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Running head: IMPACT OF CONFEDERATES IN GROUPS 1
The Impact of Confederates: Conformity in Groups
Derek Henry, Ty Ward, Marisa Brahm, Rachel Wilson, and Fabio Coartney
University of Alaska Anchorage
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IMPACT OF CONFEDERATES IN GROUPS 2
The Impact of Confederates: Conformity in Groups
Solomon Aschs infamous line experiment has had a profound effect on the field of
research psychology since its publication in the 1950s. Social conformity has become a widely
studied and criticized subject for many years and interest on the topic continues to grow. This
study investigated conformity using confederates based on the Aschs experiment by looking at
the impact that confederates have on conformity in a group setting.
Stowell, Oldham, and Bennett (2010) found that there was a relationship between
conformity behaviors and levels of shyness experienced in a classroom setting due to voicing
opinions publically. It was also found that technology can be used as a tool to circumvent this
obstacle of anxiety that debilitates an individual from public participation. Student Response
System (SRS) or Clickers were used to indicate opinions of 50 controversial topics, presented
in the form of questions, in a public setting to induce levels of anxiety to participants. 128
female students enrolled in an introductory psychology class were used for the study. The
Academic Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ) was administered to students and used to measure
levels of shame and anxiety that parallels shyness using a one to five scale with five indicating
the strongest belief in the statement presented on the questionnaire. When participants were
given the option of hand rising or using the SRS to respond to questions, clicker responses
supported their hypothesis that anxiety can be overcome while responding publicly to a question.
Clicker results showed a substantial variation on agreement compared to hand raised responses
suggesting the effects of public conformity or the unspoken power of the group and the need for
group affiliation to avoiding ostracism or public humiliation.
Brown and Schaefer (2010) focused on the effects of receiving information before
attempting to recall a memory that is attached to a previously exposed stimulus to test the effects
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of memory conformity. The results of this study suggests that memory strength is not as affected
by outside influence upon the recollection of a memory. This study was comprised of having
subjects remember and differentiate between new and previously experienced pictures. The
pictures were classified as having a positive, negative, or neutral valiance to test if emotional
stimuli (pictures) were more susceptible to corruptibility when presented with accurate or
inaccurate information prior to the subjects independent testimony (before a confederate
providing accurate or inaccurate information). The pictures were taken from the International
Affective Picture System (IAPS). The pictures were given a standardized valence measuring one
to nine with one being very negative and nine being very positive. This scale was also the same
when rating the pictures for arousal ranging from a one to nine scale. The visual stimuli
comprised of 72 pictures on both ends of the spectrum in valance ratings (one very negative, nine
very positive) in which subjects were exposed to 36 of them then presented with the lot of 72
pictures displayed on a computer screen. Participants were comprised of 48 individuals aged 18-
24. There were 29 more females than males at 19. This study is very important to show that eye
whiteness testimony can be subjective and can be inaccurate because of susceptibility to
influence to information conform and corrupt results.
The research method mentioned above reports that there is an effect on conformity
behavior when confederates are involved in any studies. This paradigm for inaccuracy of
recollection from eye witnessed events supports the importance of confederates in studies. The
goal for the perception conformity experiment was to accurately predict behavior patterns of
random individuals taking part in the study.
Moscovici and Lage (1978) investigated the role of minority influence on individual
susceptibility on judgment. The study was conducted in a libratory setting projecting 12 slides
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IMPACT OF CONFEDERATES IN GROUPS 4
that were either blue or green onto a wall for subjects to see. Subjects were asked to voice
publically the color of the previously observed slide based on their individualistic experience to
the visual stimuli. Two confederates were strategically placed in the group of six observers to
maximize the introduction of the opposite belief to cause original judgments to be questioned
and changed. This conformity study placed individuals in an environment where stress was
produced by having to choose to stick to an original individualistic judgment or by conforming
to the groups opinion to avoid conflict of being perceived as a threat to the group because of the
differently held belief. The rules of social engagement acknowledge there rules or the demand
characteristics of any given social situation. The three fundamental rules for social engagement
and interaction are; objectivity, preference and originality. When test subjects were presented
with a situation of having a group members go against the groups consensuses determining the
color for the slide presented, individuals used negotiation tactics to suede others to their belief.
