UNIVERSITATEA "AL. I. CUZA" IAI Facultatea de Informatic

Departamentul de nvmnt la Distan

LAURA IOANA LEON

MANUAL DE LIMBA ENGLEZ

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CONTENTS INTRODUCTION English as a World Language ................................................ 3 I. LESSONS

Lesson 1 The Invention of the Internet ...................................................... 5 Lesson 2 Professional and Educational Internet ....................................... 7 Lesson 3 People in Computing .................................................................. 10 Lesson 4 Designing a Webpage ................................................................. 14 Lesson 5 Internet Ethics ............................................................................ 18 Lesson 6 Computer Security ..................................................................... 21 Lesson 7 Storage Devices ........................................................................... 24 Lesson 8 Cyberculture ............................................................................... 27 Lesson 9 Electronic Trade ......................................................................... 29 Lesson 10 Futurology ................................................................................. 32

II. LANGUAGE FOCUS

A. Writing a CV ............................................................................................ 35 B. Writing Letters and Faxes ...................................................................... 37 B1. Writing a Letter of Application ............................................................ 37 C. Interviews .................................................................................................. 39 D. Writing Emails ......................................................................................... 40 E. Presentations ............................................................................................. 42 F. Dissertations and Long Essays ................................................................ 44

III. TESTS

Test A ............................................................................................................. 47 Test B ............................................................................................................. 50 Test C ............................................................................................................. 53 Test D ............................................................................................................. 56 Test E ............................................................................................................. 59 Tests Answer Key ...................................................................................... 61

IV. GRAMMAR REFERENCE .............................................................................. 66 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................... 92

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INTRODUCTION ENGLISH AS A WORLD LANGUAGE Do you think the following statements are true or false? 1. English was already an important world language four hundred years ago. 2. It is mainly because of the United States that English has become a world

language. 3. One person out of seven in the world speaks perfect English. 4. There are few inflections in modern English. 5. In English, many verbs can be used as nouns. 6. English has borrowed words from many other languages. 7. In the future, all other languages will probably die out. Skim reading Read the article on English as a world language. Find out the answers to the

true/false statements. There is one statement for each paragraph. Discuss your answers in pairs. Then read the article in more depth.

Today, when English is one of the major languages in the world, it requires an effort

of the imagination to realize that this is a relatively recent thing that in Shakespeare's time, for example, only a few million people spoke English, and the language was not thought to be very important by the other nations of Europe, and was unknown to the rest of the world.

English has become a world language because of its establishment as a mother tongue outside England, in all the continents of the world. This exporting of English began in the seventeenth century, with the first settlements in North America. Above all, it is the great growth of population in the United States, assisted by massive immigration in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, that has given the English language its present standing in the world.

People who speak English fall into one of three groups: those who have learned it as their native language; those who have learned it as a second language in a society that is mainly bilingual; and those who are forced to use it for a practical purpose administrative, professional or educational. One person in seven of the world's entire population belongs to one of these three groups. Incredibly enough, 75% of the world's mail and 60% of the world's telephone calls are in English.

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS SIMPLICITY OF FORM. Old English, like modern German, French, Russian and

Greek, had many inflections to show singular and plural, tense, person, etc., but over the centuries words have been simplified. Verbs now have very few inflections, and adjectives do not change according to the noun.

FLEXIBILITY. As a result of the loss of inflections, English has become, over the

past five centuries, a very flexible language. Without inflections, the same word can operate as many different parts of speech. Many nouns and verbs have the same form, for example swim, drink, walk, kiss, look, and smile. We can talk about water to drink and to water the flowers; time to go and to time a race; a paper to read and to paper a bedroom. Adjectives can be used as verbs. We warm our hands in front of a fire; if clothes are dirtied, they need

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to be cleaned and dried. Prepositions too are flexible. A sixty-year old man is nearing retirement; we can talk about a round of golf, cards, or drinks.

OPENNESS OF VOCABULARY. This involves the free admissions of words from

other languages and the easy creation of compounds and derivatives. Most world languages have contributed some words to English at some time, and the process is now being reversed. Purists of the French, Russian and Japanese languages are resisting the arrival of English in their vocabulary.

THE FUTURE OF ENGLISH. Geographically, English is the most widespread

language on Earth, second only to Mandarin Chinese in the number of people who speak it. It is the language of business, technology, sport, and aviation. This will no doubt continue, although the proposition that all other languages will die out is absurd.

Speaking 1. How do you learn languages? - What are the differences between the ways a baby learns its first language and the

ways an adult learns a second language? - What advantages does the baby have? - What advantages does the adult have? 2. Work alone. What is most important for you in learning a language? Put the list in order of

importance, 1 being the most important. .......... learning grammar .......... learning vocabulary .......... speaking and being corrected .......... speaking and not being corrected all the time .......... listening .......... reading .......... writing .......... pronunciation practice 3. Work in groups. Compare your lists. Justify your order, but remember that different people learn in different ways. 4. Can you think of some suggestions for effective language learning? Example Practice as much as possible. Read books and newspapers.

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I. LESSONS LESSON 1 THE INVENTION OF THE INTERNET A blast from the past It's 1969 (...). A department of the US Government decides to set up some sort of

computer network enabling its scientists and researchers to exchange information easily even if they are miles apart a sort of military chatline. But this network will have to be Cold War-proof. There will be no "command center", no single computer that controls the rest of them. Instead, each machine will have equal status.

The way in which a message travels from one computer to another won't be important, it will just take whatever route it can to reach its destination.

The Advanced Research Projects Agency, for it was they, built a network consisting of supercomputers and modestly named it ARPANET.

The clever folks at ARPA designed a system which broke up any message into bits or packets, to use the techy term. These packets could be sent independently over the network. Each packet could travel to its destination by a different route, and as long as they were all reassembled at the other end in the right order, the way they got there was unimportant. By 1971 there were 15 computers on the Net; by 1972, 37.

Amazingly, it worked. Scientists rapidly exchanged their findings and productivity increased. But then an odd thing started to happen. Instead of using the network strictly for business, users began sending personal messages too at first notes and theories on their work, then news and eventually gossip. They set up their own electronic mailboxes. They had, in fact, invented e-mail, still the most popular use of the Net by far.

This blatant misuse of the US Government's funds continued throughout the '70s, and the Internet, as it came to be called, just kept on growing. Other networks joined in, uninvited but still welcome.

Because of the way the messaging system worked, it didn't matter what sort of computer was used as long as it spoke the right language. Enthusiastic amateurs knocked up programs for their own machines, swapped them (via the net, of course) and encouraged other people to join in.

In the mid-'80s came the rise of the personal computer, machines that would sit on your desk rather than in your lab, computers you could play games on and use unproductively. Crude as they were, they were capable of far more interesting things that were ever dreamt possible.

The pioneering owners of these machines found out about the Net, decided that it was a good thing and started joining in. But they weren't interested in science or academia, they were interested in film and music and TV and the opposite sex and all sorts of fascinating topics. They didn't use the Net to swap research data, they used it to swap gossip. They started mailing lists, they opened newsgroups, they sent each other games.

1. Say if each of these statements is right or wrong (according to the text): 1. You can use any type of computer to send a message on the Internet. 2. The Internet is regulated and funded by the US Government. 3. A message always takes the shortest route to its destination. 4. A message is cut into packets of bits to be a computer specialist any more to use the

Internet.

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2. Computer sizes. Here are five types of computers. Can you order them from the largest to the smallest?

1. desktop computer 2. personal digital assistant (DPA) 3. supercomputer 4. mainframe 5. notebook 3. Find the correct definition for each of the following words: newsgroup, packet,

mailbox, network, researcher A. a series of bits being a part of message B. a set of related computers C. a place on the Internet where people can discuss D. a person who tries to discover something E. a place on the Internet where messages are put and kept until read 4. Put the verbs in brackets in the following text into the appropriate tense (Past

Tense or Present Perfect). Note that in the final two examples you also have to use a frequency adverb:

Eckert and Machy (invent) the first modern computer in 1946. Since then the computers (become) smaller, cheaper and more reliable. Te early computers (use) vacuum tubes, but transistors soon (replace) them. Over the last few years, however, silicon chip technology (dominate) the computer world. In the 1970s Intel (produce) a microprocessor, which (lead) to the mass production of the first personal computer by Apple. Apple, of course (be) a big name in computers since the seventies, along with IBM.

