tries to determine if your police chief has had opportunity to determine if he will allow Hoover PDs participation in the mentioned research study. If so, correspondence from his office along with the lists of male and female officer's badge or ID numbers would be very much appreciated. I do realize that in the big scheme of things my request is very low priority and if I begin to become a PIA please let me know right away. At this point the effort to complete dissertation is simply "on hold" until I am able to determine which departments will allow participation and I know what my total population will be. Thanks so much for your patience. J. Danny Dutton MS, MA, LPC, NCC, CCJAS319 Robinson St. SWDecatur, Al 35601cell: (256) 306-1131work: (256) 306-4111
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CAPELLA UNIVERSITY225 South 6th. St., 9th. FloorMinneapolis, Minnesota 55402
CAPELLA UNIVERSITYGRADUATE SCHOOL RESEARCH STUDY
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A Doctoral Dissertation On:
CAPELLA UNIVERSITY225 South 6th. St. 9th. FloorMinneapolis, Minnesota, 55402
1-888-CAPELLA Ext. 5377GRADUATE SCHOOL RESEARCH STUDYA Doctoral Dissertation On:
Police Officer Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in mid-sized Alabama Agencies
Dear Sworn Police Officer:
Thank you very much for consenting to participate in a study that will be valuable to the profession of law enforcement. Since you have endorsed an Informed Consent Form with your badge or employee number, I am presenting you with the package of assessments and the demographic questionnaire. While completing these assessments if you chose to discontinue your participation in this study you are free to do so without consequences. These instruments will serve as tools to gather data related to the influences of stress and burnout and their impact on professional police officers practicing law enforcement today. Please be reminded that you SHOULD NOT put your name on any of these instruments or in any way identify yourself other than as requested while completing this assessment package. All questionnaires and assessments will only be handled by me and will be kept strictly confidential at all times. After their use they will be kept in my personal locked file cabinet in my private residence.
Inside this assessment package you will find 1) a demographic questionnaire asking you for information about yourself; 2) a Perceived Stress Scale that takes approximately 2 minutes to complete; 3) a Human Services Survey that takes approximately 10-15 minutes to complete; and 4) a Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test which takes approximately 10 minutes to complete. After completing the assessment package please seal the envelope and return it directly to me as soon as possible. Thank you very much for taking approximately 20 minutes of your valuable time to help me complete this research study. If you have any questions about this study you may contact me at (256) 353-7542 or at [email protected].
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Sincerely, Lt. Danny Dutton (Ret.)
CAPELLA UNIVERSITY225 South 6th. St. 9th. FloorMinneapolis, Minnesota, 55402
1-888-CAPELLA Ext. 5377
GRADUATE SCHOOL RESEARCH STUDYA Doctoral Dissertation On:
Police Officer Stress, Burnout, and Substance Abuse in mid-sized Alabama Agencies
This letter is to kindly ask you for your assistance. Your agency chief has approved your department's participation in a research study being conducted to learn more about the effects of stress and burnout on police officers in Alabama cities such as yours. You may be asked to participate if chosen in a random selection process. Your voluntary participation will help facilitate the completion of a doctoral dissertation research study being conducted by me under the supervision of Dr. Joanna Oestmann. Completion of this dissertation is part of the Ph.D. degree requirements for Capella University. If you have questions you may contact Dr. Oestmann by e-mailing her at [email protected]. You may also contact Capella University at the letter head address listed in this correspondence. If you are chosen to participate and do so voluntarily you may withdraw from the study at any time without consequences.
As a retired Police Lieutenant with 26-years active duty law enforcement experience, I have a passionate interest in the factors that lead police officers to the development of difficulty in their professional and personal lives. I am diligently working toward a better understanding of such issues that so often cause chronic physical and emotional disease, and all too often the early end to promising careers. Over the course of my law enforcement career I have come to understand the demands on your time and your agency. Completing this entire survey package should not take more than 20-30 minutes and your police chief has approved of your participation.
During the small amount of time it takes to complete the survey package your truthful and honest responses will help our
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profession to better understand the issues under study and assist other professionals in helping brother or sister officers as well as ourselves.
Please understand that all of the results obtained from the survey packages will be kept strictly confidential at all times. You will not be identified to anyone as having provided any specific or particular responses. You will be identified with a control number (your badge or employee number) to be used for package inventory or follow-up purposes only. The information used in completing the dissertation will have no source identification other than aggregate demographics and that participants were all sworn police officers, regardless of rank. All completed survey packages will be kept secure by me in a locked file cabinet. At the completion of the study paper copies of the assessments and questionnaire will be shredded leaving behind only raw data and numbers in electronic format.
If you are randomly selected to participate in this study which is important to our entire profession, you will be asked to fill out a consent form indicating whether or not you choose to do so. Please return it to me when turning in the survey package. I will be physically present at your agency to conduct this survey procedure and collect completed survey packages. An area will be set up for face-to-face contact with me to obtain the survey package and it should be returned to me at that same location. If you have any questions or you would like a summary of the statistical results, you may contact me by telephoning at (256) 353-7542 in Decatur, Alabama, USA or your may e-mail me at [email protected] to request the summary or have your questions answered.
Thank you so very kindly for your participation in this study and realize that your participation is just another part of our chosen profession, helping others. Good luck and stay safe.