This research found that the rules of engagement of social interaction did in fact get taken into
consideration upon subjects making, conforming, and changing their original judgment of a
perceived stimulus, but situations do vary.
Taha Amir (1984) questioned whether or not the Asch effect is limited to western
societies or if the phenomenon is universal. As in the original study, confederates were instructed
to give a unanimous answer which was clearly incorrect.
The results of the experiment suggest that male critical subjects and female critical
subjects were equally likely to conform to the incorrect group response under experimental
conditions (Amir, 1984). Furthermore, the experiments results were very similar to the results in
Aschs experiments. Amir found that 29.01% of the experimental groups answers were
erroneous which is comparable to the 33.2% of wrong answers in Aschs study and significantly
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different from the 4.76% of the control group (1984). It was further noted that 18.75% of critical
subjects remained independent throughout the experiment while 3.75% conformed to the group
response every time.
Amir concluded that his results were consistent with those of Aschs original study,
therefore implying that the Asch effect is universal and not specific to American orEuropean
cultures (1984). In addition, Amir found no evidence of significant differences in conformity
between genders as he originally suspected.
Collin, Sano, and Malik (1994) reproduced the Asch effect in a different way. One of the
criticisms of Aschs experiment is that the methodology was flawed because it lacked external
validity (Colin et al., 1994). To correct this, the experiment was changed in a way that would
contain both external and internal validity. Instead objective stimuli such as line length, the
experimenters utilized subjective stimuli, specifically color. Collin et al. also investigated
whether or not gender played a role in conformity.
Participants were sorted into one of four groups based on their availability which varied
the genders of the confederates and critical subjects. Subjects were first shown a color and then
asked to pick which of the two color names they felt it was closest to. There were ten trials, with
6 being experimental or, critical trials and the remaining four being neutral trials (Collin et al.,
1994, p. 359). The experiment showed that 97% of subjects conformed to the group response
during critical trials with only one subject who did not conform. It was also found that while the
confederate gender did not matter, female subjects conformed more frequently than male
subjects.
Sherif (1935) unintentionally demonstrated the conformity effect before it was known as
the Asch effect. The experiment, which originally focused on gauging the distance a point of
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light moved without an objective scale, was conducted in two parts: individual and group trials.
It was questioned what the group may do when faced with the issue of having no physical basis
for a norm (Sherif, 1935).
Participants either started with an individual trial followed by three group trials or started
with three group trials followed by an individual trial at a later date. The general trend showed
that subjects who started with the individual trial had a wide range of values which narrowed to a
smaller range consistent with the groups range as a whole. Those who started with the group
trials showed a much narrower range of values which continued to stay consistently small. Upon
return for their individual trial, subjects still held a range of values that was consistent with the
standard set up by the group earlier in the experiment.
Feeny, Polivy, Pliner, & Sullivan (2011) found that people conformed to the perceived
eating habits of others whether the independent variable (confederate) was an actual person or
whether it was suggestive information regarding the eating habits of others involved in their
study.
Schneider and Watkins (1996) research supports the ideathat participants perceived
recognition of information can be influenced, or will tend to conform, to that of a confederates
manipulated recognition. Participants were asked to memorize a list of words and repeat them at
a later time. Confederates responded to the task first where they listed a different set of words
then the words participants were shown. As a result, participants showed conformity and
responded with the same set of words given by the confederates.
Nosanchuk and Lightstones (1974) research supports the view of conformity because
they found that when participants of their study were rating the quality of a joke, their opinion of
its quality was influenced by the recorded sound of supposed other participants laughing at it.
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(Nosanchuck & Lightstone, 1974). For example if the participants heard the sound of laughter
while they were rating an operationally defined poor joke, they tended to rate its quality higher
than its initial rating in regards to how it was operationally defined.
Research on two types of social influence, explores studies done by Sherif, Asch, and
Bovard on group influence to characterize the impact of many different kinds of social factors.
