Comprehensive Study Guide

Genres of LiteratureFiction – a writing that comes from the imagination of the author. The purpose of fiction is to interest or to entertain the reader by telling a story.

1. Fantasy – a story that includes elements that are impossible, such as talking animals or magical powers.

2. Realistic fiction - stories that seem like real life. They are based on characters from the author’s life or imagination, written in a realistic way and events in the story that could happen.

3 Mystery – a writing that is about something that is secret and unknown. Mystery relies on suspense and complications, and usually has a crime, detective, and a solution.

1. alibi – an excuse, esp. to avoid blame.2. clue – anything that serves to guide or direct in the solution of a

problem, mystery, etc.3. crime – a gross violation of law.4. deduction - a conclusion reached by logical deduction5. detective – a person who investigates crime6. forensics – the application of scientific knowledge to legal problems.7. hunch – a strong intuitive feeling concerning especially a future event

or result.8. investigation – to make a systematic examination; to conduct an

official inquiry.9. motive – something that causes a person to act.

10. red herring – something that distracts attention form the real Issue.

11. sleuth – detective 12. suspect – a person thought to be guilty of a crime, but having

no proof. 13. suspense - Anxiety or apprehension resulting from an

uncertain, undecided, or mysterious situation. 14. victim – One who is harmed or killed by another 15. witness - One who can give a firsthand account of something seen, heard, or experienced;

4. Historical fiction - a story based on real historical events and on real . people. It helps the reader understand events and people from the past.

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5. Science Fiction – type of fantasy that uses science technology;Example – robots, time machines, etc.

4. Traditional Literature – stories that are passed down from one group to another in history. This includes folktales, legends, fables, fairy tales, tall tales and myths from different cultures.

Folktales - stories that have been passed down to us over the years by real people.

Legends - considered factual by those who tell them, and many have some basis in historical fact. For example, the legends surrounding King Arthur and his knights of the round table, Joan of Arc, and John Henry are based upon people who actually existed. These stories tend to be set in a past more recent than that of myths. Legends often include elements of magic.

fables - brief stories that teach a lesson or moral. The characters are animals, but they are given human characteristics. An example of a fable is “The Fox and the Grapes.”

Fairy tales – a fictional story that may feature fairies, talking animals) and enchantments, often involving a far-fetched sequence of events, e.g Cinderella

Tall tales - generally folk tales in which the main character is bigger than life in some way -- examples would be Paul Bunyan, Mike Fink, Swamp Angel, etc. Tall tales have a key element of exaggeration.

Myths - stories that serve to explain some phenomenon of nature. Many incorporate gods and goddesses within the story. The story of King Midas is a myth.

Nonfiction – factual writing about the actual world in which we live. The purpose of nonfiction may be to entertain, to inform, to explain or to persuade.1. Biography - a written history of a person’s life written by someone else.

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2. Autobiography - history of a person’s life written by that person.

3. Informational - texts that provide facts about a variety of topics (sports, animals, science, history, careers, travel, geography, space, weather, etc.).

glossary – dictionary in the back of a textbook dictionar y - a reference source in print or electronic form giving information

about the meanings, forms, pronunciations, uses, and origins of words listed in alphabetical order

thesaurus - a book of words and their synonyms. encyclopedia –a work that contains information on all subjects or one that

covers a certain subject thoroughly usually with articles arranged alphabetically newspaper / magazine - a paper that is printed and distributed usually daily or

weekly and contains news, articles of opinion, features, and advertising historical writings – writings that give the facts about events or people in history scientific / technical – writings that explain scientific or technical concepts. manual – book that explains how to operate a device recipe – directions used to prepare a food dish personal memoirs - a narrative composed from personal experience essay -a usually short written work giving a personal view or opinion on a subject diary / journal - a daily record especially of personal experiences and thoughts letters - a written or printed communication government documents – birth certificates, death certificates, marriage license,

property titles, the Constitution, amendments handbook - a small book of facts or useful information usually about a particular

subject textbook - a book used in the study of a subject Index - an alphabetical list of items treated in a printed work that gives with each

item the page number where it may be found.