Both of these companies (set) standards that most software houses and computer manufacturers (adopt).

Miniaturization (be) a key word in the 1980s, and computers (decrease) in size and price quite drastically. People (begin) to use their TV sets as computer monitors and software engineers (make) fortunes by selling arcade games. The 1990s (continue) this trend towards miniaturization, but the market (saturate) to some extent, so that even IBM (have to) lay off some workers.

A computer that (fill) a room in the fifties (recently/be reduced) to the size of a notepad. It is an undeniable fact that computer firms (always/to believe) that small is beautiful!

Talking point How long have you been using the Internet? How much has it changed your life?

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LESSON 2 PROFESSIONAL AND EDUCATIONAL INTERNET Wired U For many students, the Net will be alma mater. There's a revolution happening in education. It's called distance learning, and its prime

practitioners are using the techniques and technology of computerized networking to offer a wide range of degree and non-degree courses to students in Asia, Australia, Europe, and the Americans.

University Online University online is for-profit organization that, rather than offering their own set of

courses, is contracting with top-quality schools to convert their courses to an interactive, online environment. Originally tested in 1992 the company has been busily developing courseware for a rollout this fall.

The main idea is to replace existing for-credit degree-oriented programs that are available through the mail with equivalent computerized courses over the Internet. For example, courses that may be well computerized by the time you read this include a University of Southern Carolina business program that would be offered in Virginia, and a University of Carolina at Berkeley degree-program in English, offered by mail.

Using modern technology, a teacher who now conducts an introductory course for several hundred students in a huge amphitheatre can have the same material automated and delivered on demand to students worldwide. The professor would receive a royalty for every student who took this course, and as with mail order programs, the material would be available to students at their convenience.

"The typical course we do is one where about 700 students are trying to learn Economics 101", says Nat Kannan, founder and president of University Online. "We make it so students can dial up from their bedrooms, learn the material, use a bulletin board, check for FAQs on the questions that get asked over and over every year, and even conference with the teacher when necessary".

The complete distance-learning package generally includes a text-book, videotape of professor's lectures, and interactive courseware. Students can log onto the Internet, visit the school's We site, click on the course they want, and connect to a server that presents information. The site offers questions to test the student's proficiency, then switches the student to a hypertext document that covers material for which the student needs more study. The computer keeps track of each student's progress and an make reports available to the teacher, who can thus oversee the education of many more than it would be possible without automation. Proctored final exams are given under reciprocal arrangements with schools in the student's area.

University Online offers kinder-garden-through-8th-grade programs for the Calvert School and nationally accredited 9th-through-12th-grade programs from the North Dakota Independent Student Program. Within a few months, Kannan said his company hopes to offer courses from five major business schools, in addition to several large urban universities scheduled to go on like this fall.

1. Use the elements to make complete sentences, all of which express personal

opinions: 1. As far as I am concerned/University Online/good idea 2. In my opinion/real teachers/electronic conferences 3. Personally, I/campus life/bulletin boards 4. I would suggest/Internet/traditional universities

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5. From my own point of view/to replace/university atmosphere 6. To my mind, I consider/modern technology/efficient teaching aid 7. I agree with the idea that/everybody/access to knowledge/Internet 8. I am convinced/University Online/successful venture 2. Find the verb ending in ize that corresponds that correspond to each of these

definitions (e.g. to put a system on computer = to computerize) 1. to represent in a digital form 2. to make use of a symbol for something 3. to put a story in the form of a drama 4. to take a material form 5. to arrange in an optimal way 6. to reduce to the minimum 7. to give a linear form to 8. to make something according to a customer's individual specifications 9. to give authority to 10. to write a summary of 3. Fill the blanks in this passage with since, for and ago: 1. University Online was originally tested over five years ..... in 1992 2. It was put on the market in 1994; so it has been tested ..... over two years. 3. ..... the beginning of the experiment, a few months ......, several new courses have

been offered. 4. You have to follow a course ..... at least two semesters to be allowed to sit for an

exam. 5. This University has only existed ..... 1992 and it is already known worldwide. 6. When we started, four years ....., we never believed it would be so successful. LANGUAGE FOCUS SUFFIXES: FORMING NEW WORDS Noun-forming suffixes: SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLE -al quality of terminal, withdrawal -ance state clearance, performance -ary connected with corrolary -asm condition, state enthusiasm -dom condition, domain wisdom, boredom, kingdom -ee a person in a condition employee, addressee -ence quality of audience, independence -er, -or a person who

a thing which employer, operator voucher, connector

-hood quality, condition childhood, neighbo(u)rhood -ian belonging to electrician, musician -ion, -tion act of, state introduction, execution, possession -ism condition, state magnetism, behavio(u)rism -ist a person who typist, scientist

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-ity state, quality electricity, reality -ment state, action achievement, government -ness condition of business, happiness, boldness -our (GB) -or(US)

quality, condition labo(u)r, behavio(u)r

-ry, -ery place, condition, state foundry, slavery, rivalry -ship condition, state friendship, hardship Verb-forming suffixes: SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLE -ate to make activate, concentrate, tolerate -en to make shorten, widen, lengthen -fy to make classify, simplify -ize, -ise to make customize, computerize, advertise Adjective-forming suffixes: SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLE -able, -ible capable of manageable, interruptible -al quality of environmental, logical, terminal -ar quality of planar -ary connected with binary -free without bug-free -ful full of useful -ic, -ical quality of automatic, economical -ish like foolish -less without useless -ous, -ious full of porous, laborious Adverb-forming suffixes: SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLE -ly in the manner of actually, generally, furiously 4. Now, using the verb-forming suffixes above, transform the following words

into verbs. 1. broad 2. active 3. simple 4. tight 5. robot 6. short 7. auto 8. local 9. soft 10. analysis 11. initial 12. long 13. mode 14. personal 15. loose 16. electric 17. standard 18. weak 19. stimulus 20. computer

Talking point What is your opinion about universities online?

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LESSON 3 PEOPLE IN COMPUTING How to become a programming expert The primary requirements for being a good programmer are nothing more than a good

memory, an attention to detail, a logical mind and the ability to work through a problem in a methodical manner breaking tasks down into smaller, more manageable pieces.

However it's not enough just to turn up for a job's interview with a logical mind as your sole qualification. An employer will want to see some sort of formal qualification and a proven track record. But if you can show someone on impressive piece of software with your name on it, it will count for a lot more than a string of academic qualifications.

So what specific skills are employers looking for? The Windows market is booming and there's a demand for good C, C++, Delphi, Java and Visual Basic developers. Avoid other languages such as FORTRAN and COBOL unless you want to work as a contract programmer.

For someone starting out, my best advice would be to subscribe to the programming magazines such as Microsoft Systems Journal. Get one or two of the low cost "student" editions of C++, Visual Basic and Delphi. Get a decent book on Windows programming. If you decide programming is really for you, spend more money on a training course.

How to become a computer consultant The first key point to realize is that you can't know everything. However you mustn't

become an expert in too narrow a field. The second key point is that you must be interested in your subject. The third key point is to differentiate between contract work and consultancy. Good contractors move from job to job every few months. A consultant is different. A consultant very often works on very small timescales a few days here, a week there, but often for a core collection of companies that keep coming back again and again.

There's a lot of work out there for people who know Visual Basic, C++, and so on. And there are lots of people who know it too, so you have to be better than them. Qualifications are important. Microsoft has a raft of exams you can take, as does Novell, and in my experience these are very useful pieces of paper. University degrees are useless. They merely prove you can think, and will hopefully get you into a job where you can learn something useful. Exams like Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer are well worth doing. The same goes for NetWare Certification.

However, this won't guarantee an understanding of the product, its positioning on the market, how it relates to other products and so on. That's where the all-important experience comes in.

Here's the road map. After leaving university you get a technical role in a company and spend your evenings and weekends learning the tools of your trade and getting your current employer to pay for your exams. You don't stay in one company for more than two years. After a couple of hops like that, you may be in a good position to move into a junior consultancy position in one of the larger consultancy companies. By the age of 30, you've run big projects, rolled out major solutions and are well known. Maybe then it's time to make the leap and run your own life.

How to become an IT Manager IT managers manage projects, technology and people. Any large organization will

have at least one IT manager responsible for ensuring that everyone who actually needs a PC has one and it works properly. This means taking responsibility for the maintenance of servers and the installation of new software, and for staffing a help-desk and a support group.