This study hypothesized that normative social influence upon individual judgments would be
greater among individuals forming a group than individuals who did not compose a group. The
experiment was an experimental situation developed by Asch with certain modifications and
variations. On 12 of the 18 perceptual judgments the confederates announced unanimously
incorrect judgments while the participant was in a face-to-face situation. Results showed that the
hypotheses received strong support from the experimental data. When a group situation is
created, even when the group situation is as trivial and artificial, the normative social influences
are higher, producing more errors in individual judgment.
Research on normative assumptions has led psychologists to interpret the studies in terms
of conformity causing a new approach to Aschs (1956) studies relating physical and social
perception. Asch (1951) found that if another person dissents from the majority, participants
rarely agreed with the majority. This study suggests that agreeing with the incorrect majority
occasionally might not be an error, but a creative strategy to communicate unity. Tact and
situational sensitivity may be as crucial to integrity and justice as accuracy and forthrightness.
Aschs situation can be considered to be presenting a choice between competing and
cooperating. A minority is most likely to be influential when it is consistent and persistent.
Consistent disagreement with others is likely to generate anger and reactance, cutting of
communication from the group.
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Research on two commonly held ideas about Aschs Work in social psychology: (a) Asch
was primarily interested in social phenomena in general and in-group processes in particular and
(b) Asch was a forerunner of social cognition. Asch was not interested in groups, his main
interest was the single individual, real social phenomenal experience, or meaning. The
contextual factors which impact peoples judgment according to phenomenal rather than
conditioning principles were also illustrated in Aschs (1948) studies. Asch proposed that the
nature of the experimental setting may affect the perception of the task in a judgmental situation.
Mugny (1984) presented the idea that a direct or an indirect influence could have
different effects on conformity subjects. This study will only use direct influence to sway the
subjects answers as conformity behavior is greatly influenced within a social setting.
This study hypothesized that participants would conform to the false reports of
confederates when indicating whether or not the visual stimuli moved. In addition it was
hypothesized that there will be a higher level of conformity with a higher level of exposure to
false report.
Method
Participants
Participants consisted of Undergraduate students taking classes at the University of
Alaska Anchorage. Participation in the study was mostly due to partial requirement or for extra
credit for a class.
Materials and Procedure
Visual Stimuli consisted of a battery operated red laser pointer. The laser pointer was
taped to the on position then taped to the inside of the shoe box. The laser pointer was on the
duration of the experiment. A one centimeter hole was cut in the shoe box to let the light escape.
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The shoe box was then placed on a level surface twenty feet from a bare projection wall. Since
laser pointer remained on throughout the experiment, a paper flap was constructed and taped to
the box to impede the light from projecting to the viewing area between testing sessions.
Subjects and confederates were seated in chairs during the entire experiment. A row of eight
chairs were placed in a semi circle faced in the direction of where the laser light was. (Seating
position in appendix c)
Design and procedure
Participants first filled out and return the research consent form with the demographic
questionnaire (see appendix A and appendix B) before they received instructions to sit in a
designated chair within the experimental condition. The eight participants in the control group
were not asked to sit in a predetermined chair. Upon entering the room and taking their seats
participants was asked to face towards the front of the room for the duration of the experiment.
The room where the experiment took take place is 261 in SSB. Confederates were used in the
experimental groups to test if exposure to false report causes conformity of agreement. Subjects
sat alongside confederates unknowingly.
Participants observed the visual stimuli for 30 seconds during each testing phase.
Between tests, laser light was blocked by the paper flap to remove visual stimuli from wall.
Participants were instructed to indicate movement of the visual stimuli by raising one hand
during each testing session. The raising of hand indicated a yes response that was recorded. A
hand not raised was indicated as a no response during testing phase. Indication of movement by
hand raised was visible for rater and group to see.
After every session, participants in the control group indicated on a self report sheet a
movement response by checking yes or no under the appropriate column (see appendix G). The
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light of the room was needed to be turned on and off for the control group to indicate their
answer on the answer sheet. The experimenter blocked and unblocked the light with the paper
flap while verbally stating the start and end of testing sessions. In the experimental groups,
confederates falsely reported movement of the laser light during all but one session. This method
was conducted only on the weak experimental false report group and results were recorded. In
the strong false report experimental group, two confederates gave false reports indicating
movement of the laser light in all ten testing session. There were 10 trials each 30 seconds long
given to all groups, control group which consisted of eight participants without the presents of
confederates, weak false report experimental group which consisted of one confederate and six
participants, and the weak false report group that consisted of one confederate among six
participants.