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Nonfiction

Works Cited - the works or a list of the works referred to in a text or consulted by the author in its production MLA Citation Examples: 1. A book by a single author Harris, Celia. Interesting Habitats. Chicago: Grayson, 2002 (author) title of work) (city) (publisher) (year)

2. A book by more than one author Baraty, Joseph, and Rosa Garcia. March Birds. New York: Wednesday, (authors) (title of work) ( (city) (publisher)

2006 (year)

3. An encyclopedia entry “Dwarfed Trees.” Encyclopedia Americana. 1999 (title of article) (name of encyclopedia) (year)

4. A magazine article Chen, Davis. “Floating Down the River.” Our Wildlife 9 July 2006: (author) (title of article) (name of publication) (date of issue)

120-25 (pg nu.mbers)

5. A book issued by an organization identifying no author National Wildlife Association. Swamp Life. Washingtion: National (name of organization) (title of work) (city)

Wildlife Association, 2005 (publisher) (year)

6. A WWW site (World Wide Web) America Learns. The On-Line Council of Teachers. 21 May 2007 (name of web site) (sponsor of web site) (date accessed)

http://www.learn.com/. (web address)

Internet - a world wide web linked together by computers to provide information

Copyright page - the page of a book or article on which is printed the sole legal right to reproduce, publish, and sell the matter and form of a literary work.

Title page - in a book, or other written work it is the page at or near the front which displays its title, and author, as well as other information.

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Graphic Aids

Visual aids help a reader understand the text.

1. Maps help you to understand the relative shape, size, placement, and importance of land areas and bodies of water.

2. Diagrams or drawings with labels showing parts, features or functions that show something is put together or how something works.

3. Graphs include bar graphs, line graphs, circle graphs and pictographs that represent statistical or numerical information.

4. Tables show information organized in rows and columns.5. Charts are drawings that show relationships, organization or sequence through

pictures, symbols or words.

Short story - fiction story in which there are usually only a few characters, brief character development, and a simple plot. Short stories often have surprise endings. The short story is a literary genre of fictional narrative that tends to be more concise and to the point than longer works of fiction.

Elements of a short storyCharacters – the people in the story.

individual – round, many sided and complex personalities developing – dynamic, many sided personalities that change, for the better

or worse, by the end of the story. Static – stereotype, have one or tow characteristics that never change and

are emphasized e.g. brilliant detective, drunk, scrooge, cruel stepmother, etc.

Characteristic of a person – in order for a story to seem real to the reader its characters must seem real. Characterization is the information the author gives the reader about the characters themselves. The author may reveal a character in several ways:

1. his/her physical appearance2. what he/she says, thinks, feels and dreams3. what he/she does or does not do4. what others say about him/her and how others react to

him/her

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Protagonist – the character who is clearly central to the story with all major events having some importance to this character.

Antagonist – the opposer of the main character.

Plot - the main story of a literary work

basic situation – the part of the story, usually a the beginning, that gives the background information

conflict – the problem of the struggle between opposing forces kinds of conflict External

Person vs. person – a person (or animal) is in conflict with another person (or animal).

Person vs. nature – a person is in conflict with a force of nature. Person vs. society – a person is in conflict with tow or more persons, a

group, or a whole society. Internal

Person vs. self – a person struggles to overcome some internal problem, such as fear or shyness.

Complication – the obstacles a character faces while struggling to resolve the conflict

Climax – the highest point of interest in the action of the story, usually immediately before the resolution

Resolution – the wrap-up. It occurs when the conflict ends and the outcome of the story is clear.

Point of view - describes the method used by the author(s) to convey their story to the audience.