Sincerely,
Lt. J. Danny Dutton, (Ret.) MS,MA,LPC,NCC,CCJAS
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No. ______ / ______
CAPELLA UNIVERSITY225 South 6th. St., 9th. FloorMinneapolis, Minnesota 55402
1-888-CAPELLA Ext. 5377
GRADUATE SCHOOL RESEARCH STUDY:A Doctoral Dissertation On:
Police Officer Stress, Burnout,And Substance Abuse: A Crossectional View of Officers in mid-
sized Alabama Police Departments
INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENTATION
The research study you are about to take part in is related to
stress, burnout, and substance abuse by police officers in mid-
sized Alabama police departments. You role in the study is to
complete a demographics questionnaire and three (3) assessments
that are in this survey package, along with endorsing this
Informed Consent Form with you badge or employee number and the
date only. Please do not put your name on any of these documents.
The entire survey package should take no more than 30 minutes to
complete from start to finish. There are no financial inducements
or rewards being offered for your voluntary participation. You
were selected by your badge or employee number being randomly
selected from a pool of officer numbers that are employed for six
(6) mid-sized Alabama police departments. Your participation in
this study is completely voluntary and you may terminate your
participation at any time during completion of your role in the
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study without any consequence what so ever. All of your
individual responses will be kept strictly private and
confidential. This study asks you to rate your perception of the
stress you experience on the job, the burnout you experience as a
result of working in close contact with people in difficult
situations, and the amount of your individual substance use such
as alcohol. During your participation in this study should you
become uncomfortable with the assessment package in any way you
may terminate further participation without any consequence. If
you become distressed over participation then you may be referred
to you agency Employee Assistance Program or be referred to a
licensed counselor who will assist you with processing your
discomfort. The principal researcher in the study is Danny
Dutton, a retired police officer with the City of Decatur,
Alabama that is now a licensed practicing counselor in Alabama.
If you wish to contact this researcher about the study you may do
so by telephoning (256) 353-7542 or e-mailing Danny Dutton at
[email protected]. You may also contact Danny Dutton's
academic supervisor connected to this study, Dr. Joanna Oestmann,
by telephoning the Capella University telephone number provided
or e-mailing her at [email protected]. You may also
contact Capella University by writing or telephoning at the
address or telephone number provided. At the completion of this
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study, if interested, you may obtain a summary report of
aggregate collected data and its analysis. To obtain this
information, request it from the principal researcher using the
telephone number or e-mail address provided or make your desire
known when submitting your survey package. Thank you very much
for your considerate participation in this doctoral dissertation
study.
Researcher: J. Danny Dutton, MA,LPC,NCC,CCJAS ________________ _______________Participant Badge or DateEmployee Number
Participant Declines to Participate
_______________________ _______________Badge or Employee Number Date
Data Coding Key Sheet
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Demographics Survey
Survey Number Column 1 Agency Code Column 21. Gender Col. 42. Race Col. 53. Age Col. 64. Marital Status Col. 75. Tenure Col. 8
Gender 1 – Male2 - Female
Race 1 – African American2 – White-American3 – Hispanic4 – Other
Age Reported in Years
Marital Status 1 – Single2 - Married3 – Divorced4 – Divorced, Remarried5 – widowed
Tenure 1 – 1 – 5 years2 – 6 – 10 years3 – 11 – 15 years4 – 16 – 20 years5 – More than 20 years
City Size/Population 2000 Census data rounded up to thenearest thousand
Data Coding Key Sheet
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Perceived Stress Scale
Items 1 – 100 – Never1 – Almost Never2 – Sometimes3 – Fairly Often4 – Very Often
*Item 1 Column 11 Item 2 Column 12 Item 3 Column 13 Item 4 Column 14 Item 5 Column 15 Item 6 Column 16 Item 7 Column 17 Item 8 Column 18 Item 9 Column 19 Item 10 Column 20
Column 22 – Total Score
Items 4, 5, 7, & 8 are recoded with numbers being reversed.
*Items 4, 5, 7, & 8 – positively stated, responses are reversed
Data Coding Key SheetMaslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey
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1 Column 24 0 – Never2 Column 25 1 – A few times a month 3 Column 26 2 – Once a month4 Column 27 3 – A few times a month5 Column 28 4 – Once a week6 Column 29 5 – A few times a week7 Column 30 6 – Everyday8 Column 319 Column 3210 Column 3311 Column 3412 Column 3513 Column 3614 Column 3715 Column 3816 Column 3917 Column 4018 Column 4119 Column 4220 Column 4321 Column 4422 Column 45
Column 47 – Emotional ExhaustionColumn 48 - DepersonalizationColumn 49 - Personal Accomplishment
Data Coding Key SheetMichigan Alcoholism Screening Test
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1 Column 52 1 – Yes2 Column 53 2 – No3 Column 544 Column 555 Column 566 Column 577 Column 588 Column 599 Column 6010 Column 6111 Column 6212 Column 6313 Column 6414 Column 6515 Column 6616 Column 6717 Column 6818 Column 6919 Column 7020 Column 7121 Column 7222 Column 7323 Column 74
Follow-up – DUI Column 75 Actual Number24 Column 76
Follow-up – PI Column 77 Actual Number
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