Experimental groups differed in strength of false report experienced given by the number
of confederates in the group. Expression strength for false report was determined as strong when
confederate esthetically introduces false report by smiling, fidgeting in seat, and ooh-ing while
raising their hand to indicate movement during the testing session. The weak false report was
introduced by the confederates raise of hand. One experimental group had one confederate who
was seated in the third chair. In the other experimental group, two confederates were placed in
the seats four and five (see appendix c for seating arrangement of groups). The control group
consisted of eight subjects seated in the testing environment without confederates.
Results
In order to test whether the number of false responses would increase depending on the
percentage of confederates, three independent ttests were conducted. The number of false
responses was expected to be lowest in the zero percentage confederate groups, higher in the
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14% (weak) confederate group, and highest in the 200% (strong) confederate group. Contrary to
our prediction, the number of false responses in the zero percentage group was higher than the
weak percentage group, but not significantly, t(13) = 1.25, ns.
Also contrary to our prediction, the number of false responses in the zero percentage
group was higher than the strong percentage group, but not significantly, t(7) = 0.78, ns.
In conjunction with our prediction, the number of false responses in the strong percentage
group was higher than the weak percentage group, but not significantly, t(6) = 0.15, ns.
Discussion
The original hypothesis of the study stated that the false reports of the confederates would
influence the responses of participants when indicating whether or not they saw the visual stimuli
move. More specifically, it was hypothesized that there would be a stronger level of conformity
in the experimental group with a higher confederate to participant ratio. The results of the study
did not support the hypothesis because there was not a significant difference in conformity
between the experimental groups. In addition to this, as a result of the control group being
comprised solely of students from the same class as the experimenters, the baseline data rendered
from the control group is non-significant as well. Research suggests that the results of this study
would have supported the original hypothesis. The non-significant results could have been due to
multiple confounding variables that were not accounted for when designing and conducting the
experiment.
Due to issues with the research portal, the amount of participants that the study required
was not met. Unfortunately at the last minute the design of the experiment had to be changed due
to this confounding variable. The experiment had to be conducted with a considerably lower
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number of participants which affected the generalizability and external validity of the experiment
because there was no way to control for this variable. As previously, stated the control group was
solely participants that were also in the same class as the experimenters which affected the
baseline data that was computed. Without reliable baseline data, there would be no point in
comparing the experimental data to it. The weak experimental group was mostly participants that
were also in the same class and the strong experimental group only had one participant who was
in the same class as well. Because the majority of the participants in the study were class mates,
it increased the possibility that the participants had an idea as to what the true intentions of the
study were. If the participants believed they knew what the experimenters were actually
studying, it could have caused them to try and give answers that they believed the researchers
were looking for or inhabiting demand characteristics within the study. It also could have caused
them to intentionally give wrong answers. This confounding variable introduced a very
significant amount of bias in the implementation of the study.
Flawed methodology had a detrimental effect on the study because it affected its internal
validity. Specifying if the light moved more than an inch would have been a better way for the
participants to indicate if the light moved because this would have minimized yes answers that
resulted from the eyes natural saccadic movements, which are very slight. An unstable light
platform was another confounding variable, especially because the study was conducted on the
second floor of the SSB building, which shakes whenever there is minimal movement such as
walking, shifting in chairs, etc. Doing the experiment on a ground floor and with a more stable
platform such as a table would have been a more reliable way to set up the experiment. The
design of the study had to be changed again at the beginning of the control group session as well.
There was not enough light for the participants to mark their answers when the light was off in
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the room. To solve this issue the researcher had to walk back and forth to turn the light on and
off in between each fifteen second testing intervals (causing the floor to shake). It is also worth
mentioning that the experimenter bumped the apparatus that was holding the visual stimuli
which also caused the light to move. The accumulation of these variables caused the visual
stimuli to move (or appear to move), when the intention of the study was that the stimuli remain
still at all times. Feedback from participants indicated that the light looked like it was moving in
almost all of the sessions. It is very probable that the participants of the study said that the light
moved due to these confounding variables, not conformity.