First person – the story is told by the protagonist or one of the characters who interacts closely with the protagonist (using pronouns I, me, we etc.) The reader sees the story through the person’s eyes as he/she experiences it and only knows what he/she knows or feels.

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Third person - A method of storytelling in which a narrator relates all action in third person, using third person pronouns such as "he" or "she." Third person may be omniscient or limited.

Omniscient – method of storytelling in which the both the reader and author observe the situation through the senses and thoughts of every character equally.

Limited - a method of storytelling in which the narrator knows only the thoughts and feelings of a single character.

Tone – the narrator’s attitude toward the subject

Theme - the story’s main idea or lesson

Setting – the time and place in which the story is happening.

Mood – the emotional atmosphere of the story.

Literary Devices

Literary devices - Authors of nonfiction, fiction, poetry, and drama use a variety of tools to create emotional mood, an attitude, a setting, and characterization.  Literary devices are one of the most effective implements that an author possesses to draw a mood more artfully or to persuade more eloquently.

Literary devices Imagery - the use of vivid description, usually rich in sensory words, to create pictures, or images in the reader’s mind.

Satire –writing that pokes fun at people, often using humor or wit.

Flashback – interrupting the action to explain something that happened earlier, a memory.

Foreshadowing - the technique of giving clues early to hint at what is to happen later.

Irony - a contrast or difference between what is stated and what is really meant, or between what is expected to happen and what actually happens.

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Metaphor – a figure of speech that suggests a comparison between two things that are not alike, as in “life is a long road”.

Simile – a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two things that are not alike, using the words “like” or “as”.

Symbolism – representation of things by use of symbols

Pun – a play on words; using a word or words that have more than 1 meaning to make a humorous statement.

Analogy – the relationship between things and ideas.

Repetition – repeating any words or phrases

Assonance – the repetition of vowel sounds in words that are close together. Example: long, low moan ( o sounds)

Alliteration – the repetition of initial consonant sounds (sounds at the beginning of words) Example: five feathered friends (f sounds)

Personification – giving objects human characteristics

Rhyme - close similarity in the final sounds of two or more words or lines of verse

Symbolism – something that stands for something else

Figurative language – imaginative comparison that you cannot take literally.

Imagery - language that suggests how someone or something looks, sounds, feels, smells, or tastes

Rhythm - a flow of rising and falling sounds in language that is produced in verse by a regular repeating of stressed and unstressed syllables

Onomatopoeia - the naming of a thing or action by imitation of natural sounds (as "buzz" or "hiss")

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Hyperbole - extravagant exaggeration used to emphasize a point Example: mile-high ice cream cones

Allusion – make a reference to a person

Refrain – a regularly repeated phrase or verse of a poem or song

Understatement – saying less than what is meant for effect.

Poetry - the most emotionally charged means of written expression and it consists of words arranged in patterns of sound and imagery to spark an emotional, and intellectual, response from us. Lyric poem – deals with feelings or emotions.

Narrative poem – poem that tells a story.

Analyze – consider in detail and subject to an analysis in order to discover essential features or meaning.

Interpret – to explain the meaning of something.

Free verse – poetry that does not rhyme.

Stanza - a division of a poem consisting of a series of lines arranged together.

Types of Poems

Ballad - A narrative poem, often of folk origin and intended to be sung, consisting of simple stanza and usually having a refrain.

Cinquain - a 5-line poem with this structure:

1st  line - 1 word  -  noun 2nd line - 2 words - describe the noun 3rd line - 3 words - actions 4th line - 4 words - feelings 5th line - 1 word  -  noun - another word for first word

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Concrete - a poem that visually conveys the poet's meaning through the graphic arrangement of letters, words, or symbols on the page.

Diamante - it has seven lines in the shape of a diamond. The first line is one noun. The second line is two adjectives. The third line has three participles (-ing verbs). The fourth line has four nouns. Then the pattern repeats the opposite direction. The fifth line has three participles (-ing verbs). The sixth line has two adjectives. The seventh line has one noun.