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Medium to large companies are also likely to have an IT system manager. They are responsible for developing and implementing computer software that supports the operations of the business. They are responsible for multiple development projects and oversee the implementation and support of the systems. Companies will have two or three major systems that are probably bought off the shelf and then tailored by an in-house development team.

Apart from basic hardware and software expertise, an IT manager will typically have over five years' experience in the industry. Most are between 30 and 45. Since IT managers have to take responsibility for budgets and for staff, employers look for both of these factors in any potential recruit.

Nearly all IT managers have at least a first degree if not a second one as well. Interestingly, many of them don't have degrees in computing science. In any case, the best qualification for becoming a manager is experience. If your personality is such that that you're unlikely to be asked to take responsibility for a small team or project, then you can forget being an IT manager. You need to be bright, communicative and be able to earn the trust of your teams. Most of this can't be taught, so if you don't have these skills then divert your career elsewhere.

1. For which of the careers described are these statements true? More than one

career may match each statement. 1. You may work for only a few days or a week for your company. 2. It's a good idea to buy books on languages such as C++. 3. You are responsible for developing and implementing the software a company

needs to run its operations. 4. You need to be able to break down a problem into a number of smaller tasks. 5. It's worth paying for a training course if you get serious about this career. 6. Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer is a useful qualification for your career. 7. Your objective is to become self-employed. 8. It's important you have the right personality to lead a team. 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the verbs, need to, have to, must,

to make sensible statements. More than one answer is possible in some examples. 1. Technical qualifications .......... to be renewed at intervals to ensure they do not go

out of date. 2. You .......... become an expert in too narrow a field. 3. You .......... to have good communication skills to become an IT Manager. 4. You .......... be an expert in hardware to become a programmer. 5. You .......... have worked with IBM mainframes for at least two years. 6. You .......... be able to show leadership. 7. You .......... have a degree but it .......... be in computing science. 8. You .......... to have experience in JavaScript. 9. You .......... be able to use C++. 10. These days you .......... study BASIC. LANGUAGE FOCUS SUFFIXES: FORMING NEW WORDS English words can often be divided into three parts: a prefix, a stem and a suffix.

Prefixes change the meaning of the word; suffixes change the part of speech (noun, verb, adjective, etc.). Look at the examples:

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to plug in a device (stem) = to connect a device to the mains to unplug a device (+prefix "un-") = to disconnect a device from the mains use (stem: noun), useful (+suffix "-ful": adjective), usefully (+suffix "-ly":

adverb) Study the following table of prefixes which give a negative meaning: PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLE anti- opposite antithesis de- reverse debug, decode dis- opposite disagree, disable il- not illiteracy im- not impossible in- not insufficient, inaccurate ir- not irrelevant mis- wrong, bad mislead, misfortune non- non nonsense un- not unreal, unhealthy

Study the following tables of prefixes. The first is a list of prepositions which also act

as prefixes. They confer their prepositional meaning on to the stem.

PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLE by- near, side bypass, bystander in- in, into input, involve out- going away

more than output, outlaw outperform

over- above too much

overlay overestimate

under- beneath, below not enough

underscore underestimate

with- away against

withdraw withstand

The following are prefixes of degree, size, location, time and order:

PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLE ante- before antecedent equi- equal equivalent ex- out extend, external fore- before foreground, foresee, forecast inter- between interface micro- reduced microminiaturisation macro- enlarged macroinstruction peri- around peripheral post- after postscript pre- before predict semi- half semiconductor, semicolon

Other prefixes:

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PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLE sub- under subliminal trans- across transfer auto- for oneself automaton co- joint, together cofounder neo- new neologism pro- before

for proclaim proposal

3. Now use the prefixes of degree, size, location, time and order to find words equivalent in meaning to the following.

1. that is already programmed 2. to predict 3. after the war 4. to grow larger 5. a program that is part of a larger program 6. half automatic, half manual 7. to convey data from one place to another 8. a form of computing when you dialogue with the computer 9. not up to standard 10. devices that exist around a central computer

Talking point What computing career would you choose and why?

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LESSON 4 DESIGNING YOUR WEBPAGE First paragraph Your website may be chock full of information about your company and its products,

but if visitors to the site can't easily find their way around its pages they may never return. Besides content, the most important aspect of a website is its navigation scheme. Unfortunately they may also be the most commonly neglected design consideration. These nine site-design pointers will help you to build an effective navigation system.

1 Trust Text It's tempting to spice up pages with graphics but sometimes even a little is too much.

If possible your navigation system should be based on text links, rather than image maps or graphical buttons. Studies have shown that visitors will look at and try text links before clicking on graphical buttons.

2 Next Best ALTernative If you must use a graphical navigation system, include descriptive ALT text captions.

The ALT text will make it possible for visitors who use text browsers such as Lynx or who browse with graphics turned off, to find their way around. In addition to the graphical navigation buttons, be sure to include text links at the bottom of every page that provide a clear route to the main areas of your site.

3 Map It A site map offers a god overview of your site and will provide additional orientation

for visitors. It should be in outline form and include all the major sections of your site with key subpages listed beneath those sections. For example, you may group the FAQ, Contact and Troubleshooting pages so they're accessible from a Support page. It's good idea to visit a few larger sites to get some ideas on designing an effective site map.

4 Forego Frames Avoid frames wherever possible. Most veteran browsers dislike them and they can be

confusing for visitors who are suddenly presented with multiple scrollbars. If you are committed to using frames on your site, you'd better commit yourself to some extra work too, because you will have to create a no-frames version of your site for visitors whose browsers don't support frames.

5 Consistency Counts Don't change the location of your navigation elements, or the color of visited and not-

visited links from page to page. And don't get clever with links and buttons that appear and disappear: turning things on and off is usually done as an attempt to let visitors know where they are at the site but more often than not it ends up confusing them.

6 Just a Click Away Keep contact close at hand. Every page on your site should be accessible from every

other one within four clicks. You should regularly reexamine your page structure and links, and make necessary adjustments. People come to your site to find information don't make them dig for it.

7 Shun Search Most sites have a search function, but try to discourage its use as much as possible.

Even the best search engines turn up irrelevant matches, and visitors may not know how to

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use yours effectively. Logical, clearly placed links are more likely to help visitors find what they want.

8 Passing Lanes Provide multiple paths through your site so visitors aren't restricted to one style of

browsing. For most sites, a pull-down navigation menu is an easy addition that offers an alternative route through your pages, without wasting space.

9 Overwhelming Options Don't overwhelm visitors by presenting dozens of places that they can go. A large

number of choices is not necessarily a good thing. 1. Visit a website of your choice. Take notes on any special features. You may

refer to these seven points for evaluating a site: design, navigation, ease of use, accuracy, up to date, helpful graphics, compatibility. Here are some useful words and phrases for talking about websites: visually attractive, well laid out, features, password protected, good reactivity, nice design, (hot) links, structure connections, colorful, search facility, a visitor, cluttered, confusing, on-line support, a user, contact information.

LANGUAGE FOCUS COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES 1. SUPERIORITY With adjectives consisting of one and sometimes two syllables ("short adjectives"),

add the suffix "er" to the stem: cheap cheaper high higher With adjectives ending in "y", turn the "y" into and "i" and add "er": easy easier fuzzy fuzzier With adjectives of more than two syllables ("long adjectives"), put the word "more"

before the adjective: expensive more expensive cumbersome more cumbersome With many two-syllable adjectives, you can add the suffix "er", especially those

ending in "y" (see above). However, if a two-syllable adjective already consist of a stem plus a suffix, use "more":

dreadful more dreadful ideal more ideal Some two-syllable adjectives can take either form: clever cleverer clever more clever The second part of the comparison is introduced by "than": A 486 chip is faster than a 286.