Experimental bias, which took away from the internal validity of the study, could also
have affected the data rendered from the study. During the strong experimental group testing
sessions, which had two confederates and one participant, the experimenter stared at the
participant more than the other confederates. This could have made it more obvious that there
were confederates in the experiment because the confederates and the participant were not
treated the same. This experimental bias behavior could have skewed the responses of the
participant in that they were less likely to conform to the confederates answers because they
may have been aware of the confederates intentions.
Two less severe confounding variables that may have skewed the results were that a way
to record and code the answers of the participants was not formulated before the experiment was
conducted, and the experimenter did not have a clear view of chairs one and eight during the
testing sessions. The answers from each participant had to be matched after the experimental
portion was over and it is possible that some of the data was matched incorrectly. Due to the fact
that the experimenter could not see chairs one and eight clearly (due to computer monitors), it is
also possible that he recorded the answers of the participants seated in the chairs incorrectly.
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Accounting for the variables would have been simple if they had been foreseen. Formulating a
way to match answers to specific participants before the experiment and conducting the
experiment in a room other than a computer room would have eradicated both of these
confounding variables.
In conducting this study, the importance of attention to detail, preparation, and running a
pilot study were all made very evident. A pilot study would have made the many confounding
variables very clear and it would have allowed the researchers to make adjustments to the
experimental design. Although there were many confounding variables that were not accounted
for in this study, if it was replicated in a way that did account for these variables, the results
could be used to make generalizations or provide insight in regards to conformity and college
student behavior (because all the participants were college students). The study of saccadic eye
movements is yet another topic that could be elaborated on through further research as a result of
the study as well. It would likely open the door to a number hypothetical questions and research
opportunities regarding all of these topics.
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References
Amir, T. (1984). The Asch conformity effect: A study in Kuwait. Social Behavior and
Personality, 12, 187-190.
Brown, C., & Schaefer, A. (2010). The effects of conformity on recognition judgments for
emotional stimuli.Acta Psychologica, 133, 38-44. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2009.08.004
Bryan, T., Pearl, R., & Fallon, P. (1989). Conformity to peer pressure by students with learning
disabilities: A replication.Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 458-459.
Collin, C. A., Sano, F. D., & Malik, R. (1994). Effects of confederate and subject gender on
conformity in a color classification task. Social Behavior and Personality, 22, 355-364.
Deutsch, M., & Gerard, H. B. (1955). A study of normative and informational social influences
upon individual judgment.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 629-636.
Feeney, J. R., Pliner, P., Polivy, J., & Sullivan, M. D. (2011).Comparing live and remote models
in eating conformity research.Eating Behaviors, 12, 75-77.
doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2010.09.007
Hodges, B. H., & Geyer, A. L. (2006). A nonconformist account of the Asch experiments:
Values, pragmatics, and moral dilemmas. Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 2-19.
Jugert, P., Cohrs, J. C., & Duckitt, J. (2009). Inter- and intrapersonal processes underlying
authoritarianism: The role of social conformity and personal need for structure.European
Journal of Personality, 23, 607-621.doi:10.1002/per.735
Leyens, J. P., & Corneille, O. (1999). Aschs social psychology: Not as social as you may think.
Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 345-357.
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Moscovici, S., & Lage, E. (1978), Studies in social influence IV: Minority influence in a context
of original judgments.European Journal of Social Psychology, 8, 349365.
doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420080307
Mugny, G. (1984). Compliance, conversion and the Asch paradigm.European Journal of Social
Psychology, 14,353-368.
Nosanchuk, T. A., & Lightstone, J. (1974). Canned laughter and public and private conformity.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 153-156. doi:10.1037/h0035737
Schneider, D. M., & Watkins, M. J. (1996). Response conformity in recognition testing.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,3(4), 481-485.
Sherif, M. (1935). A study of some social factors in perception: Chapter 3. Archives of
Psychology,27, 23-46.