Haiku - A Japanese lyric verse form having three unrhymed lines of five, seven, and five syllables, traditionally invoking an aspect of nature or the seasons.

Limerick - A comic verse made up of five lines of varied length. Limericks have a very specific structure: The first, second, and fifth lines rhyme. The third and fourth lines rhyme.The first, third, and fifth have the same verbal rhythm (meter) and length, and so do the second and fourth

A flea and a fly in a flueWere caught, so what could they do?

Said the fly, “Let’s flee.”“Let’s us fly,” said the flea.

So they flew through a flaw in the flue

Sonnet - A lyric poem of fourteen lines, following one or another of several set rhyme-schemes.

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Propaganda

Propaganda - information that is spread for the purpose of promoting some cause

Techniques of propaganda in advertising

Card stacking - commercial tells all the good things about the product, but does not tell any of the bad things.

Glittering generalities - commercial is filled with words that have positive connotations (such as “tasty” or “sensational”).

Name calling - commercial uses negative words (bad names) to create an unfavorable opinion or hatred against things.

Bandwagon - commercial tells the audience that “everyone” uses the product.

Testimonial - Commercial shows a popular celebrity

Plain folks - commercial uses someone they can trust and who has their interest at heart. “I’m just like you.”

Transfer - commercial uses a picture, or an concept that is positive to associate with the product.

Repetition - product name or images are repeated over and over again.

Emotional appeal - commercial is designed to trigger positive emotions

Humor - commercial main purpose is to make the audience laugh.

Facts and figures - statistics and factual information are used to prove the superiority of the product

Patriotism - suggestion that this product shows your love of your country.

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Slogan - commercial uses a memorable phrase

Bribery - commercial implies that you will get something extra for free or something for nothing. “buy one, get one free”

Security - commercial draws on viewer’s fears. Implies that lives are not safe without the product.

Weasel words - the commercial suggest a positive meaning without actually making any guarantees. Words used, “new and improved”.

Evaluating Media Messages

1. Identify the writer – try to find out who wrote the message. That will help you figure out the point of view being expressed.

2. Separate fact for opinion.3. Ask questions – when you read a media message, ask yourself what information

is missing. Is there another point of view? Do you need to know more about the subject?

4. Distinguish between fact and opinion.

Facts can be proven.

Opinions may be supported with facts but can not be proven.

Make inferences combining information from the selection with what you know form your own experience.

Drama

Drama – a written work that tells a story through action and speech and is meant to be acted on a stage. Television show and movies are also dramas.

Playwright – a person who writes a drama.

Act – one of the main divisions of a play.

Scene – a division of an act during which there is no change of scene or break in time.

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Intermission – break between acts.

Cast – the list of actors and the characters they play.

Dialogue – a conversation between two or more persons.

Monologue – short dramatic work performed by one actor; or a long uninterrupted speech delivered by one person in the presence of others.

Narrator – the person who provides commentary during the play.

Script – the written test of a stage play, screenplay, or broadcast.

Stage directions – tells the actors what to do, where to move, and how to speak their lines.

Audience – people who watch the play.

Prop – object used to give images of the setting.

Tragedy – a serious, solemn play based on an important social, personal, or religious issue.

Comedy – a play that show the humorous actions of characters when they try to solve social, personal, or religious problems.

Capitalization rules

Section 1: Capitalize the First Word1. The first word of a sentence. (He likes to take a nap.)2. The first word in the greeting and closing of letters. ( Dear, Yours truly,)3. The first and last word and important words in titles of literary works.

(books, songs, short stories, poems, articles, movie titles, magazines)(Note: Conjunctions, articles, and prepositions with fewer than fiveLetters are not capitalized unless they are the first or last word.)

4. The first word of a direct quotation. (Dad said, “We are going home.”)5. The first word in each line of topic outline.