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A laser printer is more expensive than a bubble-jet printer. Some comparatives of superiority are irregular. There are not very many of them but

they are very common: good better bad worse far further / farther little less Note that, when preceded by "X times", "as ... as" is preferred to "than" + a

comparative: This car is ten times as fast as mine. 2. EQUALITY Equality is expressed using the word "as". It is placed before and after the adjective: This device is as efficient as some much more expensive models. You will not find another processor as fast as this one. 3. INFERIORITY Inferiority is sometimes expressed by placing "less" before the adjective and "than"

after it: A minicomputer is less cumbersome than a mainframe computer. However you can also express inferiority by using "not as ... as", especially with

monosyllabic adjectives: A minicomputer is not as cumbersome as a mainframe computer. Inferiority can also be expressed using adjectives of opposite meaning in the

superiority form. For the preceding sentence, this would result in: A minicomputer is smaller than a mainframe computer. 4. SPECIAL USES Comparatives are used for "parallel increase" or "parallel decrease" and are preceded

by the definite article "the": The more I think about it, the more I feel depressed. The less he works, the better he feels. The higher the resolution, the sharper the picture. The less sophisticated the software, the slower the speed of execution. When comparing two items, the comparative can be preceded by "the"; John was the elder of the two boys. This computer is the cheaper of the two. 2. Compare the elements in the left-hand column with those in the right-hand

column using the adjective and the appropriate comparison, indicated by the symbols. 1. This microchip is > fast a conventional one. 2. This computer is < powerful the NEXT design. 3. The picture on SVGA monitors is > sharp on VGS monitors. 4. The monitors supplied when < sharp more expensive models. when buying a PC are often 5. Ten years ago screen < high it is today. resolution was

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SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES The superlative form is constructed in a similar way to the comparative form. With

short adjectives, add "est" to the stem: short shortest easy easiest With long adjectives, "most" precedes the adjective: cumbersome most cumbersome reliable most reliable These adjectival forms are preceded by "the": These are the fastest machines on the market. This is the most powerful computer available today. 3. Transform the following into their superlative forms and use the superlative

form in a complete sentence. 1. powerful computer 2. cheap computer 3. fast chip 4. reliable device 5. expensive card 6. big memory device 7. fuzzy image 8. ugly picture 9. inconsistent program 10. significant bit

Writing Write an advertisement for your website!

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LESSON 5 INTERNET ETHICS The 27th Commandments Though the Net is supposedly free of rules and regulations, over time a code of

conduct has been developed by its users. This form of internal policing, a set of guidelines unfortunately known as Netiquette, is supposed to ensure that Net users are polite and civil to each other while not wasting time and network resources. It doesn't work; you need only to look at some of the newsgroups with their constant petty bickering, unwarranted abuse and long, rambling, off-the-point arguments to see that. Ironically most of Netiquette deals with posting to these very same newsgroups. Here are some of the "rules" in brief:

Read the newsgroup FAQ before you post to avoid asking stupid questions. (If you don't know what a FAQ is, read the FAQ).

Don't cross-post messages. This means posting the same message to several different groups at once. The reason for this is never given.

Don't quote a long message just to add "I agree" or some such unenlightening comment at the bottom.

Don't use a signature of more than four lines, because it wastes people's time. (A whole quarter second in some cases).

Don't type entirely in upper case BECAUSE IT'S MORE DIFFICULT TO READ COMFORTABLY.

Don't criticize others for their misspellings. Conversely, make sure you spell correctly yourself.

Had enough yet? For a system that's supposedly rule-free these are pretty damn heavy. There are other problems with Netiquette not least being that those who force it most vociferously down others' throats tend to be the first to ignore it. In practice, no one checks their Netiquette checklists before sending an email or replying to a newsgroup message; if that happened, nothing would ever be said on the Net at all. Netiquette is something of an idealistic dream, and overzealous at that. No intelligent adult needs to be told when to be polite and when to speak their mind, when to criticize and when to stay silent, on the Net or elsewhere. When Netiquette boils down to is: treat your communication on the Net as you would any other form of written or spoken contact and you won't go far wrong.

1. The following sentences have been scrambled. Put the words back in the right

order: 1. documents/answer/questions/are/the most common/that/FAQs 2. simultaneously/to/several newsgroup/the same message/is sending/cross-posting 3. asking/it is/to read/a question/the FAQ/good Netiquette/before 4. and/agreement/read/please/before installation/license/the/the README file 5. these/are/by/in practice/rules/most users/overlooked 2. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the appropriate form of can,

have to, may or could 1. You .......... break down a problem into every single step before writing the actual

program. 2. A bug .......... cause unexpected results. 3. Programs .......... be debugged before being executed. 4. A flowchart .......... sometimes be useful when designing a program. 5. This piece of software .......... be thoroughly tested before it is marketed. 6. You .......... buy software packages like this at any local computer shop.

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7. They .......... work hard if they want to finish by the end of the week. 8. You .......... write this program in a high-level language. If you do, it will take up too

much space in the computer memory. 3. Translate the following sentences into English, paying attention to the use of

modal verbs: 1. Compania trebuie sa fi facut multa munca de cercetare inainte de a-si fi lansat

programul procesor de text. 2. Ei au putut profita de cele mai recente inovatii. 3. Cu toate acestea, fabricantul ar fi trebuit sa amelioreze calitatea documentatiei. 4. Ar fi putut, de exemplu, sa accentueze aspectele de tehnoredactare computerizata

ale pachetului. 5. Trebuie ca s-a gindit ca un bun program de verificare a ortografiei si un dictionar de

sinonime erau suficiente pentru a vinde produsul. 6. Cind am incercat soft-ul, am putut aprecia usurinta folosirii pictogramelor. 7. Nu a fost nevoie sa consult manualul de instructiuni nici macar o data! 8. de cite ori am rut sa efectuez o operatie complicata, am putut sa folosesc macro-

instructiunile limbajului Powerplus. 9. Daca as fi vrut, as fi putut sa-mi constitui un dictionar personalizat. 10. Este posibil ca alte firme de soft sa fi copiat unele caracteristici. Optional activity Word Search Find twenty-two words (including one abbreviation and two acronyms)

associated with the Internet, email, and computing. Write them next to the correct definition. (You can find the words left to right, top to bottom, and diagonally top to bottom).

H A C K E R W W W P O Y D B I M A G E R

M U P O R T A L B O

E V R E W O H X S V

P I X L R N W I I I

A R M A I L L S T D

G U S P A M I O E E

E S M I L E Y N A R

X B O O K M A R K D

N E T I Q U E T T E 1. a way of remembering addresses of websites you like, also known as "favorites" .......... 2. a program that is used to access the internet and read webpages .......... 3. to transfer files from someone else's computer to your own .......... 4. a computer user who specializes in breaking into other people's systems .......... 5. a measure of visits to a website .......... 6. the main, opening page of a website .......... 7. electronic connections to sites within your website or else where on the WWW .......... 8. picture, photo, graphic ..........

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9. a software package generally used to start you up for a program .......... 10. something that automatically connects you to another page .......... 11. the Internet equivalent of post .......... 12. abbreviation for the Internet .......... 13. the right way to behave when communicating on the Net .......... 14. a physical input / output point .......... 15. a website point of entry with a catalogue of websites, a search engine, email, etc. .......... 16. an ISP a company that provides you with access to the Internet .......... 17. a way of showing emotion in an email, e.g. :-) .......... 18. unsolicited mail, inappropriate use of a mailing list .......... 19. Uniform Resource Locator, i.e. website address .......... 20. a bug which infects data on your computer .......... 21. a location on the WWW .......... 22. the World Wide Web ..........

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LESSON 6 COMPUTER SECURITY The hacker attack Triludan the Warrior's parents were surprised when they looked at The Daily

Telegraph they had bought on holiday. Their 20-year-old son was on the front page. Triludan had been equally surprised a few hours earlier when John Austin, head of the computer crime unit at Scotland Yard, had knocked on this door. Austin had brought with him several black binliners, three police cars and a warrant for Triludan's arrest.

Triludan, better known as Robert Schifreen, had not been in trouble with the law before. As a journalist he had accidentally stumbled into hacking when he tried out a false password on a piece of software for the Micronet bulletin board. Hacking seemed like a lot of fun and always impressed his friends. His first indication that he was doing something wrong was the policeman's knock. The box of Triludan's hayfever tablets on the sideboard gave his alias away.

Schifreen's case is not that unusual. He had a slight advantage because when he was tried there was no legislation in place against computer hacking. He was not found guilty on an appeal to the House of Lords, after the prosecution had tried to catch him under the Forgery Act. Today's hacker is not so lucky.

Following the Computer Misuse Act of 1990, hacking has been criminalized. The Act made it an offence to gain unauthorized access to a computer. The law covers both malicious alteration of data and tapping in and "just looking". The law was tightened up, and so, the computer companies would have you believe, has the security. But according to those who practice, hacking is still easy. One BT data network can be penetrated by trying out a series of four figure numbers after its three figure prefix, which is readily available.