Stowell, J. R., Oldham, T., & Bennett, D. (2010). Using student response systems (Clickers) to
combat conformity and shyness. Teaching of Psychology, 37, 135-140.
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(Appendix A)
University of Alaska Anchorage
Research Consent Form
Visual Perceptions
Principal Investigator: Ty Ward
Research supervisor: Vickie Wesolowski - (907) 7861617
Department: Psychology
The purpose of this experiment is to determine how lighting conditions effect the perception of
an individual. During this experiment, participants will observe a stimulus and report the actions
of the stimulus. The experiment will consist of 10 trials to be preformed back to back and will
take approximately 10 to 15 minutes. There is no known risk to you as a participant in this
experiment. Your actions and responses during this experiment will remain anonymous and any
publication or presentation of the data derived from this experiment will not carry any personally
identifying information.
If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this experiment, please
contact Research Supervisor Vickie Wesolowski at the number listed above. If you have any
further questions regarding your rights as a participant, please contact the UAA Office of
Academic Affairs at (907) 786-1921.
Your participation in this project is completely voluntary, and you will not be penalized in any
way if you choose not to participate. If at any point you chose to withdrawal from the
experiment, you are free to do so. Your signature below indicates that you fully understand the
above study, what is being asked of you, and that your involvement is voluntary.
If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to ask now or at any time during the
experiment.
Signature _________________________________________ Date ______________
Printed Name ______________________________________
A copy of this consent form is available for you to keep.
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Please fill out questioner to the best of your abilities. Upon completion, please return form to the
rater to receive further instructions.
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(Appendix B)
How old are you? (Age)_______
What is your gender? (male/female) _______
How tall are you? (Feet)________(Inches) ________
What is your major? _______
Do you wear glasses/contacts/and or both? (yes/no)_______
How many years have you been enrolled in college?_______
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(Appendix C)
Good afternoon participants,
We will like to thank you for participating in our perception study. You will be observing the
visual stimuli for 15 seconds during each experiment test session. During the test you will
indicate whether you observed the visual stimuli to move or not move. If at anytime you see
movement of the red dot raise your hand to indicate that you have seen movement of the dot. A
no answer will be recorded if you do not raise your hand to indicate what you have seen
movement of the dot. Please refrain from talking at anytime during this experiment and please
silence your cell phones. Upon exiting the room you will be debriefed.
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(Appendix D)
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(Appendix E)
Experimental
Manipulation:
Experimental
Manipulation: Participant Response
Comments
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Experimental
Manipulation:
Trial Participant Response Comments
1
2
3
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4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Experimental
Manipulation:
Trial Participant Response Comments
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
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(Appendix F)
Debriefing Statement
This experiment is officially over and I will explain what this experiment is about. This is called
the debriefing.
In this experiment we are examining the effect of close proximity social pressure on our
participants tendency to conform to that social pressure. There is a significant amount of
research that supports the idea that we as human beings more often than not tend to conform to
what is seen as normal or acceptable social behavior, even if that behavior is not correct,
(Aschs line experiment).
Our experiment has nothing to do with measuring perception. It was designed to see if our
participants would start conforming to a wrong answer given by confederates, when indicating
whether or not the visual stimuli shown on the board at the front of the room moved. There were
three different groups of participants that were examined. One group had four confederates,
another had two confederates, and the third had no confederates. The question that was asked
regarding how far the visual stimuli was thought to move, had no other purpose in our study
except to try and make the study seem more like it was measuring perception. The results of this
study will help us evaluate and determine whether or not the need to be seen as normal, or
correct in the eyes of others, is stronger than ones own opinion.
It is very important that you not discuss the details of this study with your classmates. In order to
collect good quality data, it is imperative that each person who participates in this study is
unaware of the nature and details of the study, like you were, until it ends.
If you have any questions please feel free to ask.
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IMPACT OF CONFEDERATES IN GROUPS 25
You may now sign the appropriate sign-in sheet to receive your extra credit. Thank you for your
participation.
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IMPACT OF CONFEDERATES IN GROUPS 26
Appendix G
Self report control group table