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Section 2: Capitalize names, initials, and titles of people6. The pronoun I (May I go with you?)7. The names and nicknames of people. (Sam, Joe, Slim, Shorty)8. Family names when used in place of, or with, the person’s name.

(Grandmother, Auntie, Uncle Joe, Mother – Do NOT capitalize my mother)9. Titles used with, or in place of, people’s names

(Mr., Mrs., Miss, Dr. Smith, Doctor, Captain, President, Sir)10. People’s initials (J.D., C. Smith

Section 3: Capitalize names of time11. The days of the week and months of the year. (Monday, July)

12. The names of holidays. (Christmas, Thanksgiving, Easter) 13. The names of historical events, periods, laws, documents, conflicts, and

distinguished awards. (Civil War, Middle Ages, Medal of Honor)

Section 4: Capitalize names of places 14. The names and abbreviations of cities, towns, countries, states, countries, and nations. ( Dallas, Texas, Fulton Country, Africa, USA)

15. The names of avenues, streets, roads, highways, routes, and post office boxes. (Main Street, Jones Road, Highway 89, Rt. 1, P.O Box 5)

16. The names of lakes, rivers, oceans, mountain ranges, deserts, parks, stars, planets, and constellations. (Beaver Lake, Rocky Mountains, Venus)

17. The names of schools and specific school courses. ( Walker Elementary School, Mathematics II)18. North, south, east, and west when they refer to sections of the country. (up North, live in the East, out West)

Section 5: Capitalize names of other nouns and proper adjectives19.The names of pets. (Spots, Tweety Bird, etc.)20.The names of products. (Campbell’s soup, Kelly’s chili, Ford cars, etc.)21.The names of companies, buildings, stores, ships, planes, space ships.

(Empire State Building, Titanic, IBM, The Big Tire Co.)22.Proper adjectives. (the English language, Italian restaurant, French test)

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23.The names of clubs, organizations, or groups (Lion’s Club, Jaycees, Beatles)

24.The names of political parties, religious preferences, nationalities, and races. ( Democratic party, Republican, Jewish synagogue, American)

Punctuation rules

Section 6: End mark punctuation1. Use a (.) for the end punctuation of a sentence that makes a statement.

(Mom baked us a cake.)2. Use a (?) for the end punctuation of a sentence that asks a question.

(Are you going to town?)3. Use an (!) for the end punctuation of sentence that expresses strong

feeling. (That bee stung me!)4. Use a (.) for the end punctuation of a sentence that gives a command or

makes a request. (Close the door.)

Section 7: Commas to separate time words5. Use a comma between the day of the week and the month. (Friday, July 23) Use

a comma between the day and year (July 23, 1986)6. Use a comma to separate the year from the rest of the sentence when the year

follows the month or the month and the day. (We spent July 23, 1986, with Mom. We spent May, 1986 with Dad.)

Section 8: Commas to separate place words7. Use a comma to separate the city form the state or country.

(I will go to Dallas, Texas. He is from Paris, France. 8. Use a comma to separate the state or country from the rest of the sentence when the name of the state or country follows the name

of a city. (We flew to Dallas, Texas, in June. We flew to Paris, France, in July.)

Section 9: Commas to make meanings clear9. Use comma to separate words or phrases in a series. (We had soup, cracker, and milk.)

10. Use commas to separate introductory words such as Yes, Well, Oh, and No from the rest of the sentence. (Oh, I didn’t know that.)11. Use commas to set off most appositives. (An appositive is a word,

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phrase, title, or degree used directly after another word or name to explain it or to rename.) (Sue, the girl next door, likes to draw.)12. Use commas to separate a noun of direct address (name of a person

directly spoken to ) from the rest of the sentence.(Mom, do I really have to go?)

Section 10: Punctuation in greetings and closings of letters13. Use a comma (,) after the salutation (greeting) of a friendly letter.