Hacking is a cheap for of entertainment. One-and-a-half hours of hacking around with a million pounds' worth of mainframe attached to your budget PC costs around 48 p. All the hacker needs is a modem, a basic computer and a bit of patience. Admittedly, the more advanced stuff like hacking into NATO, NASA and Royal Mailboxes needs rather more patience and expertise.

Code of Conduct Hackers tend to see themselves as shadowy romantic figures of the computer

underworld. For some teenagers, the chance to gain a title like Captain Crunch or the Warrior, or being able to join the Legions of Doom (a US computer gang) means a break away from reality. Ity also means the chance of respect and admiration from similar underground figures.

Typically, the hacker is male and quite possible unaware that he is carrying out anything illegal. Hackers have their own code of conduct. They consider it wrong to tamper with computers to alter, infect or damage the equipment deliberately but see no harm in taking a look inside.

A survey carried out by the National Computing Center (NCC) shows that a third of its members have suffered from security breaches such as hacking and viruses. The survey's findings are contrary to the hacker's perception of what is damaging. NCC members put system problems caused by hacking as the highest threat, costing companies an average of $23,000 a year to repair. Damage caused by viruses fell well below this at an average of $12,000. It put this average loss to UK companies damaged in this way at $530 million.

Hackers may be popular with other like-minded people, but to the computer industry the hacker is seen as a threat to business survival.

1. MULTIPLE CHOICE - Choose the ending (A, B, C, or D) which seems to you

to correspond most closely to the information given in the text. 1. Robert Schifreen

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A. had a 20 year old son who was a journalist. B. chose his pseudonym because of medicine he was taking. C. was arrested and sent to prison because of hacking D. tried out a false password on a piece of Micronet software to impress his friends 2. The Computer Misuse Act of 1990 A. has eliminated all computer security. B. was used to convict Robert Schifreen. C. outlaws hacking. D. has made hacking more difficult. 3. Hacking A. is popular because it is romantic. B. costs about 48p a time C. requires a modem and a computer which can run a basic program. D. is a form of escape from the everyday world. 4. The majority of hackers are shown to be A. deliberately destructive B. merely curious. C. totally unaware of what they are doing. D. male criminals. 5. According to the NNC A. 33% of its members are hackers B. hackers know very well that they cause damage C. hacking is about twice as expensive for firms as viruses. D. the survival of hackers is threatened. 2. Match each cause and effect. Then link them with an ing clause. Cause 1. Computers with MIDI interface boards can be connected to MIDI instruments. 2. Each side of a DVD can have two layers. 3. MP3 removes sounds we can't hear. 4. You can download single tracks. 5. Each MP3 file has a tag. 6. MP3 players contain several devices. 7. You can download a skin program. 8. You can legally download some music. Effect a. This permits extra information to be stored on the performer and other track details. b. You can create your own compilation. c. This allows you to sample a new group before buying their CD. d. This gives an enormous storage capacity. e. This allows the music being played to be stored by the computer and displayed on

the monitor. f. This enables you to change the appearance of your player. g. These allow you to control the way the music sounds. h. This produces much smaller files.

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3. Complete these definitions with the correct participle of the verb given in

brackets. 1. A gateway is an interface (enable) dissimilar networks to communicate. 2. A bridge is a hardware and software combination (use) to connect the same type of

networks. 3. A backbone is a network transmission path (handle) major data traffic. 4. A router is a special computer (direct) messages when several networks are linked. 5. A network is a number of computers and peripherals (link) together. 6. A LAN is a network (connect) computers over a small distance such as within a

company. 7. A server is a powerful computer (store) many programs (share) by all the clients in

the network. 8. A client is a network computer (use) for accessing a service on a server. 9. A thin client is a simple computer (comprise) a processor and memory, display,

keyboard, mouse and hard drives only. 10. A hub is an electronic device (connect) all the data cabling in a network. Talking point Hackers are a menace to society and should be punished very severely

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LESSON 7 STORAGE DEVICES Information without limit The subtitles have been removed from the following passage and listed below (1-

5). Put them back in the appropriate place. 1. Measuring drive performance 2. Mainstream applications 3. Review criteria 4. CD-ROM to finally take off? 5. Price points ............................... CD-ROMS offer straightforward benefits. No other medium offers publishers a

cheaper way of distributing information or provides such storage space 640 MB, the equivalent of 300,000 pages of printed text on a single platter. CD-ROMS can also store a variety of data formats successfully without clogging up hard disk space. Finally data access is relatively quick and painless.

The CD-ROM market has grown slowly but steadily. According to the market researcher Dataquest, 1.2 million disk drives were installed worldwide at the beginning of 1992, with a further 1.5 million predicted to ship in that year alone. Dataquest further predicts that five million drives will be shipping annually by 1996. Such a growth rate is rapidly bringing the installed base of CD-ROM drives up to a critical mass. Growth will be further boosted now that many PC manufactures are installing internal CD-ROM drives as standard, along with the conventional 3.5in. floppy drive.

............................... Applications are the key issue. Early CD-ROM applications were limited to vertical

markets such as finance or medicine, or were vast collections of specific information. This is still a valuable use of CD-ROM technology, but it's not the only one. Mainstream application can now take advantage of CD-ROM storage capacity, and justify the cost of a drive.

The first mainstream applications were little more than plain DOS versions ported onto CD at twice the price. But CD standards now allow interleaved video and sound to breathe life into programs.

Titles are no longer merely for minority interest groups, but are spread throughout business, literature and art. Virtually everything you could possibly want it now available in CD-ROM format; and because there's more space, the applications are generally better. For example, Microsoft Works integrated package which comprises a spreadsheet, word processor and database comes on one CD. The only printed instructions are on how to get into the product the manual and help are all on-line. The extra space means that all the manuals can be placed on disk rather than in clumsy binders. Short animated clips show you how to get the best form each module and how to use them together as an integrated whole.

A spin-off benefit of CD-ROM's large capacity is that the smaller packaging means cheaper postage. Because such large amounts of information can be sent safely through the post, many suppliers update their customer base on a regular basis.

As with other areas of the computer industry, the leisure industry has provided much of the driving force behind CD-ROM technology

The professional programmer has not been forgotten either. The sheer quantities of material required for a modern software development kit have brought CD-ROM technology to the fore.

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But CD-ROM, however advanced, is still a read-only product, where the information on the disc cannot be changed by the user.

When CD-ROMs appeared on the market, they were as overpriced as consumer CD players. In fact CD-ROM drives cost even more, as manufacturers claimed they had to equip CD-ROM drives with faster, more faster, more precise head positioning mechanism. While data and video files are harder to error-correct than simple audio files, this excuse was taken too far. Increased competition has now reversed the trend.

The price of CDs themselves is also failing as the selection becomes broader. ..................................... A drive must have audio output through headphones or eternal RCA jacks and a data

transfer rate of at least 150K per second at less than 40% CPU utilization. This enables the drive to maintain an even flow of information into its buffer, which is vital so that sound and animation do not stutter and jerk. As long as the drives conforms to this specification you should be able to access all CD-ROM titles that adhere to the ISO 9660 format.

...................................... Performance differences between drives can be determined by measuring the data

access time. This is often confused with the average access searches. A CD-ROM search must not only negotiate the interface with the PC hardware, but also frequently relies on archaic retrieval software. So while the results may not be as instantaneous as a hard disk search, consider how long it would take to manually check how many times the word "cat" appears in the Guiness Book of Records compared with the time it takes using a CD-ROM system.

........................................... CD-ROM technology has now reached a stage where interesting and productive titles

are available on reliable and relatively low-cost drives. So it is time for users to take a closer look at CD-ROM. The industry, while still developing rapidly, had settled on solid standards that provide a workable platform.

As a result of this market maturity, customers can be confident that the CD-ROM drives they buy today will have a long-term future.