(Dear Sam,)14. Use a comma (,) after the closing of a friendly letter. (Yours truly,)15. Use a colon (:) after the salutation (greeting) of a business letter.

(Dear Sir :)

Section 11: Periods

16. Use a period after most abbreviations or titles that are accepted in formal writing. (Mr., Ms., Dr., Capt., St., Ave., St. Louis)

In the abbreviation of may well-known organization or words, periodsare not required. (USA, GM, TWA, GTE, AT&T, TV, AM, FM, GI)Use only one period after an abbreviation at the end of a statement. Do not put an extra period for an end mark punctuation.

17. Use a period after initials. A person’s initials should not be separated from the name. (C. Smith, D.J. Brewton, Thomas A. Jones)

18. Place a period after Roman numerals, Arabic numbers, and lettersOf the alphabet in as outline. (II., IV., 5., 25.,A., B.)

Section 12: Apostrophes19. Form a contraction by using a apostrophe in place of a letter or letters that

have been left out. (I’ll, he’s, isn’t, wasn’t, can’t,)20. Form the possessive of singular and plural nouns by using an

apostrophe . ( boy’s dog, boys’ dog, children’s dog)21. Form the plurals of letters, symbols, numbers, and signs with the

Apostrophe plus s(‘s) (9’s, B’s, b’s)

Section 13: Underlining22. Use underlining or italics for titles of books, magazines, works of art,

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23. ships, newspapers, motion pictures, etc. (A famous movie is Gone With the Wind. Our newspaper is the Cabot Star Herald Titanic Charlotte’s Webb)

Section 14: Quotation Marks24. Use quotation marks to set off the titles of songs, short poems, articles,

essays, short plays, and book chapters.(Do you like to sing the song “America” in music class?)

25. The words that tell who is speaking are the explanatory words. Do not set explanatory words off with quotation marks.(Fred said, “I’m here”) ( Fred said is explanatory and not set off withquotations.)

26. Quotation marks are used at the beginning and end of the person’s words to separate what the person actually said form the rest of the sentence. Since the quotation tells what is being said, it will always have quotation marks around it.

27. A new paragraph is used to indicate each change of speaker.28. When a speaker’s speech is longer than one paragraph, quotation marks are

used at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last paragraph of that speaker’s speech.

29. Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.(“My teddy bear says, ‘I love you’ four different ways,” said little Amy.

30. Use a period at the end of explanatory words that come at the end of a sentence.

30. Use a comma to separate a direct quotation from the explanatory words.

Sentence patterns

Simple sentence a sentence that has one independent clause. The cat and dog ran in circles. The dogs barked and yelped all night. The dogs and cats barked all night. The cats and dogs barked and yelped all night.

Compound sentence – a sentence that contains more than on independent clause. An independent clause must be able to stand alone. Don’t mistake a simple sentence with compound subjects and/or compound verbs for a compound sentence.

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The clerk rang up the sale, and his helper packed the groceries.Independent clauses may be joined by a semicolon (;) Dr. Lee teaches math; his wife teaches history.

Complex sentence – a sentence that has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. Dependent clause – a group of words with a subject and verb that cannot stand alone.

I like Sally because she is funny. Kathy will be late for dinner since the meeting is still in progress. The game will end when one team scores.

When the dependent clause is first, comma is needed. After the players practiced, they went out for a pizza.

When the independent clause is first, comma is not needed. The players went out for a pizza after they practiced.

Compound-complex sentence – a sentence that has two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

When you are ready, I will call the store, and we can talk to Tim. Before the trick-or-treaters came, Megan made candied apples; they were

delicious.

Four types of Writing1. Expository writing – gives facts, directions, explains ideas, or defines words.2. Descriptive writing – gives a single, clear picture of a person, place, thing or

idea. Usually starts with an overall impression. To support the overall impression and to make a description clear and vivid, you must add strong sensory details, including sight, sound, smell, touch, and taste.

3. Narrative writing - tells a story. A narrative gives the details of an event or experience in the order that they happened. It will have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Narrative writing will be developed through the use of these story elements: main idea, setting, characters, plot, and ending.

4. Persuasive writing – expresses an opinion and tries to convince the reader that this opinion is correct. You must make the issue clear and present facts and reasons that give strong support to you opinion.

Verbals – words made from a verb and used as an adjective, noun, or adverb in a sentence. Participles, gerunds, and infinitives are called verbals.

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Participle – a word that is made form a verb and used as an adjective in a sentence. Examples: I watched the laughing hyenas. The collapsed bridge was dangerous.Infinitive – a word made from a verb that has the word to directly before it.Examples: to run, to laugh, to see The girl ran to see the new puppy.

Adverbs – modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb. They tell how, when, where, why, under what condition, and to what degree. The rain gently fell on the beautiful forest. Tells how the rain fell.

Superlative and comparative degrees of adjectives and adverbs Adjectives and adverbs have three forms, or degrees, which are used in making comparisons. These forms, called degrees of comparison, are simple (sometime called positive), comparative, and superlative. The comparative and superlative forms of the adjective and adverb not only describe an item, they also give you the ability to compare one item with others.

Rules for making regular adjectives and adverbs in the comparative and superlative forms

The simple (or positive) form is used when no comparison is made.

The Comparative Form is used to compare TWO people, places, or things. There are 3 rules for this form.

Rule 1. Use –er with most 1 or 2 syllable wordsRule 2. Use more with most -ly and –ful words or whenever the –er

sounds awkward.Rule 3. Use more for all 3 or more syllable words

The Superlative Form is used to compare THREE or more people, places, or things. There are 3 rules for this form.

Rule 1. Use –est with most 1 or 2 syllable words. Rule 2. Use most with most -ly and –ful words or whenever the -est

Sounds awkward. Rule 3. Use most for all 3 or more syllable words

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Simple (or Positive) Comparative Superlative Fast, nervous faster, more nervous fastest, most nervous Irregular Adjectives and Adverbs have to be memorizedSimple adjective

Comparative Superlative Simple adverb

Comparative superlative

Good Better Best Well Better BestBad Worse Worst Badly Worse WorstLittle Less or

lesserLeast Little Less least

Much More Most Much More most

Pronouns and antecedents – an antecedent is a the noun that a pronoun replaces. The antecedent can be in the same sentence as the pronoun, or it can be in a different sentence,Example: The girl loved her new shoes.Example: The girl smiled. She loved her new shoes.The pronoun her takes the place of the noun girl. Therefore, girl is the antecedent noun of the pronoun her. Shoes is not an antecedent because the pronoun her does not take the place of the noun shoes. Every pronoun must have an antecedent that it replaces.

Double negativesDouble means TWO and negative means NOT. A double negative occurs when two negative words are in the same sentence. A sentence with a double negative is not correct. Negative words negative prefixesNeither nobody not(n’t) barelyNever none nothing hardlyNo no one nowhere scarely

Dis non un

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Cause & Effect – a pattern of organization that shows causal relationships between event, ideas, and trends. Cause-effect relationships may be directly stated or merely implied by the order in which the information is presented. Writers often use the cause-effect pattern in historical and scientific writing. Cause-effect relationships may have several forms One cause with one effect

One cause with multiple effects

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Multiple causes with a single effect

A chain of cause and effects

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CAUSE EFFECT

CAUSE

EFFECT

EFFECT

CAUSE

CAUSE

EFFECT

CAUSE EFFECT CAUSE EFFECT

Strategies for reading cause-effect

Look for headings and subheadings that indicate a cause-effect pattern of organization

To find the effect or effects, read to answer the question, What happened? To find the cause or causes, read to answer the question, Why did it happen? Look for words and phrases that help you identify specific relationships between

events, such as because, since, had the effect of, led to, as a result, resulted in, for that reason, due to, therefore, if…..then, and consequently.