1. TRUE OR FALSE? - Are the following statements true or false? If you think a

statement is false, give reasons for your choice. 1. CD-ROMs are the cheapest means of storing information. 2. Dataquest predicts that 5 million disk drives will have been sold before 1996. 3. The first CD-ROMs were used mainly to store huge quantities of specific

information. 4. Microsoft's Works integrated package has no written instructions for use. 5. The use of CD-ROMs means the customers have more up-to-date information. 6. The author suggests manufacturers were not always honest about pricing. 7. The drive must have an unchanging data transfer rate to avoid problems with its

sound and picture quality. 8. Some CD-ROMs are slower in access time than hard disks. 9. The author uses the word "cat" to show just how fast hard disks are. 10. Standards have developed to ensure that CD-ROMs are not just a passing phase. 2. Backing Store - Complete the following passage by inserting the following

words and expressions so as to form a coherent explanation of backing store devices. Then translate the terms used: Winchesters, access time, files, pie chart, drawback, disk

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drives, old-fashioned, magnetic tapes, database, double-sided, directory, floppy disk, retrieved, direct-access, read-write head, sequential access, address, formatted (x3), disk packs.

Despite the mushrooming storage capacity of modern computers, this capacity can be greatly increased by backing store devices such as .........., magnetic disks or diskettes. In this way only a small part of a .......... needs to be in main memory at any one time.

Data is stored in groups that are referred to as ........... Before a file can be opened it must be transferred to the main memory, and ........... (how long this transfer takes) is of paramount importance when choosing the type of storage device to use.

Some cheap microcomputers still work with cassettes and cassette recorders, though these are becoming ........... This technology is cheap and easy to use, but has the .......... that is extremely slow because of ............ Disk have the advantage of being serial or .......... media and .......... both internal and external, are now part and parcel of most computer systems.

Large systems often use cartridges or .........., where a number of circular disks are stacked on a single spindle. The ........... in the disk drives moves radially either to detect magnetized areas (READ) or create them (WRITE). Hermetic data modules called ".........." are also common.

Most users are more familiar with the ..........., so-called because of its flexibility. Before being used, a disk must be .........., i.e. storage areas are marked on the magnetic, oxide-coated surface. If the disk is .......... on both surfaces, it is called a .......... disk, as opposed to a single-sided disk, where only one surface is ........... The read-write head moves radially along a track that is divided into sectors. These sectors therefore cut up the circular disk in the same fashion as a ........... Each file that is to be stored is allocated an .......... (i.e. a track and a sector number). Hence files can be .......... very quickly when the user has located them by consulting a .......... of all the files on the disk.

3. THE PASSIVE - Translate the following sentences into English: 1. Vechiul fisier este in curs de actualizare. 2. Se asteapta ca noua unitate de disc sa fie si mai performanta. 3. Dintr-o greseala de manipulare datele au fost sterse. 4. De acum in 5 ani casetele nu vor mai fi folosite ca memorie auxiliara. 5. I s-a spus ca acest CD poate stoca 1080Mb. 6. Mai mult de 15 milioane de unitati CD-ROM au fost vindute anul acesta. 7. Un nou tip de discheta este in curs de proiectare. 8. Gratie unui sistem denumit CIRS, erorile se pot corecta. 9. Aceasta depinde de fisierul la care se face referinta. 10. Un sector este alcatuit din 98 de cadre. Writing Write a short account of how computers have developed over the last fifty years.

You should write between 150 and 200 words.

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LESSON 8 CYBERCULTURE Visiting Museums Virtually Throughout their history, museums have been accorded a revered status in society.

They are institutional repositories that provide a snapshot and timeline of humanity's achievements in all facets of civilization the arts, crafts, science, fashion, military, and industry. It's where great works of art and historical artifacts are maintained and displayed for future generations to study and appreciate.

The word "museum" is taken from the ancient Greek name for the temple of the Muses, the patron goddesses of the arts. It was not until the Renaissance that efforts were made by Europe's aristocracy to collect art, and public art museums only were founded in the 18th century.

But for all the improvements to museums and their increasing popularity, the main drawbacks to visiting them have been geographical and logistical. For many people, it's simply too difficult to get to many museums and galleries, especially in distant lands. While the advent of virtual museums will never replace visiting a physical site and experiencing artifacts in person, it does provide an intriguing and valuable option.

The explosive growth of the World Wide Web with its multimedia and hypertext capabilities is transforming the creation and presentation of art in digital age. Within the last few years, imaging and scanning technology and the Internet have combined to bring museums closer to people who may never have had the opportunity to view many of the great works. Moreover, the Internet is providing a pipeline for people to display all kinds of artworks, many of which will probably never hang in a traditional museum.

Museums of every type are responding to the new opportunities presented by the Internet, and in doing so are undergoing a revolution in the way they perceive themselves. Elizabeth Brown, director of Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American Art, in a paper called Embracing the Electronic Future, wrote:

"The new electronic media give at last the tools needed to reach people everywhere, so art can fit into all kinds of experience, beyond the straightforward museum visit. The National Museum of Art is as committed to sharing what we have and what we know with people who may never come to our front door as we are to enhancing the experience of visitors in our galleries. Only a small percentage of our extensive collections can e displayed in our galleries; electronically, we can open a window into our storage spaces and research files, providing an invigorating context for visitors on-site and distant.

1. With reference to the information in the article, choose the most appropriate

ending for each sentence: 1. A museum can best be defined as A. An overview of lost techniques. B. a storeroom of mankind's accomplishments. C. a basis for study for future generations. 2. At the time of the Renaissance A. public museums did not exist. B. only aristocrats could go to museums. C. aristocrats were Europe's best artists. 3. With the internet, virtual museums A. will replace traditional museums.

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B. will show works of art that do not exist. C. will be a valuable addition to traditional museums. 4. The National Museum of Art A. will organize visits to its storage spaces. B. reserves its virtual museums for people who never visit the museum. C. only exhibits a fraction of its treasures in its galleries. 2. Match the words and their definitions:

1. work of art, art work 2. artefact 3. masterpiece 4. collection 5. museum

A. institution devoted to the exhibition of works of art B. best work of an artist C. group of objects kept in a museum because of their significance and value D. something produced by creative talent E. object produced by human hands

3. Find a synonym in the article for each of these words: 1. photo (taken quickly) 2. to see, to admire 3. vast 4. honored 5. to establish 6.

disadvantage 7. storehouse 8. country 9. to enjoy 10. article (in a magazine) 4. Put the following sentences into the passive form, as in the example: Europe's aristocracy made efforts to collect art. Efforts were made by Europe's aristocracy to collect art. 1. Museums maintain and display great works of art. 2. Certain governments founded public art museums in the 18th century. 3. The Internet offers new opportunities to museum curators. 4. Museums often keep valuable works of art in storage. 5. The Web may transform our perception of art. 6. Electronic media will reach people everywhere. Talking point Would you rather pay a traditional visit to a museum or visit it via the Internet?

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LESSON 9 ELECTRONIC TRADE Cash on the Wire Traditional forms of payment barter, currency, and signed checks and vouchers

simply don't work in cyberspace. Making payment possible across the Internet and the WWW (World Wide Web) in particular is the goal of a new breed of electronic payment systems that are just coming into use.

Debit and Credit All systems for making payments digital or otherwise fall into one of two different

classes: debit and credit. In a debit system, you gather your money up front and then spend it. In a credit system, you spend the money first and pay the bill later. Payment systems based on gold, paper currency, traveler's checks, and instant-debit ATM (automatic teller machine) cards are debit systems. Checks, charge accounts, and credit cards are credit systems.

Just as cash and credit coexist in today's business climate, both exist in the digital world as well. Digital cash is the digital equivalent of a cashier's check or a bearer bond (i.e., a token or note issued and signed by a bank or other institution with its name a random and unique identifying note number, and the amount of money represented). Users can buy these notes from a bank (which makes it a debit system) and then redeem them later for real cash. Although users can make digital copies of such notes, a bank redeems each note number only once.

Digital credit is similar to the credit systems used in the business world. With such a system, the payer creates a voucher record that contains a description of the transaction, the name of the payer and the recipient, the date and time of the transaction, and the amount to be paid. The payer signs this voucher with his or her private key. Using a public key, the recipient of a voucher can read the record and verify that it was signed and obliged by the possessor of the private key. The recipient can submit the voucher to a clearing system and have legal grounds for collecting payment.

The Mechanics of Payment Systems An on-line payment transaction generally involves three parties. The customer pays,

the merchant receives the payment, and a bank does the accounting, making sure that money from the customer ends up in the merchant's account. In a peer-to-peer system, users can act as both customers and merchants. For the purposes of this discussion, a payment service can act like a bank even if it's not legally considered to be one.

The customer runs client software. This might be a WWW browser, such as Netscape or Mosaic with S-HTTP (Secure Hypertext Transport Protocol); or a dedicated payment client.