Look closely at each cause-effect relationship. Do not assume that because one event happened before another, the first event caused the second event

Compare/contrastCompare/contrast is a pattern of organization that provides a way to look at similarities and differences in two or more subjects. A writer may use this pattern of organization to compare the important points or characteristics of tow or more subjects. These points or characteristics are called points of comparison. The compare/contrast pattern of organization may be developed either of two ways:Point-by-point organization - The writer discusses one point of comparison for both subjects, then goes on to the next point.Subject-by-subject organization - The writer covers all points of comparison for one subject and then all points of comparison for the next subject.

Strategies for Reading

Look in the text for heading, subheadings, and sentences that may suggest a compare/contrast pattern of organization to help you identify where similarities and differences are addressed.

To find similarities, look for words and phrases such as like, similarly, both, all, every, also, and in the some way.

To find differences, look for words and phrases such as unlike, but, on the other had, more, less, in contrast, and however.

Use a graphic organizer, such as a Venn diagram or a compare/contrast chart, to record points of comparison and similarities and difference

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Venn Diagram

Compare/contrast chart

Subject 1 Subject 2Point 1Point 2Point 3

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Subject 1 Subject 2 Both

The Writing process

1. Prewriting – explore your ideas and discover what you want to write about. Find ideas for writing Determine your purpose – to express yourself, to entertain, to describe, to

explain, to analyze, or to persuade. What do I want others to think or feel after they read my writing?

Identify your audience – knowing who will read your writing can help you focus your topic and choose relevant details.

2. Drafting - put your ideas on paper and allow them to develop and change as you write. 3. Revising, Editing and Proofreading – changes you make in your writing.

Revising for content – look for main idea and central focus; incorporate adequate details, revealing statistic, vivid example; find any material that is unnecessary, irrelevant, or confusing.

Revising for structure – all ideas and supporting details pertain to main idea; the flow of sentences and paragraphs is smooth and logical; good transitional words, phrases, and sentences; sentences are well constructed.

Proofreading - correct mistakes in grammar, usage, and mechanics; check for run-on sentences or sentences fragments; subject-verb agreement; pronoun agreement with antecedents; verb tenses are consistent; adverbs and adjectives modify the appropriate words; punctuation is correct; words spelled correctly; proper nouns and proper adjectives capitalized.

Research Report

A successful report includes: 1. a strong introduction with a clear thesis statement.2. evidence from sources that develops and supports the writer’s ideas.3. credits the sources of information4. has a logical pattern of organization, with transitions between ideas.5. summarizes the writer’s ideas in the conclusion6. includes information from more than one source7. includes a correctly formatted Works Cited list at the end.

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Business Letters

(heading)436 Simmons Street Newark, NJ 38926

June 24, 2008

(inside address)Ms. Marianne Folsom, AdvertisingSunlight Publishing Company6220 Yale Blvd.Glenwood, Mississippi 28505

(formal greeting)Dear Mrs. Folsom:

(body – indent paragraphs)Please accept my order for a half-page ad in your magazine, Solar Energy

Today, to be placed in the fall issue. I am enclosing a copy of the ad with my application. You may bill me a the address above.

(formal closing) Sincerely yours, (Skip 4 lines, then sign your name) Sam R. Wright

TEST TAKING TIPS:

1. Read the Instructions/Directions.2. Know what the question is asking.3. Answer the multiple choice question yourself, then look at your options.4. Don’t give up. Try. Try. Try.5. Read the passage once.6. Try to find the main idea.7. Read each question carefully.8. Circle or underline keywords or phrases.9. Pay close attention to words/phrases that are underlined, in bold print, or in

italics.10. Read the first and last sentence of each paragraph. Pay attention to the title and look at any illustrations, diagrams, charts, maps, or any other visual aid.