The merchant runs merchant software on its server to request and process payments. In many cases, the merchant software is integrated in the WWW server. A payment server is the bank's POP (point of presence) on the network. To execute a real-time transaction, the merchant generally forwards information to the payment server, which authorizes the payment and credits the merchant's bank account.

1. Find the word in the text corresponding to each of these definitions: 1. A bank employee who pays out money. 2. A person who receives (money, for example). 3. A huge computer which gathers applications and information and can be accessed

through a network. 4. A person who buys goods or services from you. 5. It allows you to make deposits and withdrawals from a bank.

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6. Money used in a specific country. 7. A computer that can access a server. 8. To add money (to an account). 2. Use each of the relative pronouns in the list to complete the sentences: who,

which, of which, where, whom, whose. 1. Digital credit, .......... is used in electronic trade, is similar to traditional credit. 2. The customer, .......... wanted to buy some shirts, entered the virtual shop. 3. The bank director, I met personally, agreed to honor my check. 4. He is the very man .......... name is on the check. 5. A large number of banknotes, some .......... were still new, were found in the safe. 6. The site, .......... we found CD-ROMs on sale, accepts digital cash. 3. Choose words from the list below to complete the paragraph. You will not need

to use them all! account, holder, overdraft, to sign, balance, interest, receipt, statement, to clear,

loan, remittance, to start, deposit, to open, safe, withdrawal The Longstone company wish .......... a current .......... for their manager. He alone will

be authorized .......... cheques. The initial .......... will be $10,000. The account will not produce any .......... will only be charged at 12%. The bank will send the company a weekly .......... of account. For $20 a month, the company can have access to a .........., one foot large by two deep in the bank's basement.

Reading Getting it right! Read this article and put the paragraphs in the correct order. The first one has

already been done for you. Stupid Computer Error A - ? The following month he decided that it was about time that he tried out the

troublesome credit card, figuring that f there were purchases on his account it would put an end to his ridiculous predicament. However, in the first store that he produced his credit card in payment for his purchases he found that his card had been cancelled. He called the credit card company who apologized for the computer error once again and said that they would take care of it.

B 1 In March 1992 a man living in Newtown near Boston Massachusetts received a

bill for his yet unused credit card stating that e owed $0.00. He ignored it and threw it away. C - ? The following month the man received a letter from the credit card company

claiming that his check had bounced and that he now owed them $0.00 and unless he sent a check by return of post they would be taking steps to recover the debt. The man, who had been considering buying his wife a computer for her birthday, bought her a typewriter instead.

D - ? The next day he got a bill for $0.00 stating that payment was now overdue.

Assuming that having been spoken to the credit card company only the previous day the latest bill was yet another mistake, he ignored it, trusting that the company would be as good as their word and sort the problem out. The next month he got a bill for $0.00 stating that he had 10 days to pay his account or the company would have to take steps to recover the debt..

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E - ? Finally giving in, he though he would pay the company at their own game and

mailed them a check for $0.00. The computer dully processed his account d returned a statement to the effect that he now owed the credit company nothing at all.

F - ? In April he received another and threw that one too. The following month the

credit card company sent him a very nasty note stating they were going to cancel his card if he didn't send them $0.00 by return of post. He called them and talked to them, and they said it was a computer error and told him they'd take care of it.

G - ? A week later, the man's bank called him asking him what he was doing writing a

check for $0.00. After a lengthy explanation the bank replied that the $0.00 check had caused their check processing software to fail. The bank could not now process ANY checks from ANY of their customers that day because the check for $0.00 had crashed their computers

How would you have dealt with the situation?

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LESSON 10 FUTUROLOGY What the future holds for the Internet Four years ago the last time the prestigious International Telecommunication's

Union's Telecom event was held the Internet did not, for all intents and purposes, exist. At his opening address at this year's Internet forum, ITU secretary-general Pekka Tarjanne, said, "At telecom 91, I think the word Internet was uttered twice. The Internet companies which are worth billions now simply were not around".

So things have changed. Not only did the Telecom 95 organizers set aside two days for Internet discussion, but it was timetabled to take place over a weekend. And needless to say, that didn't keep the crowds away.

Sing of the times Although the two days were ostensibly divided into three sessions covering the

present, the future, and the role of the providers, there was an inevitable blur of content. For sheer impact, the prime speaker had to be chair of the Internet Architecture Board,

Dr. Christian Huitema, who radiated enthusiasm on the subject of the Internet. Dr. Huitema's concerns expressed as they were with classic Gallic expansiveness,

were fair reflection of those of the majority of the other speakers. The tone of the entire event was one of humble ignorance as to what exactly the coming years will bring, but also immense excitement about the possibilities, and his overall categorization of the progress of the Internet into four parts set a loose agenda for the rest f the proceedings.

Aspects of the Internet Commerce came first. As he pointed out, every bank is now looking seriously at the

Net, and, he predicted, the current issue of security will only be short. What should concern us, he said, was how online commerce will evolve.

Next came, more controversially, network computing the connection of lots of computers via the Net to do the otherwise impossible job of one computer. "The Internet will be the next generation of supercomputer solving problems for humanity", said Dr. Huitema. This point was later to evolve into a push-and-pull discussion as to the direction of Internet terminals will they be PCs, dumb terminals, TVs or will virtually every electrical appliance in the home be attached, with "intelligent" fridges and phones?

Huitema next touched on multimedia and broad band access. These issues were to figure largely in subsequent discussion would cable, satellite, TV or phone lines dominate? Huitema made the point that the new version of IP will dramatically improve video and audio and that audio would soon develop into hi-fi quality.

Lastly, dipping even further into the future, came the issue of virtual reality. "Someone will eventually enable us to send and receive smells over the Internet", he enthused. "Sight, smells, sound and feeling will arrive. You will be able to do a virtual handshake with special gloves with your business partner on the other side of the world. And as for the taste, well, we'll have to work on that one".

1. Make sentences or write a short paragraph on the future of the Internet,

computing, networks, or virtual reality using the following expressions: in the near future... one can predict / foretell that... that probability that ... is high / low it is highly probable that ... experts expect that.... futurologists forecast...

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it is a well-founded supposition that... it is reasonable to think that... there are grounds for believing that.... there are scientific arguments for... 2. Fill the gaps with the correct form of these verbs (use each word only once): let,

make, allow, enable, permit 1. When I was young my parents never .......... me to stay out later than 11.00. 2. I hope that doing the course .......... me to get a better job. 3. Being a single parent ......... it hard for me to have a social life. 4. A security password .......... access to confidential files. 5. My boss is easygoing and .......... me leave early every Friday afternoon. 3. Read these extracts from a beginner's Internet glossary and underline any of

the forms in italics that are correct ( = no pronoun) BCC (blind carbon copy) You can use this to send a copy of a message to other Net users as well as to the main

recipient, that / who / can't see to who else you're sending the message / who else you're sending the message to. Sneaky, huh?

Chat room A webpage where you can "chat" to other visitors in real time (that / which / means

right there and then). Cyberspace This is the imaginary space that / which / you're moving through when you're

travelling on the Internet. The term was first coined by William Gibson, that / who / is a science-fiction writer.

HTML Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is the code from that / which / whose every

webpage is made. Your web browser reads the HTML and then presents the page on your screen.

Keyword The word, words or phrase that / who / whose / you enter into a search engine to try

to find the web site that / which / you want. Kill file A list of people that / who / whose / email messages you automatically delete. Link A "hot-spot" on a webpage, indicated by a finger symbol, that / who / automatically

connects you to another webpage when you click on it with your mouse. Reading Read the article. Work out (or check in a dictionary) the meaning of as many of

the words / acronyms in bold as you can. Prepare to explain them to your partner.

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ONLINE CHATROOM U may have noticed some odd phrases slipping into your kids' emails. FWIW (for

what is worth), a new idiom has been born. Across the world, every night, teenagers are yakking online in chat rooms with friends and Net acquaintances.

It's fast: try talking to sic people at once. It's brief: three or four words per exchange. It takes wit, concentration and agile fingers. And it requires tremendous linguistic economy. There's neither time nor space for exposition. The solution is to abbreviate, contract and condense. Why consume precious keystrokes telling six M8s you have to go and smack your little brother when BRB (be right back) will do? Want to enter an ongoing conversation? Just type PMFJI (pardon me for jumping in). Interested in whom you're talking to? Type A/S/L, the nearly universal request to know your correspondent's age, sex and location.

If something cracks you up, say you're OTF (on the floor) or LOL (laughing out loud), or combine the two: ROTFL (rolling on the floor laughing). And when your POS (parent over shoulder) finally makes you get back to your maths homework, it's easy to type GTG (got to go) or TTYL (talk to you later). C?

Don't think this new jargon is limited to teenagers. Plenty of adults talk the talk, or type the type, all day at work. It's the result of computer services that let users compile buddy lists of friends and family, and construct an exclusive chat network that can be accessed at any time. America Online's Instant Messenger is the biggest. It has an estimated 75 million users, sending more that 700 million realtime messages a day and has given the verb IMing to the phenomenon.

Many scholars see it as something that can e traced back to RSVP, PBAB (please bring a bottle), FYI (for your information) and even the close used in 19th century letters, yr mst ob svt (your most obedient servant).

Well, GTG. C-U-L8R

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II. LANGUAGE FOCUS A. WRITING A CV When writing a CV in English it is best not to translate your diplomas, degrees and

other qualifications, but it is useful for your potential employer to have some idea of what they correspond to in the English / American system. The best solution is to place the equivalents in brackets after the Romanian qualification.

It is also important to observe the correct headings that are standard to English CV writing practice and not just translate Romanian terms literally, e.g. "situatie familiala" as "family situation", which sounds very strange indeed.

Here are some useful terms in Romanian and their English equivalents: nume de fata maiden name situatie familiala marital status nume surname data nasterii- date of birth limba materna mother tongue prenume forename locuri de munca anterioare previous employment bacalaureat "A" level(s) Writing - Now study the CV of Paul W Cair, then write your own CV in the same

way. For the purpose of this task, you can invent experience and assume you have passed all your examinations!

CURRICULUM VITAE

Paul W Cair Personal details Date of birth 30 / 5 / 79 Address 7 Linden Crescent, Stonebridge, EH21 3TZ email p.w.cair@btinternet.com Education 1991-1995 Standard grades in Maths, English, Spanish, Computer Studies, Geography, Science, James High School 1996-1997 HNC in Computing Maxwell College 1997-1999 HDN in Computing Support Maxwell College Other qualifications Jan 2000 CTEC Work Experience 1999-present IT support consultant Novasystems Novasystems is an IT company that provides a complete range of computing services for its corporate clients My experience includes:

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- advising clients on IT issues and strategies - 1st line customer telephone support - database design - configuration and installation of hardware and software to clients' specification - network administration and implementation - PC assembly I have knowledge of these areas: - Windows 200 Server / Professional - Office 97, 2000 - Sage line 50 & 100 - Windows 95 / 98 - TCP / IP Networking - Windows NT4 Server/Workstation - Exchange Server 5.5 - Veritas Backup Exec for NT Hobbies and interests volleyball Referees 1 Academic Dr. L. Thin, IT Department, Maxwell College 2 Work Ms Y. Leith, Personnel Officer, Novasystems

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B. WRITING LETTERS AND FAXES When writing a letter or a fax in English you have to know where to put the date, the

name and address of the addressee, how to begin a letter, how to end it, and where to put the handwritten signature, the signatory's full name (typed), and the function of the signatory in his or her organization (you will get a sample of a letter of application that will show you all these details). Faxes are very similar to letters but tend to be less formal. se the same format as for letters but do not forget to specify how many pages there are and number the pages. The ending most generally used is "Best regards" which is often considered too informal for a business letter.

B.1. A LETTER OF APPLICATION Write a letter of application for the training period, respecting the letter-writing

format of the following letter of application. You may find some of the following expressions useful:

- should be only too pleased to supply further details and references - please find enclosed my curriculum vitae - am currently studying for - should you feel I could be of use to your firm - am available to start as from June 15 - gain insight into methods and techniques used outside Romania - in the light of the Single European Market 10 GOLDEN RULES FOR YOUR LETTER OF APPLICATION 1. Write clearly 2. Keep your letter short and to the point 3. State what job you are applying for 4. Make the information you give relevant to the job, and firm, so read the

advertisement carefully first 5. Type your letter 6. Draft out what you want to say in rough first 7. Give all the information you are asked for 8. Check your spelling and punctuation 9. State when you are available for the interview 10. Print your name clearly under your signature Dos and don'ts How not to do it - avoid sounding negative or pessimistic - state the purpose of your letter in the first paragraph - avoid sounding over confident don't give the impression you are unlikely to stay long How it should be done - state where you saw the job advertised - name and address of firm. Reference number if there is one. Use the person's name if

you know it - state you qualifications in brief - "Yours faithfully" is correct unless you address the person by name "dear Mr.

Black" then put "Yours sincerely".

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Here is a sample of an authentic letter of application:

33 Looseleigh Lane Derriford Plymouth

Devon PL6 8BH Mr Roy Cross Deputy Director British Council Romania 16 Oxford Street London LA1 6 PD

June 21, 1994 Dear Mr Cross I would like to apply for one of the Regional Teacher Trainer / Adviser positions which you have recently advertised in The Guardian. I believe I have skills and qualifications appropriate to the position. Although at present I do not have a Masters degree, I have applied to do the Moray House in TESOL by Distance Learning. I feel that it would be advantageous to be following this course while working in this particular position as ideas would be fresh and I would be able to apply new knowledge and insights in my daily work and share them with colleagues. I have considerable teaching and teacher training experience through my position as teacher and as Director of Studies in a variety of language schools. I have taught students at all levels and of all ages. Over the past year, for example, I have taught post-graduates at International House and 6 year-olds in a primary school. I have regularly observed teachers and given feedback on their lessons, as well as leading fortnightly education seminars. The International House / British Council teacher development courses on which I was a trainer consisted of methodology input sessions and language development. Through my work in Cairo and Sabah (Malaysia) I learnt about the work of the British Council overseas. I Cairo I administered IELTS tests and ran short courses for UK bound students. In Malaysia I arranged, through the British Council, study tours for project personnel. All the positions of responsibility I have held have involved people management, team leadership and team membership. I have always enjoyed developing productive working relationships with management, teachers and administrative staff, as well as students. As the Director of Studies of International House I have represented the school and the culture of English speaking world on many occasions, from official situations such as conferences and media interviews to day-to-day enquiries from students and members of the public. Based on my educational background and employment record I believe I could make a significant contribution towards achieving the aims of the ENGIMP Project. My contact address until the end of July is as above. I hope this letter of application will clarify some of the information on the enclosed CV. Yours sincerely, Alan Bannister

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C. INTERVIEWS What do you think are the most important things to consider when you are

preparing for: (a) a job interview, (b) an appraisal or progress report? Look at the list of the "Twelve Most Common Interview Questions" 1. Describe your greatest strengths and weaknesses. 2. Where do you see yourself in five years' time? 3. Why should you be employed by this company? 4. Describe your most recent accomplishments. 5. Describe a recent situation at work which you found frustrating 6. In the past year, what have you been dissatisfied about in your performance? 7. What do you think is the most important skill that a manager should possess? 8. What major problem have you encountered recently and how did you deal with it? 9. In what ways could you be described as creative? 10. Have you ever managed a conflict? How? 11. Which is more important to you, money or job satisfaction? 12. How has your recent project been going? Dos and don'ts at the interview - Do arrive in plenty of time. If you think you may have trouble finding the place, set

out early. You can always explore the neighborhood if you have half an hour to spare. - Don't let your clothes be too extreme. Dress in a business-like way. - It's polite to knock before you enter an office if the door is closed. - Don't smoke. - Don't put your handbag or briefcase on the interviewer's desk it creates a barrier

between you. - Don't cross your arms and legs it looks as though you are withholding information. - Do sit still. Fidgeting with jewellery or shuffling your feet can e very distracting for

the interviewer. - Don't exaggerate your abilities or achievements. You are likely to be found in the

end. - Be ready with the basic facts and information about yourself your education,

experience, interests and hobbies. - Do make a graceful exit. Thank your interviewer; walk to the door; don't rush. And if

you can give him or her a smile as you leave the room, so much the better.

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D. WRITING EMAILS

Answer these questions: 1. How often do you use email? 2. If you use email at work, how has it changed your working life? 3. What do you use email for? 4. To what extent do you think writing emails differs from writing letters or

faxes? How much difference is there between a formal letter and a formal ema